AP Psychology Midterm Vocabulary

What is not psychology?

- "pop psychology" (Dr. Phil) - psychics - self-help books

Ebbinghaus

- he did research on memory

Social-Cultural Perspective

- says that much of your behavior & your feelings are dictated by the culture you live

developmental psychology

- studies show how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences - asks how one is thinking, feeling, and behavior change through infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood - asks how the brain changes, how our bodies change, and what effects these changes have on sensation, perception, cognition, motivation, emotion, and personality - nature vs. nurture

Functionalism was founded by:

William James

structuralism was founded by:

Wundt & his student Titchener

swallowing

a contraction of throat muscles that enables food to pass into the esophagus without the neonate choking

menarche

a female's first menstrual period

longitudinal study

a study that follows the same group of people over a period of time from months to many years in order to evaluate changes in those individuals

critical period

a time interval during which specific stimuli have a major effect on development that the stimuli do not produce at other times

nature vs. nurture controversy

deals with the extent to which heredity & the environment each influences behavior & how they do so

continuity vs. discontinuity

deals with the question of whether development is a gradual, cumulative change from conception to death or a sequence of distinct stages in one's life

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated presentation of the same stimulus

cohort effect

differences in the experiences of each age group as a result of growing up in different historical times

Behaviors are everything that we do that can be ...

directly observed (yelling, running, eating)

Descartes

he came up with the idea of dualism (seeing mind & body as two different things that interact)

embryo

in humans, the name for the developing organism during the first eight weeks after conception

placenta

is the organ interface between the embryo or fetus and the mother. The placenta separates the bloodstreams, but it allows the exchange of nutrients and the release of fetal waste products

Because psychology is a science it uses scientific methods to ...

observe, describe, predict, & explain behavior

primary sex characteristics

reproductive organs (ovaries & testes)

monism

seeing mind & body as different aspects of the same thing

dualism

seeing mind & body as two different things that interact

rehabilitation psychologists

these psychologists help clients with mental retardation, developmental disabilities, & disabilities resulting from strokes or accidents adapt to their situations

counseling psychologists

these psychologists help people adapt to change or make changes in their lifestyle

developmental psychologists

these psychologists study psychological development throughout the lifespan

Hippocrates

thought that the mind & soul were two different things that interact (dualism)

mental processes

thoughts, feelings, & motives that are not directly observable (sensations, perceptions)

startle effect (moro effect)

when a sound noise or sudden drop causes the neonate to automatically arch his/her back, fling his/her limbs out, & quickly retract them

grasping (gripping) effect

when the infant closes his/her fingers tightly around an object put in his/her hand

exhibitionism

"flashing" genitals to unwilling viewers

trial

(in classical conditioning) consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli

internal locus of control

- "I control the consequences of my behavior" - better academic achievement - better interpersonal relations - greater efforts to learn - lower cigarette smoking - lower hypertension & heart attacks

James-Lange theory of emotion

- "I feel afraid because I tremble" - order: 1. stimuli (aggressive dog barking) 2. autonomic arousal 3. conscious feeling (fear) - faking a smile (by putting a pencil in your mouth to make your lips curl up) has been proven to make one happier - states that experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli - states that different patterns of autonomic activation lead to the experience of different emotions - subjects report feeling more sad when viewing scenes of war, sickness & starvation if their "sad face" muscles are activated - subjects also find comic strips funnier if their "happy face" muscles are activated

Schacter-Singer (Schacter- two factor) theory

- "I label my trembling as fear because I appraise the satisfaction as dangerous" - order: 1. stimulus (aggressive dog barking) 2. autonomic arousal 3. appraisal 4. conscious feeling (fear) - states that to experience emotion, one must: - be physically aroused - cognitively label the arousal - epinephrine (adrenaline) study - states that multiple emotions have similar responses - this theory agreed with James-Lange that emotion is inferred from arousal - this theory agreed with Cannon-Bard that different emotions yield indistinguishable patterns of activity

common sense for emotion

- "I tremble because I feel afraid" - order: 1. stimulus (aggressive dog barking) 2. conscious feeling (fear) 3. autonomic arousal

misattribution of arousal

- "Rickety-Bridge" experiment - "Painful Shock" experiment - "Running in Place" experiment - "Centerfold" experiment

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

- "The dog makes me tremble & feel afraid" - order: 1. stimulus ((aggressive dog barking) 2. subcortical brain activity 3. conscious feeling (fear) & autonomic arousal - states that humans don't discern emotion from different patterns of autonomic arousal - emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger: - physiological responses - subjective experience of emotion - according to this theory: - thalamus sends impulses to the cortex - perception of emotion arousing stimulus - conscious experience of emotion - general physiological changes - thalamus sens impulses to hypothalamus

similarity

- "birds of the same feather flock together" - this breeds content

glial cells

- "glue cells" in the cortex that guide neural connections, provide nutrients and insulating myelin, and mop up ions and neurotransmitters - support cells that help sensory neurons & motor neurons

external locus of control

- "the consequences of my behavior are outside of my control" - more resigned to conditions "as they are" - lower efforts to deal with health - lower levels of psych adjustment - but in non responsive environments, there is a greater sense of satisfaction

repression

- "unconscious forgetting" - Sigmund Freud believed that this of painful memories occurs as a defense mechanism to protect out self-concepts & minimize anxiety

hierarchy of needs (motives)

- Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others - physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition - this is the humanistic hierarchy of motivation

working memory

- Alan Baddeley developed this memory model, which consists of 4 components: 1. phonological loop - represented all of short-term memory in earlier models - this component is at work when you use recitation to temporarily hold onto a phone number 2. visuospatial sketchpad - permits people to temporarily hold & manipulate visual images - this element is at work when you try to mentally rearrange the furniture in your bedroom or to map out a route to travel somewhere 3. central executive system - controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention & dividing attention as needed - coordinates the actions of the other modules 4. episodic buffer - a temporary, limited- capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate information - serves as the interface between working memory & long-term memory - along with short-term memory, it lasts less than a minute - apart of short-term memory - examples: - remembering a phone umber as you dial it - tying your shoe

theories of aggression

- Bandura's Modeling (Bobo-doll experiment) - Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

overlearning effect

- Ebbinghaus found that if he continued to practice a list after memorizing it well, the information was more resistant to forgetting

psychoanalytic theory

- Freud's ideas - grew out of decades of interactions with his clients in psychoanalysis - more of a philosophy, than a psychology

critiques of Freud

- Freud's ideas were too sexual - his ideas were unverifiable - one does not know if there IS a superego, id, or ego

Gestalt Principles

- Gestalt = an organized whole - these principles suggested that we tend to integrate pieces of info into meaningful wholes - these principles are sometimes called heuristics--they provide "best guesses" about the stimulus object - these principles include: - proximity - simplicity - connectedness - closure - continuity - similarity - phi phenomenon

the role of body chemistry & the brain in hunger

- Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines - they send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain - the hypothalamus sends messages to the pituitary gland to release hormones

hierarchy of needs

- Maslow's systematic arrangement of needs according to priority, which assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic needs - From most basic to least: - physiological needs - safety needs - love/belonging needs - esteem needs - self-actualization

polygraph machines

- NOT RELIABLE - similar emotions give similar patterns of physical arousal - Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)

contiguity model

- Pavlov believed that the close time between the conditioned stimulus sand the unconditional stimulus was most important for making the connection between the two stimuli & that the conditioned stimulus eventually substituted for the unconditional stimulus - Pavlov's view of classical conditioning

umami

- a Japanese word for the savory taste of glutamate found in foods like meat & cheese - protein & dairy - remember: "the first time you taste milk is from your mommy"

pons

- a brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain - this generates bursts of action potentials in the forebrain, which is activation

approach-avoidance conflict

- a choice must be made about whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects - example: "do I want to study to pass the test?"

split-brain

- a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain cannot communicate - this is caused by the severing of the corpus callosum

confounding variable (confounding error)

- a difference between the experimental group & the control group other than a difference resulting from the independent variable - the object of an experiment is to prove that A causes B - an example of this is anything that could cause change in B, that is not A

sexually transmitted disease (STD)

- a disease that is passed from one person to another by intimate physical contact - a venereal disease - asymptomatic

obesity

- a disorder characterized by being excessively overweight - this increases the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems - the death rate is high among very overweight men - more common among those who watched the most television

instrumental learning

- a form of association learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences - Thorndike came up with this

learning

- a long-lasting change in behavior due to experience - any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience

conduction deafness

- a loss of hearing that results when the eardrum is punctured or any of the ossicles lose their ability to vibrate - this occurs in the outer ear and the middle ear

relearning

- a measure of retention of memory that assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again - if learning takes as much time as initial learning, then our memory of the information has decayed

additive color

- a method to create color by mixing a number of different light colors, with shades of red, green, and blue being the most common primary colors - examples of this type of color are: - sunlight - white light

algorithm

- a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem - example: - a math formula

antagonist

- a molecule that binds to receptors but blocks a neurotransmitter's functioning - example: Botulin, a poison that can form in improperly canned food, causes paralysis by blocking Ach release for muscle movement

agonist

- a molecule that may be similar enough to a neurotransmitter to bind to its receptor and mimic its effects (blocks the original neurotransmitter) - example: the body thinks morphine is close enough to the naturally made endorphins so it binds to the endorphin receptors to block pain

Premack Principle

- a more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable one - you have to take into consideration the reinforcers used - is the reinforcer wanted or at least is it more preferable than the targeted behavior? - example: if a kid likes cookies, you can give that kid cookies to do things for you

temperament

- a natural disposition to show a particular mood at a particular intensity for a specific period - affects his or her behavior

parallel processing

- a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously - this emphasizes the simultaneous processing of information, which occurs automatically & without our awareness

neuron

- a nerve cell - the basic building block of the nervous system

action potential

- a neural impulse - a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

animal homosexuality

- a number of animal species are devoted to same-sex partners, suggesting that homosexuality exists in the animal world - suggests something biological plays a role in sexual orientation

correlational coefficient

- a number that measures the strength of a relationship - the range is from -1 to +1 (cannot be below -1 or above +1) - the relationship gets weaker the closer the number gets to zero

identical twins

- a pair who started life as a single fertilized egg, which later split into two distinct individuals - have exactly the same genes - also referred to as monozygotic

fraternal twins

- a pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb - on average, have about 50% of their genetic material in common (like any other two siblings) - also referred to as dizygotic

the McGurk Effect

- a perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception - the illusion occurs when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception of a third sound

hypoactive sexual desire

- a persistent, upsetting loss of sexual desire - both aspects must be present

group polarization

- a phenomenon wherein the decisions and opinions of people in a group setting become more extreme than their original, privately held beliefs - the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the decisions that would be made by the members acting alone

proximity

- a predictor of attraction - geographic nearness - examples: - people who live on you floor in college are more likely to become your friend - mere-exposure effect

external cues

- a psychological factor of hunger - include: - time of day - seeing food - smelling food - some else's growling stomach

observational learning

- a psychological factor of hunger - includes: - mimicking/modelling a behavior

Alien Hand Syndrome

- a rare neurological disorder that causes hand movement without the person being aware of what is happening or having control over the action - this usually occurs after a person has had the two hemispheres of the brain surgically separated, as in split-brain surgery

unconditional response (UCR)

- a response to the unconditional stimulus - this is unlearned - this is a physiological response

representativeness heuristic

- a rule of thumb of judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype - this can cause us to ignore important information

heuristic

- a rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgements & solve problems efficiently - a short cut that can also be prone to errors

script

- a schema for an event - for example, because we have a script for elementary school, even if we've never been to a particular elementary school, we expect it to have teachers, young students, a principal, classrooms with desks & chairs, etc.

social acceptance

- a sense of belonging with others increases our self-esteem - social segregation decreases this

discontinuity

- a sequence of distinct stages in one's life - developmental psychologists focus on qualitative changes in kind, structure, or organization

social script

- a sequence of expected behaviors for a given situation - example: the expected behaviors of both "guards" and "prisoners" in the Sanford Prison Experiment

reflex

- a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus - example: the knee-jerk response that doctors use to test your reflexes

transference

- a situation where the feelings, desires, and expectations of one person (client) are redirected and applied to another person (therapist) - this can allow the client to replay previous experiences & reactions, enabling him or her to gain insight about current feelings & behaviors - the shifting of emotions from someone in the patient's emotional life to the therapist (displacement)

night terrors

- a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified - most frequently childhood sleep disruptions from stage 4 sleep characterized by a bloodcurdling scream & intense fear - occur during NREM sleep

sexual jealousy

- a special form of jealousy in sexual relationships, present in animals that reproduce through internal fertilization, and is based on suspected or imminent sexual infidelity - it is founded on the instinct of keeping genes in the gene pool and expecting sexual partners to care for the offspring - an evolutionary psychology perspective

corticosteroid (cortisol)

- a steroid hormone, in the glucocorticoid class of hormones - it functions to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis, to suppress the immune system, and to aid in the metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrates - it also decreases bone formation

personal unconscious

- a storehouse of all of our own past memories, hidden instincts, & urges that are unique to us - this contains complexes, which are groups of associated, emotional, unconscious thoughts that significantly influence our attitudes, and & associations that act as driving forces - this is similar to Freud's preconscious & unconscious

insight

- a sudden & often novel realization of the solution to a problem - there is no real strategy involved

fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

- a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans - these scans show brain function

mental set

- a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it has worked in the past - this may or may not be good thing

Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

- a tool for measuring facial expressions - it is an anatomical system for describing all observable facial movement - it breaks down facial expressions into individual components of muscle movement - it was first published in 1978 by Ekman & Friesen

aversive conditioning

- a type of behavior conditioning in which noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behavior that is to be modified or abolished - example: the use of nausea-inducing drugs in the treatment of alcoholism - the Garcia Effect - Little Albert experiment

divergent thinking

- a type of creative thinking in which one generates new solutions to problems - example: - using an object for many uses other than its typical/common use

classical conditioning

- a type of learning that occurs when an association is made between a meaningful stimulus & a non-meaningful stimulus - you can CHOOSE to carry out a behavior - Ivan Pavlov (Pavlovian Conditioning) - John Watson (Little Albert experiment) - this is passive learning - this is automatic learning; therefore, the learner does NOT have to think - the first thing you need for this is an unconditional relationship - next, you find a neutral stimulus - then, you present the stimulus with the unconditional stimulus - also called Pavlovian conditioning

fantasy

- a way to escape real problems - example: imagining that one is successful may lead to feelings of success, especially when one's reality is the opposite of success - a defense mechanism

excitatory synapses

- accelerate the neuron's firing speed - for a neuron to fire, there has to be more of these than inhibitory synapses

unconditional positive regard

- acceptance & love from others independent of how we behave - Carl Rogers believed that we are born with this

stage 5 of psychosocial development

- adolescents (about 12-20 years old) face the crisis of identity vs. role confusion - "Who am I?"

hostile aggression

- aggression that is carried-out out of impulse & intent - intention to hurt someone

psychodynamic theory

- all of the diverse theories, descended from the work of Freud, which focus on unconscious mental forces - the ideas of people after Freud who elaborated on his ideas

gender

- all the psychological and social characteristics associated with being male or female - defined by one's gender identity and learned gender roles - a societal determinant

explicit memory

- also called "declarative memory" - this type of LTM is responsible for facts & experiences that we consciously know & can actually verbalize - this type of LTM is further divided into semantic memory & episodic memory

implicit memory

- also called "non-declarative" - this type of LTM is responsible for skills & procedures to do things affected by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled - this type of LTM is further divided into procedural memory as well as classing & operant conditioning

echoic memory

- also known as "auditory memory" - this type of sensory memory lasts for about 4 seconds, just long enough for us to to hear a flow of information

iconic memory

- also known as "visual memory" - this type of sensory memory completely represents a visual stimulus that lasts for less than a second

fundamental attribution error

- also known as correspondence bias or attribution effect - this is the tendency to overestimate the effect of disposition or personality and underestimate the effect of the situation in explaining social behavior

misattribution effect

- also referred to as "source amnesia"

hypnosis

- an altered state of consciousness characterized by deep relaxation & heightened suggestibility - this method may reveal hidden conflicts - this is only valid for treating pain

catharsis

- an emotional release of negative energy - a Freudian Term

sexual orientation

- an enduring sexual attraction or a degree of emotional & erotic attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or either sex (bisexual orientation)

self-fulfilling prophecy

- an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true - example: Rosenthal & Jacobson's "Pygmalion in the Classroom" experiment

fat

- an ideal form of stored energy and is readily available - in times of famine, an overweight body was a sign of affluence

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)

- an increase in electrical activity of skin when sweat glands increase activity

leptin

- an increase of this hormone decreases hunger - located in fat cells

PPY/CCK

- an increase of this hormone decreases hunger - located in the digestive tract

orexin

- an increase of this hormone increases hunger - located in the hypothalamus

ghrelin

- an increase of this hormone increases hunger - located in the stomach - remember: stomach GROWL

insulin

- an increase of this hormone increases hunger - located the pancreas

temperament

- an infant's natural disposition to show a particular mood at a particular intensity for a specific period - generally considered the hereditary component of one's personality

color

- an object will be perceived as the same color even if the color reflected on the retina changes - example: when an object is placed in the shade, you will still be able to perceive the same color

shape

- an object will be perceived as the same shape even if the shape reflected on the retina changes - example: the door opening toward you is still perceive as rectangular

size

- an object will be perceived as the same size even if the size reflected on the retina changes - example: a dog running toward you is not seen as grown in size

cognitive dissonance

- an unpleasant state of psychological tension that occurs when two thoughts or perceptions are inconsistent. (attitude and behavior conflict) - the idea that your attitude is inconsistent with your behavior, which causes tension - people want to have consistent attitudes & behaviors--when they are not, they experience dissonance (unpleasant tension) - usually they will change their attitude

experimenter bias

- another confounding variable - this is not a conscious act (the experimenter is not aware of their bias) - to avoid this, a double-blind procedure would be used (where both the experimenters and participants are not informed of the groups their are in)

method of loci

- another mnemonic - this uses association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path (example: "The Memory Palace")

stress

- any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and that thereby tax one's coping abilities - threat may be to one's immediate physical safety, long-range security, self- esteem, reputation, peace of mind, or any other things a person values. - not necessarily negative

life changes

- any significant alternations in one's living circumstances that require readjustment

heterozygous traits

- any time an individual has two different alleles for a gene, the individual's genotype is heterozygous - for genes with simple dominance, like the pea example, the dominant allele is always expressed, so heterozgyous individuals have the dominant trait

genital stage

- approximate age: 11- adult (adolescent) - with puberty, the sexual impulses of the phallic stage reappear - if development has been successful during earlier stages, it leads to marriage, mature in sexuality, & the birth & rearing of children - the growing adolescent shakes off old dependencies & learns to deal maturely with the opposite sex

anal stage

- approximate age: 2-3 years old - toddlers & preschoolers enjoy holding & releasing urine and feces - if parents insist that children be trained before they are ready, or if they make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness & cleanliness or messiness & disorder - potty training: learning to control one's own bowels

phallic stage

- approximate age: 3-7 years old - preschoolers begin to take pleasure in genital stimulation - children begin to feel an unconscious sexual desire for the other-sex parent & hostility toward the same-sex parent - to avoid punishment & the loss of parental love, they suppress these impulses & instead, adopt the same-sex parent's characteristics & values - castration anxiety - as a result of this, the superego is formed, & the children feel guilty whenever they violate its standards - Frued attributes many psychological disorders to something going wrong during this stage - during this stage, the child also learns to realize the differences between males & females and becomes aware of sexuality

latency stage

- approximate age: 7-11 years old - during this stage, sexual instincts die down - the superego develops further - the child then acquires new social values from adults & same-sex peers/friends outside of the family - castration anxiety leads to sexual desires being dormant - this is a period of guilt - the child continues his or her development but sexual urges are relatively quiet

oral stage

- approximate age: birth - 2 years old - in this stage, the infant achieves gratification through oral activities such as feeding, thumb sucking, & babbling - if oral needs are to met appropriately, then the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, &pencil chewing in childhood as well as overeating & smoking later on in life - the ego develops during this stage - oral fixation: if this stage is failed, then one would always find pleasure with putting things in their mouths (gum, etc.)

pain messages

- are transmitted to the brain via two types of pathways that pass through different areas in the thalamus

identification

- associating with people or groups that are of higher status in order to increase your own status - example: group identification

Just-World Hypothesis

- assumption that the world is fair and therefore people get what they deserve and deserve what they get - the tendency to blame an innocent victim of misfortune for having somehow caused the problem or prevented it

prenatal development

- begins with fertilization, or conception, & ends with birth - remember: Coach ZEFf (1. Zygote 2. Embryo 3. Fetus)

discrimination

- behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group - an action resulting from prejudice

operant conditioning

- behaviors one chooses to do - example: - giving someone candy after he or she does chores, to increase the likelihood of them completing their chores

rape statistics

- between one in three & one in five college-aged women will experience some form of relationship or sexual violence while in college - 85% of sexual assaults are perpetrated by an acquaintance - alcohol is the number one predatory drug on college campuses - less than 2 percent of reported rape cases have been proven false

gender role stereotypes

- broad categories that reflect our impressions & beliefs about males & females - instrumental traits (self-reliance, leadership ability, etc.) are masculine - expressive traits (warmth, understanding) are feminine

rigid gender stereotypes

- can restrict behavior, especially male behavior - this is socially constructed - like: men wearing make-up, men crying because of TV commercials, etc.

sensory nuerons (afferent neurons)

- carry information from the body's tissues & organs to the central nervous system (CNS) - example: when you touch something hot, these send messages to the spinal cord to pull your hand away

projection

- casting the feelings that you have onto another person - blaming another person for the feelings that you have - examples: - if you did poorly on the test, but you find someone else who did worse that you did & push your feelings onto that person - if someone has helped you through a tough time & you start to develop feelings for them

acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

- caused by HIV and frequently fatal - the immune system is weakened, allowing other diseases and infections to invade the body - White Blood Cell count is often lowered dangerously

neurotransmitters

- chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons - when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse - are needed because chemical messengers can cross the fluid-filled synaptic gap/cleft

stage 3 of psychosocial development

- children (3-5 years old) face the crisis of initiative vs. guilt - children need to lean to make plans & carry out tasks through play, asking questions, making choices, & using their imaginations to develop initiative - if they are not severely criticized, discouraged from asking questions, not permitted to make choices, or prevented from playing, then the children feel guilty

pre-conventional level of morality

- children do the right thing to avoid punishment (stage 1) or to further their self-interests (stage 2) - occurs at the pre-operational stage of cognitive development

conventional level of morality

- children follow the rules to live up to the expectations of others, "good boy/nice girl" (stage 3) or to maintain "law & order" and do their duty (stage 4) - occurs at the concrete operational stage of cognitive development

gender schema

- children form a schema of gender that filters their perceptions of the world according to what is appropriate for males & what is appropriate for females - was theorized by Sandra Bem

natural selection

- claims that heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely than alternative characteristics to e passed on to subsequent generations & thus come to be "selected" over time - Charles Darwin came up with this idea

liking through association

- classical conditioning can play a part in attraction - example: when you're around something you like & you experience that thing with a specific person, then you are more likely to associate that thing with that particular person

information processing model

- compares our mind to a computer - consists of encoding, storing, & retrieving

self-awareness

- consciousness of oneself as a person - develops between the age of 1 & 2

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

- consists of three stages: 1. alarm 2. resistance 3. exhaustion - remember: these ARE the stages for this syndrome

locus of control

- consists of: - internal - external

nonsense syllables

- consonant-vowel-consonat arrangements that do not correspond to words - Ebbinghaus invented these

contact theory

- contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity if they are made to work towards a superordinate goal - example: the Sherif camp study

massed practice

- cramming the memorization of information of the learning of skills into one session

contingency model

- created by Robert Rescorla - challenged Pavlov's contiguity model - suggests that the conditioned stimulus tells the organism that the unconditioned stimulus will follow

dopamine

- creates feelings of motivation and drive, liking, attention, pleasure - (think of Dopey in Snow White & the Seven Dwarfs) - agonists: Cocaine, Amphetamines, Methamphetamines, L-Dopa - antagonists: Antipsychotics

display rules

- cultural norms that regulate the appropriate expression of emotion

collectivistic cultures

- cultures that put group goals ahead of personal goals and define one's identity in terms of the groups one belongs to - cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with ones group is prized above individual goals and wishes

individualistic cultures

- cultures that put personal goals ahead of group goals and define one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships - cultures in which people are considered fundamentally independent and which value standing out by achieving private goals

cognitive maps

- deals with spatial learning - Edward Tolman theorized this idea

Stage 3 & Stage 4 sleep

- deep sleep occurs during thee stages of sleep - delta waves

achievement motivation

- defined as a desire for significant accomplishment - people with a high need to achieve tend to: - choose tasks that allow for success, yet - still require skill and effort, and - keep persisting until success is achieved - a term that was coined by McKelellan

the Pratfall Effect

- describes how people like how people make mistakes (no one's perfect)

reciprocal liking

- describes the phenomenon of people tending to better like those people who like them - this reflects the notion that people feel better about themselves knowing that they are likable and enjoy the company of those who give them positive feelings

intellectualization

- describing painful or emotional personal events in academic or philosophical terms - *basically rationalization with fancy terminology - example: Tamika was just told that she had failed a project/ Tamika thought it was the best work she had ever done. Although very upset, she talked endlessly about how the educational system is an antiquated institution that grades students without fair standards.

sex

- determines whether you are biologically male or female - a biological determinant - whether a male has a Y chromosome or a female has a second X chromosome

sensory adaptation

- diminished sensitivity with constant stimulation - the receptors that are higher up in the sensory system get tired & fire less frequently

dominant gene

- dominance in genetics is a relationship between alleles of one gene, in which the effect on phenotype of one allele masks the contribution of a second allele at the same locus - the first allele is dominant and the second allele is recessive

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep

- dreaming occurs during this sleep - these dreams are vivid in nature & normally don't make sense - these sleep brain patterns mimics awake brain patterns - this lasts for 90 minutes - this sleep does not occur until 90 minutes into your sleep cycle - during this sleep: • heart rate increases • breathing becomes more rapid • eyes dart behind the lids • genital arousal

affective forecasting

- efforts to predict one's emotional reactions to future events - good at predicting general emotion - bad at predicting duration or intensity

premature ejaculation

- ejaculation that persistently occurs before the male and his partner want it to occur - squeeze technique

sexual satisfaction

- elements necessary for a continuing healthy sexual relationship - sexual anticipation - valuing one's sexuality - feeling that you deserve sexual pleasure - valuing intimacy

consciousness

- enables one to analyze, compare, & interpret experiences - allows one to integrate what you already know, what you perceive in the present, & what you anticipate - can be altered by sleep, hypnosis, meditation, & drugs

effortful processing

- encoding that requires our focused attention & conscious effort

availability heuristic

- estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory - if it comes to mind easily (maybe a vivid event) we presume it is common

token economy

- every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given - they can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforces) - used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, & schools

avoidance learning

- example: - studying hard to reduce (avoid) stress

escape learning

- example: - trying to hurry home to get out of the cold weather

pressure

- expectations or demands that one behave a certain way - Weiten Developed a Pressure Index with a higher correlation than the SRRS to psychological problems associated with stress

George Miller

- experiments done by him demonstrated that the capacity of short-term memory is approximately seven (plus or minus two)

subtractive color

- explains the mixing of a limited set of dyes, inks, paint pigments or natural colorants to create a wider range of colors, each the result of partially or completely subtracting (that is, absorbing) some wavelengths of light and not others - examples of this type of color are: - pigment - artificial wavelength - pens - paint

farsightedness

- faraway objects are seen more clearly - the lens focuses on the image of near objets behind the retina

gender roles

- favored patterns of behavior for males and females - example: girls are expected to be sensitive, and boys are expected to be dominant - these appear to be learned - sometimes known as sex roles

norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

- feelings of alertness, attention, concentration, raises blood pressure, lifts mood, can increase anxiety - agonists: Cocaine, Amphetamines

estrogen

- female hormone - more of it = more affectionate behavior - women have large amounts of this, while men have small amounts of it - along with pro-estrogen, this helps to release an egg from the ovaries - female receptivity may be heightened with estrogen injections

interaction (nature vs. nurture)

- forces work together or influence each other-as in the interaction between the forces of heredity and environment - an interaction between nature & nurture

dyspareunia

- genital pain before, during, and after intercourse - this is rare in males

superordinate goal

- goals that are achieved by the contribution and co-operation of two or more people, with individual goals mutually interdependent of each other - having people working together to solve a shared issue - often performed by "Work Teams"

chunking

- grouping information into meaningful units - for example, this can be a word rather than individual letters, or a date rather than individual numbers

olfactory cilia

- hairlike structures located in upper portion (the roof) of nasal passages - receptors for smell

asymptomatic

- having a disease while lacking obvious symptoms of illness - makes the disease harder to detect

androgyny

- having both masculine and feminine traits in a single person - these type of individuals are more adaptable in our society - example: a tom boy

Sigmund Freud

- he (& Skinner) tried to create a theory which explained ALL human behavior behavior (a broader scope) - he said that much of human behavior is influenced by the unconscious - he said that many mental illnesses were due to "sexual repression" - because no one talked about - most of his patients were young girls who came from wealthy backgrounds - he tried to fix/solve the continuous model of psychopathology - he was Jewish & escaped the Nazis - however, he was not a practicing Jew - his ideas were pretty atheist

Chomsky

- he believed that we acquire language too quickly for it to be learned - he also believed that we have this "learning box" inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language (Language Acquisition Device) - he stated that there was a critical period for a child to learn language - he stated that children are primed to learn through the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - inborn universal grammar

John Watson

- he brought classical conditioning to psychology with his Little Albert experiment

Leon Festinger

- he coined the term for "cognitive dissonance" - he conducted an experiment where

Harry Harlow

- he conducted an experiment studying attachment through baby monkeys - he provided the evidence of "contact comfort" - he performed an experiment on a baby monkey showing that the cloth mother (which provided warmth & comfort) was loved more than the wire mother (which provided only milk) - this experiment undermined the behavioral views

Philip ZImbardo

- he conducted an experiment to study how social context can change or determine social behavior - he created a prison setting, the "Stanford County Prison" - he split the participants into 2 groups, prison guards & prisoners, to determine how one's behavior can alter as a response to one's environment or social context - this study showed how we deindividuate AND become the roles in which we are given

Stanley Milgram

- he conducted an experiment which tested ordinary people's level of obedience toward authoritative figures - these results were shocking, in that many of the participants continued to persist with this experiment because the authoritative figure (the experimenter) said to do so, totally disregarding whether the confederate participant was being severely harmed by the shocks - 65% of the participants completed the full experiment, fulfilling each level of shocks

Abraham Maslow

- he created the Hierarchy of Needs: 1. self-actualization 2. esteem 3. love/belonging 4. safety needs 5. physiological needs

Kohler

- he exhibited that chimpanzees can problem solve - he conveyed that chimpanzees used insight learning

Hermann Ebbinghaus

- he experimentally investigated the properties of human memory using lists of meaningless syllables - he practiced lists by repeating the syllables & keeping records of his attempts at mastering them - he drew a learning curve - he also drew a forgetting curve - he found that recognition was sometimes easier than recall to measure forgetting

Max Wertheimer

- he founded Gestalt Psychology - he dealt with how your brain perceives things - he lived in the 1900s

William James

- he founded functionalism - he posed the question: "does your heart pound because you are afraid ... or are you afraid because you feel your heart pounding?"

Edward Thorndike

- he introduced the Law of Effect - he locked cats in a cage - he concluded that behavior changes because of its consequences - "rewards strengthen behavior" - if consequences are unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken - he called this whole process INSTRUMENTAL LEARNING

Solomon Asch

- he studied & conducted an experiment on conformity - he found that an individual with different views would alter his or her view to aid to the harmony of the entire group - he found that 1/3 of the participants conformed - 70% of participants conformed at least once

Albert Bandura

- he studied how aggression can be observed & learned through children with a Bobo doll - the children participants were separated into 2 groups: the experimental group that was exposed to aggression (by a demonstrator attacking a Bobo doll) & the control group that was not exposed to any form of aggression

Martin Seligman

- he theorized "learned helplessness"

Carl Young

- he theorized the collective unconscious (the idea that all of human nature inherits the unconscious if their ancestors) - he introduced archetypes - "personal unconscious" = Freud's unconscious

Skinner

- he thought that we can explain language development through operant conditioning & social learning theory

Robert Rescorla

- he took behaviorist ideas & added cognitive ideas to them - this was a newer way to understand behaviorist ideas

Phineas Gage

- he was 1800s railroad worker who had a tamping iron shoot through his left cheek and out the top of his skull - he miraculously lived but massively damaged his frontal lobes - the once calm and rational Gage became irritable and dishonest - this incident paved the way for research on the functions of the frontal lobes

Lev Vygotsky

- he was a Russian psychologist - he emphasized the role of the environment (nurture) & gradual growth (continuity) in intellectual functioning

Ivan Pavlov

- he was a behaviorist - he was a Russian psychologist - he studied the digestion of dogs in 1903 - he believed that dogs would salivate before they were given food if they were triggered by sounds, lights, etc. - he concluded from his study of dogs that they must have LEARNED to salivate

altruism

- helping behavior that is not linked to personal gain - recognition and reward are not expected

Paul Ekman

- his research conveyed 6 basic emotions - he was a pioneer in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions - he published the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

sexual orientation statistics

- homosexuality in men & women 10%

twin studies

- homosexuality is more common in identical twins than fraternal twins; however, there are mixed results

origins of sexual orientation

- homosexuality is more likely based on biological factors like differing brain centers, genetics, and parental hormone exposure rather than environmental factors - most likely biologically pre-disposed

four basic skin senses

- hot - cold - pressure - pain

hemispheric specialization

- how the brain is divided into two halves: the right side & the left side - how the right and left sides have different functions/responsibilities

recognition

- identification of learned items when they are presented

sampling

- identify the population you want to study - this must be representative of the population you want to study - get a random sample - do stratified sampling

Tsang

- in 1938, he removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small intestines, & the rats still felt hungry (and ate food) - this proved that other factors affect/influence hunger, besides the stomach

interaction between twins

- in a case study done in Minnesota, researchers concluded that genetic factors play a bigger role than environmental factors when researching twins raised together versus twins raised apart

morphemes

- in a language, this is the smallest unit that carries meaning - this can be a word or a part of a word (prefix or suffix) - example: - the "-ed" at the end of a word is used to communicate the past tense

phonemes

- in a spoken language, this is the smallest distinctive sound unit - there are about 40 in the English language

stage 7 of psychosocial development

- in middle adulthood (41-65 years old), the crisis is generativity vs. stagnation - during this stage, adults need to express their caring about the next & future generations by mentoring others or producing creative work that enriches the lives of others - people who fail to achieve gernerativity can become stagnant & preoccupied with their own needs & comforts

just-world phenomenon

- in one popular study, female & male subjects were told two versions of a story about an interaction between a man & a woman - both variations were exactly the same, except at the very end, the man raped the woman in one and in the other he proposed marriage - in both conditions, both female and male subjects viewed the woman's (identical) actions as inevitable leading to the (very different) results

stage 8 of psychosocial development

- in the late adulthood (about 65 years old to death), the crisis is integrity vs. despair - these people look back on tier lives with satisfaction that they have had lived in their lives develop a sense of wholesome & integrity, while those in disparities look back with regrets & disappoint in the lives that they've won

"Centerfold" experiment

- in this experiment, men were shown women as they listened to "their heartbeat" (which was actually a tape-recording of a heart beat) - when the men were asked who they were most attracted to, they picked the woman whose picture was paired with the fastest heart-beat recording

top-down processing

- in this type of information processing, information is affected by memory & experience: 1. comprehension 2. phrase processing 3. word processing 4. letter processing 5. feature processing - this type of information processing starts "at the top" with higher-level cognitive processes (such as expectations & knowledge) & then "working down" - this is a type of conceptually-driven processing that moves from the whole to the parts - this is theory-driven, content-driven, & experience-driven - a person's background knowledge, experiences, & expectations influence what is perceived

stage 1 of psychosocial development

- infants (newborns to 1 years old) face the crisis of trust vs. mistrust - parents must provide a safe, consistent, loving environment for children to successfully leave this stage

Alfred Adler

- inferiority complex - birth order affecting your personality - compensation

liking or friendship

- intimate liking characterizes true friendships, in which a person feels a bondedness, a warmth, and a closeness with another but not intense passion or long-term commitment - this only includes the intimacy aspect of love

amygdala

- involved with emotional memory

source monitoring

- involves making attributions about the origin of memories

destination memory

- involves recalling to whom has told you what

the Duchenne smile

- involves the contraction of both the zygomatic major muscle (which raises the corners of the mouth) and the orbicularis oculi muscle (which raises the cheeks and forms crow's feet around the eyes) - a true smile

Hawthorne Effect

- just the fact that you know you are in an experiment can cause change in naturalistic observation results

crystallized intelligence

- learned knowledge & skills, such as vocabulary - Warner Schaie found that this generally improves with age (at least through the 60s)

emotional roots

- learning to associate achievement with positive emotions - example: if your parents put your test, that you got a good grade on, on the refrigerator

cochlea

- located in the inner ear - inside this is basilar membrane with hair cells that are bent by the vibrations & transduce this mechanical energy into electrochemical energy of neural impulses - a fluid-filled, coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing

glutamate

- main excitatory neurotransmitter - turns brain on, builds memory, regulates awareness, movement, sensation, and mood - (remember: "Being GLUTtonous on Thanksgiving Day excites me!")

GABA

- main inhibitory neurotransmitter - turns brain off - involved in sleep, sedation, relaxation, reducing anxiety, and decreasing muscle tension - (remember: "I fell asleep while watching Yo Gabba Gabba!") - agonists: Alcohol, Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines

rationalization

- making logical excuses for illogical behavior - example: if you watched Netflix instead of doing homework, so you can "rest your mind"

sexual problems

- male & female sexual problems are not due to personality disorders & can be treated through behavior therapy & drugs such as VIAGRA

"Rickety-Bridge" experiment

- male college students were used as participants - an attractive female college student would stand on the other side of the bridge, which would motivate the men to walk across the bridge - if the men could not do it, then they would walk along less intimidating path - when the men would reach the woman, the woman would give them her number & email address - the results conveyed that the men who actually walked across the bridge were more likely to call/email the woman - the men would unconsciously associate their feelings of arousal with liking her

androgens

- male hormones - any male hormone - establishes testosterone

testosterone

- male sex hormone (androgen) secreted mainly by the testes - more of it = more aggression - men have large amounts of this, while women have small amounts of this - these levels increase in men when they socialize with women - these levels remain relatively constant in males, so it is difficult to manipulate & activate sexual behavior

central tendency

- mean - median - mode

punishment

- meant to DECREASE a behavior - this works best when it is immediately done after behavior & if it is harsh

the psychology of hunger

- memory plays an important role in hunger - due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently if given food - like H.M.: if he was presented with another meal 30 minutes after eating Pamela before, he would eat again because he would not be able to remember that he had eaten

external stimuli

- men become sexually aroused when browsing through erotic material - however, women experience similar heightened arousal under controlled conditions

male sexual problems

- men generally suffer from two kinds of sexual problems: 1. premature ejaculation 2. erectile disorder

attribution

- mental process of inferring the causes of people's behavior and own behavior - the explanation for a particular behavior - how we explain behavior

schemas

- mental representation that organize & categorize information processed by by our brain - building blocks - Piaget believed that all knowledge begins with these

concepts

- mental representations of related things - these may represent physical objects, events, organisms, attributes, or even abstractions - these can be simple or complex - many these have prototypes - a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people - these are similar to Piaget's idea of schemas

hypothalamus

- monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger - the reward center of the brain

semantic networks

- more irregular & distorted systems than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others - elements of these are not limited to particular aspects of items - for example, the concept of bird ca be linked to fly, feathers, wings, animals, vertebrate, robin, canary, & others, which can be linked to many other concepts

child molestation

- most are males and married - two-thirds are fathers - most molestations rarely exceed fondling - impact of molestation depends on how long the abuse lasts and whether genital sexual acts are involved

endorphins

- natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure - creates feelings of pleasure and reward; decreases pain - agonists: Opioid/Narcotic Drugs-Morphine, Heroin, Painkillers

nearsightedness

- nearby objects are seen more clearly - the lens focuses on the image of distant objects in front of the retina

motor neurons (efferent neurons)

- neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands - carry instructions from the central nervous system (CNS) to the body's organs & tissues

interneurons

- neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally, intervene between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs, & link the sensory motor neurons - these neurons do the additional processing of the information needed to make sense of the events occurring within your body and outside in the environment

emotional response to stress

- no 1:1 connection between certain type of life events and particular emotions - however, researchers have found some strong links between specific cognitive reactions to stress (appraisals) and specific emotions - self blame ——>guilt - helplessness ——-> sadness

Non-REM (NREM) sleep

- non-rapid-eye-movement stages of sleep that alternate with REM stages during the sleep cycle - dreams during this type of sleep tend to be more realistic

safer sex practices

- not having sex - not injecting drugs - using a condom - sex with one mutually faithful, uninfected partner - not engaging in sex while intoxicated - reducing the number of sex partners

perception of taste & flavor

- numerous factors can affect the flavor of food: - temperature of the food - texture - prior condition of the mouth - health state of the organism - smell

social referencing

- observing the behavior of others in social situations to obtain information or guidance - develops between the age of 1 & 2

castration anxiety

- occurs during the phallic stage because the boy desires his mother; therefore, he unconsciously plots against his father to kill him to be with his mother - the boy then becomes scared that his father would find out about his plan & castrate him as a punishment

spontaneous recovery

- occurs sometimes after extinction - when the conditioned response still randomly appears after the conditioned stimulus is presented

source-monitoring error

- occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source

imprinting

- occurs when an animal is born & the first thing it sees becomes its BIGGEST influence - example: the movie "Fly Away Home" - this was discovered by Conrad Lorenz

over-justification effect

- occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic (internal) motivation to perform a task - when someone is intrinsically motivated to achieve a goal to receive a reward - so, when someone is opted to do something they are interested in, another should not present them with a reward after down that thing because it would decrease the likelihood of that person performing that act in the future without a reward - this decreases intrinsic motivation

central route to persuasion

- occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

peripheral route to persuasion

- occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

delayed conditioning

- occurs when the neutral (conditioned) stimulus is present just before the unconditional stimulus, with a brief overlap between the two - this is the most successful and strongest type of conditioning -this is all about timing

risky-shift phenomenon

- once thought that groups tended to make more dangerous decisions in general than the individual members would have - research suggests it is more accurate to say that the group simply exaggerates the predispositions of the individuals

random assignment

- once you have a random sample, randomly assign the into two groups helps control for confounding variables

the Kinsey Report

- one of the first surveys to be anonymous - this allowed people to be honest about their sex lives because the survey was anonymous - this yielded very accurate results - this mapped sexual behaviors in males & females

menarche

- onset of menstruation - a woman's first menstrual period

parts of the eye

- optic nerve - cornea - pupil - iris - lens - retina - fovea - blind spot

imagined stimuli

- our imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire - people with spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still feel sexual desire

context-dependent memory

- our recall is often better when we try to recall information in the same physical setting in which we encoded it, possibly because along with the information, the environment is part of the memory trace

Adaptive-Level Principle

- our tendency to form judgements (of sounds, flights, of income) relative to a "neutral" level defined by our prior experience - this principle describes the reason WHY we are happy

narcotics

- pain reducers which work by depressing the central nervous system - also known as opiates

post-conventional level of morality

- people evidence a social contract orientation that promotes the society's welfare (stage 5) or evidence an ethical principle orientation that promotes justice & avoids self-condemnation (stage 6)

illusory correlation

- perceiving a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists

classical conditioning

- physiological response to a response - example: - flinching after your little brother yells "Titanic!" when he has repeatedly splashed you with water on previous occasions of saying this

daydream

- pleasant thoughts that you are not actually experiencing - "wish fulfillment"

ego

- preconscious: material that is just beneath the surface of awareness - psychological component - adheres to the "reality principle" (reality testing) - behavior takes into account the external world - this is an organized, rational, reality-oriented system - this is developed during the first 2 years of life as an infant experiences reality - this holds the "id" in-check until a suitable object is found - this helps the "id" achieve gratification or pleasure within the confines of reality

skin sensations

- pressure - only skin sensation with identifiable receptors - warmth - cold - pain

self-actualization

- reaching toward the best person we can be - this was theorized by Abraham Maslow

homozygous traits

- refers to a particular gene that has identical alleles on both homologous chromosomes - is referred to by two capital letters (XX) for a dominant trait, and two lowercase letters (xx) for a recessive trait

reality monitoring

- refers to the process of deciding whether memories are biased on external sources (one's perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one's thoughts & imaginations)

serotonin

- regulates mood, anxiety, sleep cycle, and body temperature - (remember: "Sarah is always so moody and sleepy on Mondays.") - agonists: Hallucinogens, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRIs; e.g. Prozac, Antidepressants)

shaping

- reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior - example: - to train a dog to get your slippers, you would have to reinforce him in small steps - first, to find the slippers - then, to put them in his mouth - then to bring them to you and so on ...

mere-exposure effect

- repetition is an effective technique for achieving persuasion, which is the same reason why advertisements run so frequently - - this is based on the idea that we have more positive feelings about things to which we are frequently exposed

reaction formation

- replacing feelings that are socially or personally unacceptable with emotions that are acceptable - example: Mrs. Smith's husband left her soon after the birth of their child, Adam. Unconsciously, she feels that the baby is the cause of the break up of her marriage. Still, she smothers Adam with love & affection.

reconstruction

- retrieval of memories that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to fit a schema

recall

- retrieval of previously learned information

regression

- reverting to childlike behavior to get the attention you got when you were younger or to get your way - examples: - crying - Sandy a 3-year-old who has been potty trained for some time, starts wetting the bed after the birth of her baby sister, Erika.

romantic love

- romantic lovers are bonded emotionally (as in liking) and physically through passionate arousal - this includes the passion and intimacy aspects of love

stage 4 of psychosocial development

- school-aged children (6-12) face the crisis of industry vs. inferiority - children need to be positively reinforced for productive activities, in order to develop a healthy self-concept & a sense of industry - if children's efforts are considered inadequate, feelings of social or mental inferiority in this stage can result in poor self-concept in the future

pheromones

- secreted or excreted chemical factors that trigger a social response in members of the same species - how they work: 1. our bodies naturally secrete fluids through glands in our body that contain natural pheromones 2. the vomeronasal organ detects the pheromones & sends a signal to the olfactory nerves 3. the olfactory nerves stimulate the hypothalamus in the context of the brain which stimulates emotions 4. this scent triggers illicit emotions in the hypothalamus such as attraction, sexual desires & arousal

gonads

- sex glands - testes in males - ovaries in females

pedophilia

- sex with children - child molestation

paraphilias

- sexual deviations - tend to be compulsive or destructive preferences or behaviors - examples: pedophilia & exhibitionism

forcible rape

- sexual intercourse that is carried out against the victim's will, usually under the threat of bodily violence - rape is a crime of violence, brutality, and aggression - men can also be subjected to rape

risky STD behaviors

- sharing drug needles and syringes - anal sex, with or without a condom - unprotected sex (without a condom) with an infected partner - sex with someone you know, or do not know, who has several partners - vaginal or oral sex with an intravenous drug user - having many sex partners

Dr. Loftus

- she emphasizes how memory is very important, especially when investigating crimes & during questioning - she showed how easy it was to create false memories

Eleanor Gibson

- she tested whether or not depth perception was innate or developed - she studied infants with the visual cliff

adoption studies

- similarities with the biological family point to effects of nature - similarities with the adoptive family point to the effects of nurture - has revealed genetic contributions to variety of psychological characteristics; intelligence, sexual orientation, temperament, and impulsive behavior

inhibitory synapses

- slow the neuron's firing speed - make a neuron less likely to fire

superego

- social component - these include moral imperatives - this contains the conscience & the ego-ideal - this is learned - this inhibits the id's urges - this strives for perfection - this is "irrational" - it operates on the extremes (good or bad) - ego ideals: the person we would like to be - this is developed through rewards & punishments (operant conditioning) - this is one's conscience (decides between right & wrong) - this is formed around the age of 5 - these are like the "internalized values of your parents" instilled inside of you

conditioned stimulus (CS)

- something that by itself elicits no response - also called the neutral stimulus

neutral stimulus

- something that by itself elicits no response - also known as the conditioned stimulus

unconditional stimulus (UCS)

- something that elicits a natural, reflexive response - something that is "unlearned"

empty love

- sometimes, a stronger love deteriorates into this love, in which the commitment remains, but the intimacy and passion have died - in cultures in which arranged marriages are common, relationships often begin as this type of love - this only includes the commitment aspect of love

distributed practice

- spreading out the memorization of information or the learning skills over several sessions - this facilitates remembering better than massed practice

slow wave sleep (SWS)

- stage of sleep in which EEG delta waves are present - synonymous with stage 3 and 4 combined

arousal theory (optimum arousal theory)

- states that people are motivated to reach an optimal state of alertness or activation - human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it - humans like to optimally stimulated, which engages them

acetylcholine

- stimulates muscle contraction - regulates sleep cycle and alertness - (remember: "an ACE bandage heals hurt muscles") - agonists: Nicotine, Alzheimer's Drugs - antagonists: Curare, Botox

chromosomes

- strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information - every cell in humans, except the sex cells (sperm and eggs), contain 46 chromosomes - these chromosomes operate in 23 pairs, with one chromosome of each pair being contributed by each parent

teratogens

- substances from the environment, including viruses, drugs, and other chemicals, that can damage the developing organism during the prenatal period - examples: viruses, alcohol, drugs - can cause birth defects - anything that can have a negative effect on the developing fetus

taste sensations

- sweet - sour - salty - bitter - hot/spicy

physiological component of emotion

- sympathetic nervous system - hormones - bodily arousal accompanies feeling states - fight or flight - assess with GSR/ Polygraph - as you are being asked questions, respiration will change if you are not being truthful - blood pressure with change, skin response will change

hierarchies

- systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes

displacement

- taking out one's anger or frustration on a person or object that is not the cause of the offense - example: if you punch a pillow after your mom takes away your phone

Garcia Effect

- taste aversion

insular cortex

- taste signals are routed through thalamus and onto here - this is located in the frontal lobe

ventral stream

- the "what" stream - this stream deals with: - color - texture - pictorial detail - shape - size - this deals with object processing - remember: "when the barista at Starbucks asks WHAT sized drink I want, I ask for a VENTI"

dorsal stream

- the "where" stream - this stream deals with: - location - movement - spatial transformations - spatial relations - this deals with spatial processing - remember: "you have to look WHERE the DOOR is"

B.F. Skinner

- the Mac Daddy of operant conditioning - he was a nurture guy through & through - he used a Skinner Box (operant conditioning chamber) to prove his concepts - he said that the reason that people were the way they were was because of their experiences, NOT biology or nature - he believed that people are born with a "blank slate" - he stated that some animals & humans learn the same way

fluid intelligence

- the abilities that require speed or rapid learning - Warner Schaie found that this generally diminishes with aging

lucid dreaming

- the ability to be aware that one is dreaming and to direct one's dreams - this has been used to help people make recurrent nightmares less frightening

perceptual constancies

- the ability to experience a constant perception even when what is reflected on the retina changes - color - size - shape

delay of gratification

- the ability to resist the temptation of an immediate reward and wait for later reward - example: the kid marshmallow test

internalization

- the absorbing of information from a specified social environmental context - Vygotsky thought that development proceeds mainly from the outside-in by this process

positive reinforcement

- the addition of something pleasant - example: giving students candy after they get an answer right

positive punishment

- the addition of something unpleasant - examples: - a teacher giving you detention - a spanking

overlearning

- the additional rehearsal

intensity

- the amount of energy in a wave that is determined by amplitude - brightness - loudness

association areas

- the areas of the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking - (remember: "the association areas let people make associations between things") - example: "my stomach is growling, I must be hungry"

circadian rhythm

- the biological clock - regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle - the sleep-wake cycle - normally lasts 24 hours - regulates our hormone levels, body temperatures, etc.

resistance

- the blocking of anxiety-provoking feelings & experiences, evidenced by behavior such as taking about trivial issues or coming late for sessions - a sign that the client has reached an important issue that needs to be discovered - resisting the want to see what is in one's unconscious

sensory pathway

- the bundles of neurons that carry information from the sense organs to the brain - visual pathway: - eye - thalamus - optic nerve - optic chaiasm - occipital lobe - visual cortex

dendrite

- the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body - receives signals from other nerve cells - (remember: "dendrites detect")

signs of child molestation

- the child fears being seen nude (e.g., bathing), when these fears were previously absent - the child develops physical complaints like headaches, stomachaches, and other stress-related symptoms - the child becomes markedly emotional and irritable

genital sex

- the clitoris and vagina in females - the penis and scrotum in males

vaginismus

- the condition where muscle spasms of the vagina making penetration by the penis difficult, painful, or impossible

imagery

- the creation of visual images to represent words - Allan Paivio has pointed out that it is easier to form images of concrete objects rather than abstract concepts

compensation

- the defense mechanism that emphasizes personal strengths in one area to shift focus from failure in another area - example: someone who is not very smart, always saying how attractive they are - was theorized by Alfred Adler

denial

- the defense mechanism that refuses to accept an obvious situation because of the emotional pain it causes - example: the first stage of grief

convergence

- the degree to which the two eyes must converge to focus on the object - when you look at something, both of your eyes rotate at the same angle to focus on that thing

Weber's Law

- the detection of a stimulus depends of the original stimulus itself - example: if a 300-pound person loses 20 pounds & a 120-pound person loses 20 pounds, which one would you notice lost the weight first? - you would notice the 120-pound person first because 20 pounds is a larger percent of their body weight - to perceive a difference between 2 stimuli, they must differ by a constant proportion (like a percentage)

wavelength

- the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next - determines color & hue - the normal human is able to see 400-700 nanometers in this unit

Gender Dysphoria (GD)

- the distress a person experiences as a result of the sex and gender they were assigned at birth - in this case, the assigned sex and gender do not match the person's gender identity, and the person is transgender - was once called Gender Identity Disorder (GID)

somatic nervous system

- the division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles - also known as the skeletal nervous system - (think of "soma" meaning body--it controls all bodily movements)

autonomic nervous system

- the division of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs - controls the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems - (think of "auto")

sympathetic nervous system

- the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations - "fight or flight"

parasympathetic nervous system

- the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy - "rest and disgest"

menopause

- the end of monthly menstrual cycles - usually occurs in the late 40's or early 50's

axon

- the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons, muscles, or glands - carry signals to other nerve cells - (remember: "axons announce") - this is polarized in its resting state (because of the negative charge)

retinal disparity

- the fact that the right & left eyes see slightly different views of the object - this is the merging of the image that the left eye sees & the image that the right eye sees

stranger anxiety

- the fear of unfamiliar people - according to Piaget, infants at about 8 months of age seem to develop this which indicates that hey can differentiate among people they know & people they don't know

excitement

- the first phase of the human sexual response cycle - during this stage: - the genitals become engorged with blood - the vagina expands secretes lubricant - the penis enlarges

alarm

- the first stage of General Adaptation Syndrome - when stressors are threatening or perceived to be threatening, the body activates physiological changes the treaty for fight or flight - when you first encounter distress - during this stage, the sympathetic nervous system kicks in

resting potential

- the fluid interior of a resting axon has an excess of negatively charged ions, while the fluid outside the axon membrane has more positively charged ions - (positive- outside/negative-inside state) - there is a negative charge in the axon when in its resting state

resolution

- the fourth & final stage of the human sexual response cycle - during this stage: - engorged genital releases blood - male goes through refractory phase (a time following orgasm during which males are largely unresponsive to further stimulation)

formal operational stage

- the fourth stage of Piaget's cognitive development that occurs after the age of 12 - during this stage, children are now able to think abstractly & hypothetically

to strengthen conformity...

- the group is unanimous - the group is at least 3 people - one admires the group's status - one had madden prior commitment

activation-synthesis theory

- the idea that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity - psychiatrists Robert McCarley & J. Alan Hobson theorized this

erectile disorder

- the inability to maintain an erection for lovemaking and intercourse - was once known as impotence - also known as erectile dysfunction

fixation

- the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

amygdala

- the integrative center for emotions, emotional behavior, and motivation - teens rely more on this

synapse

- the junction between the terminal branch of the synaptic gap - here, information is transmitted from one neuron to another via neurotransmitters

retention interval

- the length of time between the presentation of materials to be remembered & the measurement of forgetting

acquisition

- the linking together of the neutral (conditioned) stimulus with the unconditional stimulus, after a lot of conditioning - this does not last forever

social inhibition (social impairment)

- the lowering of performance on a given task in presence of others - - often occurs with tasks that are not well rehearsed

absolute threshold

- the minimal amount of a stimuli one needs to perceive something - the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus - usually defined as the stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time

difference threshold

- the minimum difference between 2 stimuli that a subject can detect 50 % of the time - Just Noticeable Difference (JND) - increases with magnitude - example: it is easier to tell the difference between 4 & 5Hz than 1000 & 1001Hz

nucleotides

- the monomers of nucleic acids - groups of molecules that, when linked together, form the building blocks of DNA & RNA: composed of a phosphate group, he bases cytosine, guanine, adenine, & thymine, and a pentose sugar, in RNA the thymine base is replaced by uracil

prototypes

- the most typical examples of the concept - a mental image of best example of a category

soma (cell body)

- the neuron's life support center that also produces neurotransmitters - contains the nucleus, which control she function of the entire cell

brainstem

- the oldest and innermost region of the brain that is responsible for automatic survival functions - it begins where the spinal cord swells and enters the skull

pinna

- the outer ear - the visible portion of the ear

Relative Deprivation Level

- the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself (others' attainment) - example: social media

female orgasmic disorder

- the persistent inability to reach orgasm during lovemaking - the woman may reach orgasm during masturbation, however

set point

- the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set - the idea that your body already has a set weight; therefore, it manipulates your body to maintain a certain weight - manipulating the lateral and the ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body's "weight thermostat" - heredity influences this as well as body type - if weight is lost, food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases (and if weight is gained, the opposite takes place) - when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight - when your calorie rate plunges, your metabolism slows down

scapegoating

- the practice of singling out any party for unmerited negative treatment or blame as a scapegoat - this may be conducted by individuals against individuals (e.g. "Hattie Francis did it, not me!"), individuals against groups (e.g., "I failed because our school favors girls"), groups against individuals (e.g., "Jane was the reason our team didn't win"), and groups against groups (e.g., "Immigrants are taking all of the jobs").

groupthink

- the practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility - he tendency of a decision-making group to filter out undesirable input so that a consensus may be reached, especially if it is in line with the leader's viewpoint

dual processing

- the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks - example: visual learning paired with auditory learning

sensory interaction

- the principle that one sense may influence another - example: as when the smell of food influences its taste

sound localization

- the process by which you determine the location of a sound - sound is heard in the nearest ear first - sound is heard loudest in the nearest ear

attachment

- the process in which the mother (or other caregiver) bonds with the infant, through frequent interactions, the infant gradually forms a close emotional relationship with his or her mother (or caregivers) - Harry Harlow's experimental research on baby monkeys (contact comfort)

sensation

- the process of detecting, converting, & transmitting raw sensory information from the external & internal environments to the brain - the stimulation of the sense organs

elaboration

- the process of linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding - semantic encoding can often be enhanced through this process

rehearsal

- the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information

perception

- the process of selecting, organizing, & interpreting sensory information - enables us to recognize meaningful objects & events

inferential statistics

- the purpose of this type of statistic is to discover whether the results can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was collected--to draw conclusions

long-term memory (LTM)

- the relatively permanent & practically unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short-term memory may pass - this type of memory is subdivided into explicit memory & implicit memory

catharsis

- the release of emotional tension after remembering or reliving an emotionally charged experience from the past - this may ultimately result in relief of anxiety - once the patient realizes what causes their behavior, they would have a "cathartic release" of emotions

ovulation

- the release of ova (eggs) from the ovaries - women are more likely to have sex when it is close to ovulation for them

negative punishment (omission training)

- the removal of something pleasant - example: if your parents take away your car, after coming hime late after curfew

negative reinforcement

- the removal of something unpleasant - example: Ms. Fay dropping our lowest quiz grade if we get good grade on a test - two types of this: - escape learning - avoidance learning

thalamus

- the role of this part of the brain in memory seems to involve the encoding of sensory memory into short-term memory - STM seems to be located primarily in the prefrontal cortex & temporal lobes

syntax

- the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences - this is concerned with order

conditioned response (CR)

- the same as the unconditional response

plateau

- the second phase of the human sexual response cycle - during this stage: - excitement peaks (such as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure)

resistance

- the second stage of General Adaptation Syndrome - during this stage, the fight-or-flight response occurs - long-term coping with stressors depletes adaptive energy, resulting in exhaustion

pre-operational stage

- the second stage of Piaget's cognitive development that occurs from age 2 to age 7 - during this stage, language develops with the ability to think - a child uses trial & error to figure out how things work & answers questions intuitively rather than logically

vestibular sense

- the sense of equilibrium, balance, & body orientation - the sense of body movement * body's position relative to gravity - controlled by the fluid in the inner ear in the semicircular canals

olfaction

- the sense of smell - does not get filtered by the thalamus

semantics

- the set of rules by which we derive meaning in a language - adding "-ed" at the end of words means past tense

somatosensation

- the skin sensations: touch/pressure, warmth, cold, and pain - another word for youch

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

- the stage of sleep characterized by flickering eyes behind closed lids - this indicates dreaming

psychophysics

- the study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience - this was discovered by Wilhelm Wundt - the study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli & our psychological experience of them - light: brightness - sound: volume - pressure: weight - taste: sweetness

insight learning

- the sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem - this idea suggest that some animals learn thorough the "ah-ha" experience - Wolfgang Kohler & his chimpanzees

castration

- the surgical removal of the testes or ovaries - removing the testes would reduce testosterone levels & lower sexual interest in males

kinesthesis

- the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts - "hand-eye coordination" - sense of movement - depth perception

meta-analysis

- the systematic statistical method for synthesizing the results of numerous research studies dealing with the same variables - indicates that clients who receive psychotherapy are better off than most of those who receive no treatment

belief bias

- the tendency for one's preexisting belies to distort logical reasoning - this sometimes makes invalid conclusions valid or vice-versa

overconfidence

- the tendency to be more confident than correct - to oversestimat the accuracy of your beliefs & judgements

in-group bias

- the tendency to favor one's own group

false-consensus effect

- the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors - we assume that people see & explain things the same as we do

exhaustion

- the third & final stage of General Adaptation Syndrome - when the body has used up its adaptive energy & can no longer cope with stressors, it breaks down in disease, collapse, or death - the time when you are most likely to sick is hen you are stressed or sleep-deprived

orgasm

- the third phase of the human sexual response cycle - during this stage: - contractions all over the body - increase in breathing, pulse, & blood pressure - sexual release

concrete operational stage

- the third stage of Piaget's cognitive development that occurs from age 7 to age 12 - during this stage, children develop simple logic & master conservation concepts

standard deviation

- the variance of scores around the mean - (are most of the scores around the same number or not?) - the higher the variance or standard deviation, the more spread out the distribution is

framing

- the way in which an issue is posed - how are phrase is worded - this can have drastic effects on your decisions & judgements

attachment

- theorized by Harry Harlow (research on infant attachment with baby monkeys) - a close emotional bond of affection between infant and caregiver

fat cells

- there are 30-40 billion fat cells in the body - these cells can increase in size (2-3 times their normal size) and number (75 billion) in an obese individual - they produce leptin

mirror neurons

- these allow us to put ourselves in someone's else's place & feel what they feel (mimic the behavior) - observable behavior - example: - if you see someone crying, that would make you feel sad - if you watch a sad movie & then feel sad yourself - these are important in feelings of empathy

pheromones

- these are airborne molecules that signal whether an animal/human is ready to mate - one's pheromones are unappealing/unattractive to his or her relatives - secreted or excreted chemical factors that trigger a social response in members of the same species

chloride ions (Cl-)

- these are anions - they have a negative charge

emotions

- these are basically mechanisms that set goals & priorities - life would be impossible without these - can cause motivation - motivation can cause this - they are shaped by our cultural context (different cultures have somewhat different emotional triggers & emotional baselines to respond to) - they have universal roots - some are not innate - it's good for us to feel stressed sometimes & happy sometimes

sodium ions (Na+) & potassium ions (K+)

- these are cations - they have a positive charge - when a neuron is firing, these ions rush into the neuron making the charge positive

feature detectors

- these are neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific features: - shape - angle - movement

schemas

- these are preexisting mental frameworks that start as basic organizations & then get more and more complex as we gain additional information - these frameworks enable us to organize & interpret new information, & can be easily expanded - these large knowledge structures influence the way we encode, make inferences about, & recall information

retrieval cues

- these are reminders associated with information that we are trying to get out of memory - these aid us in remembering - these can be other words or phrases in a specific hierarchy or semantic network, context, & mood or emotions - these prime our memories

social bonds

- these boosted our ancestors' survival rates & led to the following: 1. protecting against predators, especially for the young 2. procuring food 3. reproducing the next offspring

conservation concepts

- these concepts state that changes in the form of an object do not alter physical properties of mass, volume, & number - example: 12 ounces of juice in a tall, thin glass is the same as 12 ounces of juice in a short, fat glass - during this stage, children are able to recognize reversibility (transformation) - example: 3+4=4+3

monocular cues

- these cues are clues about distance based on the image in either eye - seeing an image with one eye - linear perspective - relative size - interposition - texture gradient - light & shadow - height in plane

binocular cues

- these cues are clues about distance that are based on the differing views of the two eyes -seeing an image with 2 eyes - you can see depth with these cues - retinal disparity - convergence

mnemonic devices

- these devices will help us retrieve concepts

Order Effects

- these effects observe the observation of a result due to the order that something is given

parathyroids

- these glands help regulate the level of calcium in the blood

stress hormones

- these hormones include: - adrenaline (epinephrine) - noradrenaline (norepinephrine) - corticosteroid (cortisol) - stress, through the action of these, has detrimental effects on immune function, including reduced NK cell activity, lymphocyte populations, lymphocyte proliferation, antibody production and reactivation of latent viral infections

Type-A individuals

- these individuals are: - impatient time-conscious - controlling - concerned about their status - highly competitive - ambitious business-like - aggressive - having difficulty relaxing - high-achieving workaholics who multi-task - drive themselves with deadlines - are unhappy about delays - often described as "stress junkies"

Type-B individuals

- these individuals are: - patient - relaxed - easy-going - generally lacking an overriding sense of urgency

rods & cones

- these parts of the eye capture light waves to commence transduction - these convert vision into neural energy for the brain to process

APA Ethical Guidelines

- these rules were put in place to make sure research/experiments would not bring harm to humans or animals

mental illnesses

- these were both culture-bound & gender-bound - during the Victorian age, young girls would be institutionalized - these were also classified as genetic/biological disorders

Hubel & Whesel

- they concluded from their experiment that visual processes occur in the brain, rather than the actual eye - this experiment won the Nobel Prize - they stated that lines & shapes contribute to our vision

Skinner & Watson

- they did not believe that one's nature/biology & internal factors influenced one's behavior - they in believed observational learning

Roger Sperry, Ronald Meyers and Michael Gazzaniga

- they divided the brains of cats and monkeys with no serious ill effects - they set the stage to study split brain in people

Garcia & Koelling study

- they studied rats & how they make associations - they concluded that some associations seem to be adaptive

John Darley & Bibb Latane

- they studied the bystander effect - they studied this through the Kitty Genovese murder case, in which over 30 people stood by as Genovese was brutally murdered & did nothing about it until after the attack was over

B.F. Skinner & John Watson

- they were opposite as Freud - they believed that one's own experience shapes one's nature

primary reinforcer

- things that are in themselves rewarding - necessary in survival & drives (food, water, sex, etc.)

secondary reinforcer

- things that we have learned to value - things that do not have survival survival value, BUT can be used to obtain primary reinforcers - money is a special one called a GENERALIZED REINFORCER (because it can be traded for just about anything)

Phi Phenomenon

- this Gestalt principle conveys the optical illusion of perceiving a series of still images, when viewed in rapid succession, as continuous motion - this is a good example of the perception of movement, where movement is not really present

Law of Simplicity

- this Gestalt principle suggests that every stimulus is perceived in its most simple form - Gestalt theorists followed the basic principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts - also known as the "Law of Good Form"

priming

- this activates specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously - this creates the likelihood to remember something - framing - example: - being fast to recognize the name of a famous artist when you had only recently heard the name in-passing

mood congruence

- this aids retrieval - we recall experiences better that are consistent with our mood at retrieval - we remember information of other happy times when we are happy, & information other sad times when we are unhappy

frontal cortex

- this brain region has been implicated in planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, decision making, and moderating social behavior - adults rely more on this

lateral hypothalamus (LH)

- this brings on hunger (stimulation) - if this is destroyed, then the animal would have no interest in eating - the reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in this, which leads rats to eat ravenously - remember: when it's LATE & you haven't eaten you'll be hungry

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)

- this consists of 60 personal traits, 20 each for "masculine," "feminine," & "neutral" - was created by Sandra Bem

ventromedial hypothalamus (VHM)

- this depresses hunger (stimulation) - if this is destroyed, then the animal eats excessively (it never knows when it's hungry) - remember: caffeine is a depressant; therefore, when you get a VENTI from Starbucks & drink it, drowsiness is decreased/lessened

forgetting curve

- this diagram graphs retention & forgetting overtime - most forgetting occurs very rapidly after learning something

Placebo Effect

- this effect is another confounding variable - this effect changes neurotransmitter to make someone think they feel a certain way, where they have not been exposed to something

primacy effect

- this effect refers to better recall of the first items

recency effect

- this effect refers to better recall of the last items

happiness

- this emotion conveys: - crows feet wrinkles (at the eyes) - pushed up cheeks - movement from the muscle that orbits the eye

sadness

- this emotion conveys: - drooping upper eyelids - losing focus in eyes - slight pulling down of lip corners

anger

- this emotion conveys: - eyebrow down & together - eyes glare - narrowing of the lips

fear

- this emotion conveys: - eyebrow raised & pulled together - raised upper eyelids - tensed lower eyelids - lips slightly stretched horizontally back to ears

surprise

- this emotion conveys: - eyebrows raised - eyes widened - mouth open

contempt

- this emotion conveys: - lip corner tightened & raised on only one side of face - this emotion was not in Ekman's original research

disgust

- this emotion conveys: - nose wrinkling - upper lip raised

triangular theory of love

- this explains the topic of love in an interpersonal relationship - Psychologist Robert Sternberg's theory describes types of love based on three different scales: intimacy, passion, and commitment

operational defintion

- this explains what you mean in your hypothesis

thyroid gland

- this gland affects metabolism, among other things

pancreas

- this gland regulates the level of sugar in the blood

ovary

- this gland secretes female sex hormones

testis

- this gland secretes male sex hormones

Yerkes-Dodson Law

- this idea conveys a bell curve which shows that the optimal level is somewhere between really calmer really stressed/distressed (the middle) - however, the bell curve depends on what the task is (different tasks have different levels or optimal performance) - this theory suggests that people perform best at optimal (moderate) level of arousal

latent learning

- this idea suggests that sometimes learning is not immediately evident - this is learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs - introduced by Edward Toleman - three-rat experiment - "latent" means hidden - the rats needed a reason to display what they have learned - example: when your mom always drives you to your friend's house, but you think you never pay attention; however, you do unconsciously learn where to go & how to get there

active listening

- this involves echoing, restating, & seeking clarification of what the client says & does - this acknowledges feelings - Carl Rogers' technique

attention

- this involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events - is likened/compared to a "filter" that screens out most potential stimuli while allowing a select few to pass through into conscious awareness - the location of this "filter" may be flexible, rather than fixed - studies show that multi-tasking conveys results where large reductions in memory are seen

retrograde amnesia

- this involves memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of an accident, such as blow to the head - this may result from disruption of the process of long-term potentiation

consummate love

- this is "complete love" - this includes all 3 scales of love (intimacy, passion, & commitment)

conditioning

- this is a learned stimulus that leads to a specific response - this is divided into classical conditioning & operant conditioning

incentive

- this is a positive negative stimulus that pulls us in reducing our drives - examples: - if you get twenty dollars or cookie for doing well on a test - a food-deprived person who smells baking bread (incentive) feels a strong hunger drive

flashbulb memory

- this is a vivid memory of an emotionally arousing event - this is associated with an increase of adrenal hormones triggering the release of energy for neural processes & the activation of the amygdala & hippocampus, which are involved in emotional memories

unconscious

- this is comprised of wishes, impulses, memories, & feelings - also known as the subconscious

stereopsis

- this is depth information provided by binocular disparity - a stereoscope uses two pictures from slightly different viewpoints - 3D movies use the same principle & viewers wear glasses to see the effect

hippocampus

- this is involved in explicit long-term memory - this is highly involved with getting short-term memory to long-term memory (long-term memory consolidation) - this involved with encoding new information

cerebellum

- this is involved with the implicit memory of skills (muscle memory, or procedural memory)

operant conditioning

- this is learning based on consequence - learning is NOT passive - these are behaviors that one can CHOOSE - B. F. Skinner was the behaviorist behind this type of conditioning

behavioral component of emotion

- this is observable - characteristic overt expression of emotion - body language and facial expression - the six basic emotions generally able to identify

fovea

- this is the "point of central focus" on the back of the eye - this is responsible for what one is directly looking at & concentrated on - this focuses on DIRECT vision

savings method

- this is the amount of repetitions required to relearn the list compared to the amount of repetitions it took to learn the list originally - Ebbinghaus used this method to measure retention of information

retroactive interference

- this is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information - this is backward-acting

confabulation

- this is the filling of gaps in memory by combining & substituting memories from events other than the one we are trying to remember

Whorf's Linguistic Relativity

- this is the idea that language determines the way we think (not vice versa)

procedural memory

- this is the memory of "knowing how" - apart of long-term memory - examples: - tying your shoe - riding a bike - figuring out a tip for your waiter

semantic memory

- this is the memory of general knowledge - uses recall over recognition - apart of long-term memory - examples: - knowing all of the words of the National Anthem - knowing/remembering all of the parts of the limbic system

episodic memory

- this is the memory of personally experienced events - apart of long-term memory - example: - remembering your best friend's birthday party that happened last month

prospective memory

- this is the memory of remembrance for the prospective future - examples: - remembering that you have to buy a gift for your friend's birthday tonight

size constancy

- this is the perception of an object's size that remains relatively constant - this effect remains even if the size of the object on the retina changes

anterograde amnesia

- this is the result of destruction of the hippocampus - this is the inability to put new information into explicit memory; therefore, no new semantic memories are formed

self theory

- this is the self, an organized, consistent set of beliefs & perceptions about ourselves, which develops in response to our life experiences - experiences that are inconsistent with our self-concept cause us to feel threatened & anxious - this was theorized by Carl Rogers

parallel processing

- this is the simultaneous processing of several dimensions through multiple pathways: - color - motion - form - depth

transduction

- this is the transformation of stimulus energy into the electrochemical energy of neural impulses - the conversion of one form of energy to another - the transformation of one form of energy into another--especially the transformation of stimulus information into nerve impulses

cornea

- this is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber - this also refracts light

negative correlation

- this is the type of correlation where the variables go in opposite directions - "indirect relationship"

positive correlation

- this is the type of correlation where the variables go in the SAME direction - "direct relationship"

state-dependent

- this is when the things we learn in one internal state are more easily recalled when in the same state again

long-term potentiation (LTP)

- this is where learning involves strengthening of neural connections at the synapses - this involves an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks of long-term memories - this requires fewer neurotransmitter molecules to make neurons fire & increase in receptor sites

semantic encoding

- this level of processing emphasizes the meaning of verbal input - this involves thinking about the objects & actions in which the words represent

phonemic encoding

- this level of processing emphasizes what a word sounds like - this involves naming or saying (perhaps silently) the words

structural encoding

- this level of processing is relatively shallow, which emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus - for example, if words are flashed on a screen, this level of processing would register such things as how the words are printed (capital, lowercase, etc.) or the length go the words (how many letters)

fatuous love

- this love can be exemplified by a whirlwind courtship and marriage in which a commitment is motivated largely by passion, without the stabilizing influence of intimacy - this includes the passion and commitment aspects of love

companionate love

- this love is often found in marriages in which the passion has gone out of the relationship, but a deep affection and commitment remain - this love is generally a personal relation you build with somebody you share your life with, but with no sexual or physical desire - this includes the intimacy and commitment aspects of love

infatuation or limerence

- this love is often what is felt as "love at first sight" - BUT: without the intimacy and the commitment components of love, this love may disappear suddenly - this only includes the passion aspect of love

Atkinson-Shriffin three-stage model memory

- this model describes three different memory systems by time frames: - sensory memory - short-term memory (STM) - long-term memory (LTM)

interference

- this occurs when learning some things may prevent retrieving others, especially when the items are similar

bottom-up processing

- this occurs when one takes in information from raw sensory data, processes it, & does something about it: 1. feature processing 2. letter processing 3. word processing 4. phrase processing 5. comprehension - this type of information processing begins "at the bottom" with raw sensory data that is sent "up" to the brain for higher-level analysis -this is a type of data-driven processing that moves from the parts to the whole - the processing of current stimulation influences what is perceived

proactive interference

- this occurs when something we learned earlier disrupts recall of something we experience later - for example, trying to remember a new phone number may be disrupted by the memory of an old phone number - this is forward-acting

misinformation effect

- this occurs when we incorporate misleading information into our memory of an event - forgetting what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information

Muller-Lyer Illusion

- this optical illusion consists of a stylized arrow - when viewers are asked to place a mark on the figure at the midpoint, they invariably place it more towards the "tail" end

slow pathway

- this pain pathway lags a second behind the fast system - this pathway (which also carries information about temperature) conveys the less localized, longer-lasting, aching, or burning pain that comes after the initial injury - this pathway depends on thin neurons called C fibers

fast pathway

- this pain pathway registers localized pain & relays it to the cortex in a fraction of a second - this is the system that hits you with a sharp pain when you first cut your finger - this pathway is mediated by thick neurons called A-delta fibers

outer ear

- this part of the ear includes: - auditory canal - eardrum

inner ear

- this part of the ear includes: - oval window - cochlea - basilar membrane - hair cells - auditory transduction occurs here

middle ear

- this part of the ear includes: - the ossicles - hammer - anvil - stirrup

iris

- this part of the eye controls whether the pupils constrict or dilate - this also conveys the color of one's eyes

cones

- this part of the eye deals with color vision & fine detail - this detects daylight or well-lit conditions well - this is located near the fovea

lens

- this part of the eye deals with near-sightedness & far-sightedness - this helps to refract (change the direction of) light to be focused on the retina

rods

- this part of the eye deals with peripheral vision & night vision - this is located in the periphery of the retina - this detects black, white, & gray, twilight, or low light

blind spot

- this part of the eye holds the small portion of the visual field of each eye that corresponds to the position of the optic disk (also known as the optic nerve head) within the retina - there are no photoreceptors (i.e., rods or cones) in the optic disk, and, therefore, there is no image detection in this area - the area of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the back of the eye

retina

- this part of the eye is located in the back of the eye - this contains the rods & cones - this contains layers of neurons on the inner surface of the eye - this is sensitive to light - this part begins visual information processing

optic nerve

- this part of the eye leads to the "blind spot"

pupil

- this part of the eye varies (adjusts) in size to regulate the amount of light reaching the retina - this is located in the center of the eye

semicircular canals

- this part of the inner ear is filled with a liquid substance, known as endolymph - every time the head moves, the endolymph moves the cilia - this functions as a type of motion sensor, as the movements of the cilia are communicated to the brain

The Law of Effect

- this principle stated that: - if a behavior has positive consequences, then one is more likely to do it in the future - if a behavior has negative consequences, then one is less likely to do it in the future - this principle was introduced by Edward Thorndike

encoding

- this process of memory is involved with getting information into storage - this process involves forming a memory code - for example, when you form a memory code for a word, you might emphasize how it looks, how it sounds, or what it means

retrieval

- this process of memory is involved with getting the information out of storage - this process recovers information from memory stores

storage

- this process of memory is involved with maintaining information - this process maintains encoded information overtime

prefrontal cortex

- this region of the brain registers what emotion one is feeling - this strives to voluntarily control emotional reactions - the pole that struck Phineas Gage went through this region of his brain

continuous reinforcement

- this reinforces the behavior EVERYTIME the behavior is exhibited - this type of reinforcement is usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association - acquisition comes really fast - extinction comes fast too

partial reinforcement

- this reinforces the behavior only SOME of the rimes it is exhibited - acquisition comes more slowly - this is more resistant to extinction - there are FOUR types of these reinforcement schedules

peg word mnemonic

- this requires us to first memorize a scheme such as "One is a bun, two is a shoe," & so on, then mentally picture using the chicken in the bun, the corn in the shoe, etc. - these images help to both encode items into LTM & then later to retrieve them back into our working memory

experimental research

- this research method allows for the researcher to systematically manipulate a variable under controlled conditions & then observe the response - this research method is used when the experimenter wants to find a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent & dependent variables, while comparing two treatment groups - strength of this research method: - establishes a cause-and-effect relationship - weakness of this research method: - there could be a confounding variable - example of this research method: - research carried out to determine whether sugar increases hyperactivity

case studies

- this research method is an in-depth examination of a specific group or individual/single person that typically includes interviews, observations, & test scores - this research method is used when an experimenter wants to answer a question that can only be answered by a specific person or group of people who are are in a certain type of situation - strength of this research method: - this research method has enabled us to understand a wider range of topics - weakness of this research method: - this research method just focuses on the individual, not the majority - does not give us correlational data because there is only 1 participant or a group of individuals - example of this research method: - research done on patients with gunshot wounds to the head enabling scientists to better understand how the loss of brain tissue affected specific aspects of behavior

naturalistic observation

- this research method is carried out in the field where naturally-occurring behavior can be observed - this research method gathers descriptive information about typical behavior of people or animals without manipulating any variables - this method is used when observing a person's or animal's natural/normal behavior is crucial to the experiment - strength of this research method: - using this research method mostly effectively supplies the experimenter with results depicting the candid behavior of the subjects - weakness of this research method: - using this research method could impact the results negatively because with someone watching, a person or animal could act unnaturally - example of this research method: - Jane Goodall's observation of chimpanzees

correlational research

- this research method looks at the relationship between two variables without establishing cause-and-effect relationships - this research method is used when a researcher wants to establish a relationship between two variables without establishing causation - strength of this research method: - establishes a relationship between two variables - weakness of this research method: - does not show causation - example of this research method: - research is carried out to establish a relationship between ice cream & murder

surveys

- this research method uses questionnaires or interviews to ask a large number of people about their behaviors, thoughts, & attitudes - this research method ONLY measures correlation - this research method is used when asking a large number of people the same question (about their behavior, thoughts, & attitudes) - strength of this research method: - effective when doing an experiment on a large number of people - weakness of this research method: - accuracy of data - people sometimes distort their answers to appear more "politically correct" - people fail to remember information correctly - low-response rate - example of this research method: - sending out a poll (or Google Forms), asking people their favorite ice cream flavor

secondary stream

- this stream is focused on hearing - Broca's Area

primary stream

- this stream sends information to the dorsal stream & ventral stream - found in the occipital lobe

learned helplessness

- this suggested that if people keep trying to do things, and keep on failing, then they would eventually learn to give up - this develops an apathy towards trying & motivation

observational learning

- this suggests the we learn through modeling behavior from others - occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models - Albert Bandura & his BoBo Doll experiment

door-in-the-face technique

- this technique involves starting big and then "settling" - example: to sell the most expensive guitar possible you show a custom made model w/ a price affordable only to wealthy buyers, after rejecting the purchase coming down to a lower price is easier for the potential buyer (AKA High Ball Technique)

foot-in-the-door technique

- this technique is based on methods sometimes employed in the past by door-to-door salespeople, who operate on the assumption that if they could just "get their foot in the door" their chance of sales success would be high - example: if you want to make a big commission by selling expensive guitars you would show guitars of lesser value, while encouraging shopper to commit to idea of buying from you, invite shopper to try guitars out and then move on to the more expensive model

Signal Detection Theory

- this theory replaced Weber's Law - whether or not you detect a stimulus is dependent upon 3 kinds of variables: 1. stimulus variables (how weak or strong the stimulus is) 2. environmental variables (what's going on around you) 3. organismic variables (your own experience, expectations, motivation, & alertness) - the set of formulas & principles that predict when we will detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise) - this seeks to understand why people respond differently to the same stimuli & why the same person's reactions would vary as circumstances change - example: tired parents of newborns will awaken to a whimper but sleep through their alarm - this assumes that there is no single absolute threshold - detection depends partly on a person's: - experience - expectations - motivation - level of fatigue

drive-reduction theory

- this theory states that a physiological (biological) need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need - because of this, one will have a physiological reaction which motivates one to satisfy their need - this is a psychological experience

instinct theory

- this theory states that instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species and are not learned - example: where the woman builds different kinds of houses the bird builds only one kind of nest - this was replaced by the evolutionary perspective

connectionism

- this theory states that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which work together to process a single memory

Trichromatic (three color) Theory

- this theory suggested that the eye contains 3 different types of cones (red, green, & blue) that are capable of responding to various wavelengths of light - S-Cones: - sensitive to blue - these are short in length - M-Cones: - sensitive to green - these are medium in length - L-Cones: - sensitive to red - these are long in length - this was developed by Young & Helmholtz

Place Theory

- this theory suggests that the position on the basilar membrane at which waves reach their peak depends on the frequency of a tone - WHERE the sound/vibration is hitting the basilar membrane - concerned with high-pitched tones

Frequency Theory

- this theory suggests that the rate of neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matched the frequency of a tone, enabling you to sense its pitch - concerned with high-pitched & low-pitched tones

Gate-Control Theory

- this theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain - the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain - example: someone bumping their elbow or knee & rubbing it to lessen the pain by stimulating the large fibers - "gate" opened the the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers - "gate" closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

selective attention

- this type of attention focuses awareness on a specific stimulus in sensory memory - this determines which very small fraction of information perceived in sensory memory is encoded

self-referent encoding

- this type of encoding involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant

variable interval

- this type of interval requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement - under this, it is very hard to acquisition but also it is very resistant to extinction

fixed interval

- this type of interval requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement - example: she gets a manicure for every 7 days she stays other diet

short-term memory (STM)

- this type of memory can hold a limited amount of information for about 30 seconds unless it is processed further - "rehearsal" can be used to maintain information in one's short-term memory indefinitely

sensory memory

- this type of memory results from touch, hearing, vision, smell, & taste - attention is important with this type of memory - allows the sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over with - in this case, people really perceive an "afterimage" rather than the actual stimulus - this type of memory lasts less than a second - apart of short-term memory - example: - when one sees a word flash on a screen & tries to remember it - when a student is sitting through a lecture & tries to recall what the teacher had said a few seconds before

variable ratio

- this type of ratio provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses - under this, it is very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction

fixed ratio

- this type of ratio provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses - example: she gets a manicure for every 5 pounds she loses

descriptive statistics

- this type of statistics describes/explains sets of data - one might create a frequency distribution, frequency polygons, or histograms

ossicles

- three tiny bones in the middle ear: 1. the hammer 2. the anvil 3. the stirrup - they vibrate

fully functioning

- to become this, Rogers says that we must learn to accept ourselves (unconditional positive self-regard) & unite the real & ideal selves into one again - Carl Rogers' term for self-actualization

stage 2 of psychosocial development

- toddlers (2 years old) face the crisis of autonomy vs. shame & doubt - children who are encouraged to try new skills develop autonomy, while those who are ridiculed or overprotected may count their abilities & feel ashamed of their actions

automatic processing

- unconscious encoding of information about space, time, & frequency that occurs without inferring with our thinking about other things

id

- unconscious: it is difficult to retrieve material - this is located well-below the surface of awareness - this includes things that we are not aware of that influence our behavior - this adheres to the "pleasure principle" (wish fulfillment) and is influenced by our drives (hunger, thirst, sex, etc.) - "pleasure is good and nothing else matters" - biological & instinctual component - this is innate (born with it) - this seeks immediate, indiscriminate gratification - this is the source of alimental energy - gratifying urges returns the body to homeostasis - libido - thanatos

repression

- unconsciously forgetting information that is too painful to recall - example: Juliet was very afraid of her temper & constantly tried to control it. As a child, she had beaten her baby sister but does not recall having done so.

sublimation

- using exercise or physical activity as a substitute for sexual energies - example: Buddy is very attracted to the girl who sits next to him in Biology class. However, she is dating his best friend, & Buddy wouldn't think of interfering with their relationship, Fortunately, Buddy has PE class right after biology & runs 3 laps around the track at the beginning of every PE class.

blocking effect

- was introduced by Leon Kamin - challenged Pavlov's contiguity model - this suggested that the conditioning effect of the neutral (conditioned) stimulus can be blocked

dependent variable

- whatever is being measured - this variable is dependent on the independent variable

babbling

- when a baby makes spontaneous sounds - the baby speaks the phonemes of the household language - this is a pre-linguistic event

internalization

- when a person accepts the views of a group and adopts them as an individual - seen in conformity

undoing

- when a person tries to 'undo' an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening thought or action by engaging in contrary behavior - example: after thinking about being violent with someone, one would then be overly nice or accommodating to them - a defense mechanism

one-word stage

- when a toddler uses one word to communicate big meanings - example: - "no"

two-word stage (telegraphic speech)

- when a toddler uses two words to communicate meanings - example: - "get cup" - a linguistic milestone

adolescent sexuality

- when individuals reach adolescence, their sexual behavior develops - however, there are cultural differences

depolarized

- when the axon is no longer at resting potential - the outside is now negatively charged, and the inside is now positively charged

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

- when we know that we know something but cannot pull it out of memory

serial position effect

- when we try to retrieve long list of words, we usually recall the last words & the first words best, forgetting the words in the middle

Karen Horney

- while Freud believed that women were jealous of men's penises, she believed that men were jealous of women's wombs - she was a neo-Freudian - she thought that Freud's ideas were too male-focused

female sexual problems

- women may suffer from orgasmic disorders

stage 6 of psychosocial development

- young adults (about 21-40 years old) face the crisis of intimacy vs. isolation - without intimacy, one can feel alone & isolated

types of stressors

1. acute stressors 2. chronic stressors

three typical dimensions of emotion in response to stress

1. annoyance, anger, rage 2. apprehension, anxiety, fear 3. dejection, sadness, grief

three basic types of conflict

1. approach-approach conflict 2. avoidance-avoidance conflict 3. approach-avoidance conflict - Kurt Lewin & Neal Miller theorized these

Bandura's Four Key Processes in Observational Learning

1. attention 2. retention 3. reproduction 4. motivation

animal research ethical guidelines

1. clear purpose for using animals in the experiment 2. the animals are treated in a humane way 3. the researchers/experimenters acquire the animals legally 4. the experiment elicits the least amount of suffering for the animals that is possible

three components of emotion

1. cognitive component 2. physiological component 3. behavioral component

three levels of response to stress

1. emotional response 2. physiological response 3. behavioral response

sources of achievement motivation

1. emotional roots 2. cognitive roots 3. cultural roots

three key processes involved in memory

1. encoding 2. storage 3. retrieval - these basic process explain WHY people forget

four phases of the human sexual response cycle

1. excitement 2. plateau 3. orgasm 4. resolution - William Masters & Virgina Johnson introduced this in 1966

three reasons that suggest that homosexuality may be due to genetic factors

1. family 2. twin studies 3. fruit flies

four lobes of the brain

1. frontal lobe 2. parietal lobe 3. temporal lobe 4. occipital lobe

four major models which account for the organization of LTM

1. hierarchies 2. semantic networks 3. schemas 4. connectionist networks

factors that reduce sexual activity in teens

1. high intelligence 2. religiosity 3. father presence 4. learning programs

four perspectives used to explain motivation

1. instinct theory 2. drive-reduction theory 3. arousal theory 4. hierarchy of needs (motives)

human research ethical guidelines

1. no coercion--test subjects must volunteer to participate in the experiment/study 2. informed consent 3. anonymity (for privacy reasons) 4. no significant risk/effect on the participant 5. the researchers must debrief the participants before the beginning the experiment, if deception is apart of the experiment

Freud's Psychosexual Development Stages

1. oral stage 2. anal stage 3. phallic stage 4. latency stage 5. genital stage - these stages are controversial because people tend to think that Freud is saying that babies/young children are sexual

retinal processing

1. photo receptors (rods & cones) [PAPARAZZI TAKING PHOTOS OF]--> 2. bipolar cells [A BIPOLAR] --> 3. ganglion cells [GANG]--> 4. bipolar cells--> 5. photo receptors (rods & cones)

theories of moral development

1. pre-conventional level of morality 2. conventional level of morality 3. post-conventional level of morality - theorized by Lawrence Kohlberg

evolved module for fear learning

1. preferentially activated by stimuli related to survival threats in evolutionary history 2. automatically activated by these stimuli 3. relatively resistant to conscious efforts to suppress the resulting fears 4. dependent on neural circuitry running through the amygdala

the six basic emotions

1. sadness 2. happiness 3. fear 4. anger 5. disgust 6. surprise

visual information processing

1. scene 2. retinal processing 3. feature detection 4. abstraction 5. recognition

reasons for eating disorders

1. sexual abuse 2. family 3. genetics

three levels of processing

1. structural encoding 2. phonemic encoding 3. semantic encoding - Fergus Craik & Robert Lockhart (1972) proposed that incoming information can be processed at different levels - they maintained that in dealing verbal information, people engage in these - their theory proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes

belongingness

1. wanting to belong 2. social acceptance 3. maintaining relationships 4. ostracism

Behaviorism was founded by:

B.F. Skinner & John Watson

genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units to hereditary transmission

occipital lobe

LOCATION: - bottom, back part of the cortex FUNCTION: - responsible for processing visual information from the eyes DAMAGED? - loss of vision - visual hallucinations and illusions

temporal lobe

LOCATION: - bottom, middle part of the cortex - located right behind the temples FUNCTION: - responsible for processing auditory information from the ears (hearing) DAMAGED? - left temporal lesions disturb recognition of words - right temporal damage can cause a loss of inhibition of talking - hearing can also be impaired

corpus callosum

LOCATION: - found in the cerebrum & forebrain between the 2 hemispheres - located between the cerebral cortex FUNCTION: - connects the 2 hemispheres & carries messages between them DAMAGED? - effects of damage: - split-brain - a surgery that intentionally cuts the corpus collosum to reduce epileptic seizures - Alien-Hand Syndrome

hypothalamus

LOCATION: - found in the forebrain - above the pituitary gland - below the thalamus FUNCTION: - responsible for behaviors such as hunger and thirst, as well as the maintenance of body temperature - (remember: "if your body temperature drops, you get HYPOthermia) DAMAGED? - damage would cause: - changes in body temperature - fluid balance (anti - diuretic hormone)

pituitary gland

LOCATION: - found in the forebrain - immediately below the hypothalamus FUNCTION: - controls several other hormone glands in your body, including the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, & testicles - the endocrine system's most influential gland - under the influence of the hypothalamus, this regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands DAMAGED? - the production of one or more of its hormones would not be enough

medulla

LOCATION: - found in the hindbrain - located in the lower part of the brain stem FUNCTION: - controls necessary unconscious functions/actions: - circulation of blood - breathing - maintaining muscle tone - regulation of reflexes (sneezing, coughing, salivating, etc.) - regulation of respiration - heart rate - digestion - (remember the 2 Ls: life & love for heartbeat and breathing) DAMAGED? - medial medullary syndrome: partial paralysis of the opposite side of the body, loss of touch, partial paralysis of the tongue - lateral medullary syndrome: los of pain & temperature sensations, gag reflex, difficulty swallowing, loss of coordination - extreme injuries result in the stopping of breathing & heart beat immediately, thus ending life

Broca's Area

LOCATION: - found in the left frontal lobe - in the cerebrum - near the motor cortex FUNCTION: - speech production - muscle movements involved in speech DAMAGED? - Broca's Aphasia: occurs when the patient knows what they want to say but cannot produce/articulate the correct words

Wernicke's Area

LOCATION: - found in the left temporal lobe - next to the auditory cortex - in the cerebrum FUNCTION: - involved with/is responsible for language comprehension DAMAGED? - Wernickes Aphasia: occurs when a patient is unaware that their words are nonsensical & cannot understand spoken words

limbic system

LOCATION: - found in the top of the brain stem - lies on both sides of the thalamus & under the cerebrum - in the forebrain FUNCTION: - structures within this system are associated with emotions (fear, anger, pleasure) & drives (hunger, sex, care of offspring) DAMAGED? - damage to parts of this system may cause: - inappropriate emotional responses - change in appetite - difficulty learning/maintaining body temperature - anxiety disorders - binge eating - Alzheimer's disease

frontal lobe

LOCATION: - frontal & upper area of the cortex FUNCTION: - carries out higher mental processes such as thinking, decision-making, & planning - (remember: "when you misspeak or do something wrong, you hit your forehead") DAMAGED? - damage may cause: - memory impairment - increased irritability, which may include a change in mood & an inability to regulate behavior (Phineas Gage)

motor cortex

LOCATION: - in the frontal lobe of the brain - in the cerebrum FUNCTION: - controls voluntary movements by activating skeletal muscles DAMAGED? - if damaged: - this would impair one's ability to move - the damage could impair one or more body part - the impairment could be anything between muscle weakness to paralysis

sematosensory cortex

LOCATION: - in the parietal lobe of the brain - in the cerebrum FUNCTION: - registers & processes sensory information from the body DAMAGED? - if damaged: - this would impair one's ability to detect different sensory stimuli - this could affect how well someone can sense touch, temperature, & pressure

pons

LOCATION: - in the upper part of the brainstem - found in the midbrain FUNCTION: - involved with/responsible for: - facial movements - senses - involuntary hearing - REM sleep - regulation of breathing DAMAGED? - damage may cause: - Locked-In Syndrome: when the patient is paralyzed & mute but can still understand sensory stimuli - reduction or elimination of REM sleep - loss of muscle function except for eye movement

amygdala

LOCATION: - located deep within the temporal lobes of the brain - medial to the hypothalamus - adjacent to the hippocampus - found in the forebrain FUNCTION: - a limbic system structure that is involve in many of our emotions & motivations, particularly those that are related to survival (arousal, autonomic responses associated with fear, emotional responses, etc.) - (remember: "Amy--grrrrrrr") DAMAGED? - if damaged, there is a reduction of fear & aggression - bilateral lesion: causes the individual to have impaired ability to interpret the emotional aspect of facial expressions

reticular formation

LOCATION: - located in the lower part of the brainstem in the hindbrain - distributed throughout the medulla, pons, & midbrain FUNCTION: - involved with/responsible for: - behavioral arousal - motor control - sensory control - control consciousness - flight-or-flight responses - transmission of sensory stimuli to higher brain centers - (remember: "reticularousal") DAMAGED? - if damaged, one may experience: - fatigue - change in sexual arousal - disrupted sleep patterns - coma - even death

thalamus

LOCATION: - part of the forebrain - situated at the top of the brain stem near the center of the brain where fibers extend out of the cerebral cortex - located below the corpus collosum FUNCTION: - this is responsible for transferring information from sensory receptors to the proper areas of the brain where it can be effectively processed - controls four out of the five senses (vision, hearing, taste, & touch) - the only sensory information that is not controlled by the thalamus is the sense of smell DAMAGED? - if damaged, the information from sensory receptors would not be transferred to the proper areas of the brain where this information can be processed - therefore, this sensory information would not be processed and sensory confusion would result from this - one with a damaged thalamus could be expected to be unable to hear, see, taste, or touch

hippocampus

LOCATION: - part of the limbic system - in the brain's medial temporal lobe - near the center of the brain - found in the forebrain FUNCTION: - stores long-term memory - declarative memory: things that can be consciously remembered (facts) - allows one to make new memories - spatial navigation: lets you get to a destination - (remember: "you do a lot of learning and memorization at a college CAMPUS") DAMAGED? - damage to this would cause: - Alzheimer's disease - long-term memory is affected - spatial orientation - problem with spatial navigation - amnesia - hyperactivity - anterograde amnesia (when one cannot form new memories)

cerebellum

LOCATION: - situated at the base of the skull--above the brainstem & beneath the occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex - found in the hindbrain FUNCTION: - known as the "little brain" - mostly related to voluntary movement & coordination - balance - equilibrium - muscle tone - sense of body position DAMAGED? - asynergia: loss of coordination - aysmertria: inability to judge distance & when to stop - weak muscles - movement tremors - slurred speech - inability to perform

cerebral cortex

LOCATION: - the surface of the cerebral hemispheres - found in the cerebrum FUNCTION: - includes the brain areas that control complex mental processes (learning, thinking, remembering, etc.) - covers both hemispheres DAMAGED? - when parts of this are damaged, neural reorganization occurs - example: the blind - parts of the occipital lobe (responsible for sight) begin to help verbal processing

parietal lobe

LOCATION: - upper, back part of the cortex - the portion of the cerebral cortex between the frontal and occipital lobes FUNCTION: - processes sensory information that had to do with taste, temperature, and touch DAMAGED? - "Gerstmann's Syndrome": it includes right-left confusion, difficulty with writing (agraphia), & difficulty with mathematics (acalculia) - it can also produce disorders of language (aphasia) & the inability to perceive objects normally (agnosia)

What does psychology have in common with biology, physics, & economics?

When we refer to a field as being "scientific," it simply means that this field adheres to the scientific method to collect & interpret its data

genetic sex

XX or XY chromosomes

face-blindness

a brain disorder characterized by the inability to recognize faces

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

adaptation

a change or the process of change by which an organism or species becomes better suited to its environment

polygenic trait

a characteristic that is influenced by more than one pair of genes

psychoactive drug

a chemical that can las through the blood-brain barrier into the brain to alter perception, thinking, behavior, & mood, producing a wide-range of effects from mild relaxation or increased alertness to vivid hallucinations

approach-approach conflict

a choice must be made between two attractive goals

avoidance-avoidance conflict

a choice must be made between two unattractive goals

halo effect

a cognitive bias in which one's judgments of a person's character can be influenced by one's overall impression of him or her

passionate love

a complete absorption in another that includes tender, sexual feelings and the agony and ecstasy of intense emotions

sleep

a complex combination of states of consciousness, each with it down level of consciousness, awareness, responsiveness, & physiological arousal

narcolepsy

a condition in which an awake person suddenly and uncontrollably falls into REM sleep

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

instinctive drift

a conditioned response the drifts back toward the natural (instinctive) behavior of the organism

electromyograph (EMG)

a device that measures muscle contractions under the surface of a person's skin

Electrooculograph (EOG)

a device that records eye movements

bulimia nervosa

a disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise

reversible figure

a drawing that is compatible with two interpretations that can shift back and forth

social loafing

a eduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work by themselves

father presence

a father's absence from home can contribute to higher teen sexual activity

the Asch effect

a form of conformity in which a group majority influences individual judgments

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

a graphical record of brain-wave activity obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp and forehead

cohort

a group of people in one age group

adrenaline (epinephrine)

a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, especially in conditions of stress, increasing rates of blood circulation, breathing, and carbohydrate metabolism and preparing muscles for exertion

noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

a hormone that is released by the adrenal medulla and by the sympathetic nerves and functions as a neurotransmitter. It is also used as a drug to raise blood pressure

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue that covers the axon which aides in the speed of neural impulses; the thicker the myelin sheath, the faster the impulse. If the myelin sheath degenerates, it could lead to multiple sclerosis (communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control)

motivation

a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal

prejudice

a negative attitude held toward members of a group

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinphrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline) that help arouse the body in times of stress

biofeedback

a patient guided treatment target teaches an individual to control muscle tension, pain, body temperature, and other bodily functions and processes through relaxation, visualization, and other control techniques

tolerance

a progressive decrease in a person's responsiveness to a drug

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

perpetual set

a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way

CT/CAT (Computed Tomography)

a series of x-ray photographs of the brain taken from different angles and combined by computer to create an image that represents a slice through the brain

attitudes

a set of beliefs & feelings

meditation

a set of techniques that are used to focus concentration away from thoughts & feelings in order to calmness, tranquility, & inner peace

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

a sexually transmitted virus that disables the immune system

sleep apnea

a sleeping disorder characterized by interruptions of normal breathing patterns during sleep or even temporary cessation's of breathing that awaken the sufferer repeatedly during the night

operant chamber (Skinner box)

a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled

daydreaming

a state of consciousness in which a seemingly purposeless flow of thoughts comes to mind

attention

a state of focused awareness

physiological dependence (physiological addiction)

a state of physical dependence on a drug caused by repeated usage that changes body/brain chemistry

longitudinal study

a study that takes a long time (like what developmental psychologists study)

demand characteristics

a subtle cue that makes participants aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave

sterilization

a surgery (vasectomy or tubal ligation) to make a man or woman infertile

grammar

a system of rules in a language that enable us to communicate & understand others

perceptual constancy

a tendency to experience a stable perception in the face of continually changing sensory input

social desirability bias

a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's perconceptions

evolutionary psychology

a theoretical approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological structure from a modern evolutionary perspective

Z Score

a unit that measures the distance of one score from the mean

afterimage

a visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed

body mass index (BMI)

a weight-to-height ratio, calculated by dividing one's weight in kilograms by the square of one's height in meters and used as an indicator of obesity and underweight

plasticity

ability to be molded

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

sensory neurons

afferent neurons

sodium ions (Na+)

although they are present on both sides of the membrane, they are more concentrated in the extracellular fluid

confederate

an actor used in an experiment

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface

angular gyrus

an area of the left occipital lobe that transforms visual representation into an auditory code

perceptual hypothesis

an inference about what form could be responsible for a pattern of sensory stimulation

conditioned taste aversion

an intense dislike & avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning

stereotype

an overgeneralized idea about a group of people

cognition

another term for thinking, knowing, & remembering

stereotype threat

anxiety that influences members of a group concerned that their performance will confirm a negative stereotype

reinforcer

anything that INCREASES a behavior

double standard

applying different rules for judging the appropriateness of male and female sexual behaviors

potassium ions (K+)

are more concentrated in the intracellular fluid

erogenous zones

areas of the body that produce pleasure and/or provoke erotic desires (genitals, breasts, etc.)

libido

biological force/energy

accommodation

change in shape of the lens focus near objects

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

psychoactive drugs

chemical substances that alters mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning

olfactory stimuli

chemical substances that are soluble

taste stimuli

chemical substances that are soluble

sexual abuse

childhood sexual abuse does not cause eating disorders

belief perseverance

clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

cultural roots

collectivist (interdependent) achievement or individualistic (independent/personal) achievement

Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development

consists of 8 stages during which we face an important issue or crisis

axon terminals (terminal buttons)

contain small sacs called synaptic vesicles

cumulative recorder

creates a graphic record of responding & reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time

discriminative stimuli

cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or non-reinforcement) of a response

visual angle

depends on both the size of the object & the distance from the observer

sexual sadism

deriving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain

sexual masochism

deriving sexual pleasure from receiving pain

loudness

determined by the amplitude of a sound wave of vibrating molecules in the air that causes our hair cells to fire

timbre

determined by the complexity of a sound wave of vibrating molecules in the air that causes our hair cells to fire

pitch

determined by the length of a sound wave of vibrating molecules in the air that causes our hair cells to fire

the father

determines the sex of the baby

schedule of reinforcement

determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer

internal attribution

dispositional attribution

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions & the central nervous system

depressants

drugs that tend to slow down the central nervous system

polarized

during the resting state of a neuron when the outside is positively charged and the inside is negatively charged

sex hormones

effect the development of sexual characteristics and (especially in animals) activate sexual behavior

ions

electrically charged atoms

reproduction

enacting a modeled response depends on your ability to reproduce the response by converting your stored mental images into overt behavior

inferiority complex

every child experiences the feelings of inferiority as the result of being surrounded by stronger and more capable adults

reinforcement schedules

every time or just sometimes you see the behavior

negatively skewed distributions

example: - if most students in their class score high on their test but one person, this makes the mean artificially low

positively skewed distributions

example: - if most students in their class score low on their test but one person, this makes the mean artificially high

insecure attachment

example: occurred when the baby monkeys' mothers were present, the babies avoided & ignored their mothers

secured attachment

example: occurred when thereby monkeys were returned to their mothers periodically; therefore, when their mothers had returned from an absence, the babies were happy to see them & receptive to their contact

situational (external) attribution

explains a person's outcome due to something totally unrelated to that person

dispositional (internal) attribution

explains an outcome in relation to one's characteristics

expressive behaviors

expresses or communicates emotion or personal feelings

homophobia

fear of homosexuality

secondary sexual characteristics

features other than genitals and reproductive organs (breasts, facial hair, etc.) that appear at puberty

sexual aversion

feelings of fear, anxiety or disgust about engaging in sex

behavioral genetics

field of scientific research that uses genetic methods to investigate the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior

acquaintance (date) rape

forced intercourse that occurs in the context of a date or other voluntary encounter

nightmares

frightening dreams that occur during REM sleep

fruit flies

genetic engineers can genetically manipulate females to act like males during courtship and males to act like females

the mother

gives the second X chromosome

instrumental behaviors

goal-directed behaviors

psychogenic

having psychological and not physical causes

Carl Jung

he emphasized ancestral thought patterns as the primary determinant of behavior

Alfred Alder

he emphasized social interest as the primary determinant of behavior

Franz Gall

he invented phrenology, an ill-fated theory that claimed bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and our character traits

Ernest Hilgard

he researched hypnosis, especially with regard to pain control

Albert Ellis

he said that altering your appraisal of stress can alter your emotional response

Richard LaPiere

he studied cognitive dissonance

Carl Rogers

he was a behaviorist

Aron Ralston

he was motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock that pinned him down

Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM)

helps to diagnose mental disorders & mental illnesses

family (reason that suggest that homosexuality may be due to genetic factors)

homosexuality seems to run in families

relative size

if 2 objects are the same, the larger one is seen as closer

renewal effect

if a response is extinguished in a different environment than where it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition originally took place

p-value

if this is less than 0.05 (or 5%), then the results of the research are likely due to chance (which means the findings are reliable)

level of arousal

if you are interested/excited by a task, you would want this to high

deindividuation

immersion in a group to the point that one loses a sense of self- awareness and feels lessened responsibility for one's actions

aphasia

impairment of language usually caused by damage to the Broca's Area or the Wernicke's Area

Figure-Ground Principle

in Gestalt psychology it known as identifying a figure from the background

feature detection

in the 3rd step of visual information processing, the brain's detector cels respond to elementary features-bars, edges, or gradients of light

abstraction

in the 4th step of visual information processing, the brain's higher-level cells respond to combined information from feature-detector cells

recognition

in the 5th step of visual information processing, the brain matches the constructed image with the stored images

cognitive consistency

in the cognitive dissonance theory, when beliefs and attitudes are not conflicting (they are consistent)

normal distribution

in this type of distribution, the mean, median, & mode are all the SAME

behavior therapy

in this type of therapy, the therapist's goal is to extinguish unwanted behavior & replace it with more adaptive behavior

Gestalt therapy

in this type of therapy, the therapist's goal is to put clients to decide whether they will allow past conflicts to control their future or whether they will choose right now to take control of their own destiny

withdrawal symptoms

include intense craving for the drug & effects opposite to those the drug usually induces

meta-analysis

indicates that, for cognitive skills, the differences within either gender are large than the differences between the two genders

informational influence

influence that operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences

normative influence

influence that operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences

archetypes

inherited memories or common themes found in all cultures religions, & literature (both ancient & modern)

auditory pathway

inner ear: 1. auditory canal 2. eardrum middle ear: 3. hammer 4. anvil 5. stirrup inner ear: 6. oval window 7. cochlea 8. basilar membrane 9. hair cells

polite smile

involves the contraction of the muscles around the mouth (which raises the corners of the mouth)

phobias

irrational fears of specific objects or situations

synaptic transmission

is chemical in nature

exercise

lack of this is a major contributor to obesity

cognitive roots

learning to attribute achievements to one's own competence, thus raising expectations of oneself

unconsciousness

loss of responsiveness to the environment resulting from disease, trauma, or anesthesia

REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)

marked by potentially troublesome dream enactments during REM periods

affect

means mood

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

measures the different levels of activity in the brain by detecting where a radioactive form of glucose (dye) goes while the brain is performing a given task

weight control

most lost weight is regained

atonia

muscle paralyzation during REM sleep

sexual motivation

nature's clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species to survive

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

impossible figures

objects that can be represented in two-dimensional pictures but cannot exist in three-dimensional space

social learning theory

observational learning + operant conditioning = this

sleepwalking (somnambulism)

occurring during deep sleep, an episode of moving around or walking around in one's sleep

neurotransmission

occurs between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another

frustration

occurs in any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted

non-contingent reinforcement

occurs when a response is accidentally strengthened by a reinforcer that follows it, even though delivery of the reinforcer was not a result of the response

resistance to extinction

occurs when an organism continues to make a response after the delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated

trace conditioning

occurs when the neutral stimulus is presented & then disappears before the unconditional stimulus appears

simultaneous conditioning

occurs when the unconditional stimuli sand the neutral stimulus are paired together at the same time

backward conditioning

occurs when the unconditional stimulus comes before the neutral stimulus

conflict

occurs when two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression

gender identity

one's subjective sense of being male or female

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment, including your own mental processes, thoughts, feelings, & perceptions

gender identity

our sense of being male or female, usually linked to our anatomy & physiology

language

our spoken written or gestured words & the way we combine them to communicate meaning (also includes sign language)

gonadal sex

ovaries or testes

gender role stereotypes

oversimplified beliefs (stereotypes) about what men and women are really like

complementary colors

pairs of colors that produce gray tones when mixed together

out-group

people who are not part of the in-group

mid-life crisis

people who experience anxiety, instability, & change about themselves, their work, & their relationships during this time have a challenging experience sometimes termed as this

color-deficient vision

people who suffer from red-green color-blindness have rouble with perceiving the number within the design

high-achievement motivation

people with this choose goals that are realistic that they can achieve

low-achievement motivation

people with this prefer very easy or very difficult tasks

biological rhythms

periodic physical fluctuations (the menstrual cycle--lasts for 28 days)

how many words do you think you know now?

probably around 80,000

dual processing

processing information on conscious and unconscious levels at the same time

flavor

produced by the interaction between taste & smell

schwann cell

produces myelin

hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

psychoanalysist

psychodynamic psychologist

genotype

refers to a person's genetic makeup

coping

refers to active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress (can be positive or negative)

evaluative conditioning

refers to changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimuli with other positive or negative stimuli

reproductive fitness

refers to the reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population

phenotype

refers to the ways in which a person's genotype is manifested in observable characteristics

hypnagogic state

relaxed state of dreamlike awareness between wakefulness and sleep

religiosity

religious teens and adults often reserve sex for a marital commitment

refractory period

resting state after firing in which the neuron goes back to its polarized resting state

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

bisexual

romantically and erotically attracted to both sexes

heterosexual

romantically and erotically attracted to the opposite sex

homosexual

romantically and erotically attracted to the same sex

egocentric

seeing the world from his or her point of view

masturbation

self-stimulation of the genitals that causes sexual pleasure or orgasm

gender roles

sets of expectations that prescribe how males & males should act, think, & feel

the psychology of sex

sex is not a need because if we do not have sex, we do not die

primary sexual characteristics

sexual and internal reproductive organs

Frotteurism

sexually touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person (usually in a public place like an elevator or subway)

sleep spindles

short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep

external attribution

situational attribution

Stage 2 sleep

sleep spindles & K complexes occur during this stage of sleep

papillae

small protuberances in which taste buds are found on

Do scientists want a big or small standard deviation?

small standard deviation (for better results)

primary olfactory cortex

smell sensations are processed here from the olfactory bulb

ostracism

social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty behavior

unstable attribution

something that can change

experience

something that is external that contributes to who one is as a person

stable attribution

something that will not change

nodes of ranvier

spaces between the myelin sheath

dissociation

split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

vision

stabilized images on the retina

physiology of hunger

stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger

cognitive component of emotion

subjective conscious experience, includes an "appraisal" or evaluation of the situation

hypothalamus

systematically regulates changes in your body temperature, blood pressure, pulse, blood sugar levels, hormonal levels, & activity levels over the course of about a day

avoidance behavior

takes away the aversive stimuli before it begins

escape behavior

takes away the aversive stimulus after it has already started

taste receptors

taste buds (live for about two weeks)

learning programs

teens who volunteer and tutor in programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancy are less likely to engage in unsafe sex

high intelligence

teens with higher intelligence are likely to delay sex

texture gradient

textures are coarser the closer they are

the pygmalion effect

the "Pygmalion effect," also sometimes known as the "Rosenthal effect" for the psychologist credited with discovering it, is a theory teaching that people will act or behave in the way that others expect them to

median

the "middle" number in a set of numbers

depth perception

the ability to perceive spatial relations in 3D

socialization

the acquisition of the norms, roles, and behaviors expected of people in a particular society

compliance

the act or process of doing what you have been asked or ordered to do

neural transmission

the action potential causes information to be transmitted from the axon terminal of one neuron to the dendrite of another by the secretion of chemical messengers, known as neurotransmitters

visual cortex

the area of the occipital lobe that receives visual information from the eyes

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe that receives auditory information from the ears

mean

the average of a group of numbers

selectively permeable

the axon's surface is very selective about what it allows in

social norms

the behavioral expectations and cues within a society or group

ethnocentrism

the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture

artificialism

the belief that all objects are made by people

animism

the belief that all things are living just like him or her

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

basal metabolic rate

the body's base rate of energy expenditure

endorphins

the body's own natural morphine-like painkillers

nervous system

the body's speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

plasticity

the brain's ability to modify itself after tissue damage

social psychology

the branch of psychology concerned with the way individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others

mutation

the changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be transmitted to subsequent generations, caused by the alteration of single base units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of larger sections of genes or chromosomes

reinforcement contingencies

the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers

genome

the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism

object permeance

the concept that states that objects continue to exist even when out of sight

bonding

the creation of a close emotional relationship between the mother (or parents) & the baby shortly after birth

thanatos

the death instinct

incongruence

the difference between our real self & the ideal self

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

actor-observer bias

the discrepancy between attributions for one's own behavior and for that of others

range

the distance from the highest scores to the lowest scores

inattentional blindness

the failure to see visual objects or events because one's attention is focus elsewhere

learned helplessness

the feeling of futility & passive resignation that results from the inability to avoid repeated aversive events

molecular genetics

the field of biology that studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level and thus employs methods of both molecular biology and genetics

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

in-group

the group that a person belong to and identify with

latent content

the hidden, underlying meaning of a dream

matching hypothesis

the idea that males and females of approximately equal physical attraction are likely to select each other as partner

social comparison theory

the idea that people compare themselves with others to understand and evaluate their own behavior

insomnia

the inability to fall asleep and/or stay asleep

dietary concern ("restrained eating")

the intention to restrict food intake deliberately in order to prevent weight gain or to promote weight loss

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language)

nonconscious

the level of consciousness devoted to processes completely inaccessible to conscious awareness, such as blood flow, filtering of the blood my kidneys, secretion of hormones, & lower level processing of sensations, such as detecting edges, estimating doze & distance of objects, recognizing patterns, etc.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

concept of heritability

the likelihood of a gene to passed down

squeeze technique

the method for inhibiting (premature) ejaculation by compressing the tip of the penis

extinction

the moment the conditioned is no longer associated with the unconditional stimulus, this occurs

proportional representation (in the primary motor & somatosensory cortex)

the more sensitive parts of the body take up more space on the sensory cortex

mode

the most frequent number in a set of numbers

interposition

the nearer object overlaps the object farther in the distance

wanting to belong

the need to belong colors our thinking and emotions

sensory integration

the norm in perceptual experience

somatosensory cortex

the part of the brain where the sense of touch is processed

olfactory bulb

the part of the brain which processes smell

obedience

the performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status

the bystander effect

the phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, less likely an individual is to help

diffusion of responsibility

the phenomenon in which the presence of others makes it less likely that any individual will help someone in distress because the obligation to intervene is shared among others

optic chiasm

the pint at which the optic nerves from the inside half of each eye cross over & then project to the opposite half of the brain

collective unconscious

the powerful influential system of the psyche that contains universal memories & ideas that all people have inherited from our ancestors over the course of evolution

hormonal sex

the predominance of androgens or estrogens

androgyny

the presence of desirable masculine & feminine characteristics in the same individual

dark adaptation

the process in which the yes become more sensitive to light in low illumination

feature analysis

the process of detecting specific elements in visual input & assembling them into more complex forms

light adaptation

the process whereby the eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination

individuation

the psychological process by which a person becomes an individual, a unified whole, including conscious & unconscious processes

Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD)

the range between the level at which a chid can solve a problem working alone with difficulty & the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or more-skilled children

manifest content

the recalled dream

limbic system

the region of the brain that controls emotion

receptive field

the retinal area that, when stimulated, affects the firing of that cell

audition

the sense of hearing

olfactory system

the sensory system for smell

gustatory system

the sensory system for taste

acuity

the sharpness of vision

just noticeable difference (JND)

the smallest difference in stimulus intensity that a specific sense can detect

gender

the sociocultural dimension of being biologically male or female

sex drive

the strength of one's motivation to engage in sexual behavior

The Barnum Effect

the tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves & take them to be accurate

conformity

the tendency for people to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and values of other members of a reference group

social facilitation

the tendency for the presence of others to enhance individual performance

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute successful outcomes of one's own behavior to internal causes and unsuccessfulness with external causes

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along

reciprocity

the tendency to return favors that others have extended to us or vice-versa

attractiveness bias

the tendency to see attractive people as more intelligent, moral, competent, and sociable than unattractive people

confirmation bias

the tendency to seek information that supports one's decisions and beliefs while ignoring disconfirming information

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

overconfidence

the tendency to think you know more than you really do

situationism

the theory that individual behavior is a direct response of the social situation

synaptic gap/synaptic cleft

the tiny gap at the synapse in which neurotransmitters cross

frustration-aggression hypothesis

the view that frustration, or failure to reach a certain desired goal due to circumstance, often leads to aggression, or behavior which intends harm

hypercomplex

thee cells respond to movement with an end point

receptors

these are specialized neurons that are activated by stimulation & transduce (convert) it into a nerve impulse

simple cells

these cells respond to light orientation

complex cells

these cells respond to light orientation & movement

pictorial depth cues

these cues are clues about distance that can be given in a flat oicture

social development theories

these investigate influence of others on the development of a person

touch receptors

these receptors lie in varying depths in the skin

identical (monozygotic) twins

these twins emerge from one zygote that splits for unknown reasons

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

these twins result when two eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells, forming two separate zygotes

uninvolved parents

these type of parents make few demands, show low responsiveness, & communicate little with their children

authoritative parents

these type of parents set limits, but explain the reasons for rules with their children & make exceptions when they are appropriate

authoritarian parents

these type of parents set up strict rules, expect their children to follow them, & punish wrongdoing

permissive parents

these type of parents tend to not set firm guidelines, if they set any at all in the first place

long wavelengths

these type of wavelengths (over 700 = infrared) tend to be red

short wavelengths

these type of wavelengths (under 400 = ultraviolet) tend to be blue

body chemistry & environmental factors

they influence not only WHEN we feel hunger but WHAT we feel hungry for

Philip Vogel and Joseph Bogen

they tried to alleviate seizures in epileptic patients by severing the corpus callosum and causing "split brain" patients

Law of Continuity

this Gestalt principle explains why the brain will interpret something as connected, or continuous because we prefer it as to what it really looks like

Law of Connectedness

this Gestalt principle refers to the fact that elements that are connected by uniform visual properties are perceived as being more related than elements that are not connected

Law of Closure

this Gestalt principle suggests that objects grouped together are perceived as a whole

Law of Similarity

this Gestalt principle suggests that things which share visual characteristics such as shape, size, color, texture, value or orientation will be seen as belonging together

Law of Proximity

this Gestalt principle suggests that we perceive objects that are near each other to be grouped together

preconscious

this contains thoughts, memories, feelings, & images that we can easily recall

motivation

this depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe that the response is likely to pay off for you

amplitude

this determines the brightness of a color (how tall the wave is)

color blindness

this encompasses a variety of deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among colors

Little Albert experiment

this experiment introduced a type of classical conditioning known as aversive conditioning

"Running in Place" experiment

this experiment showed that running activates your central nervous system (sympathetic nervous system)

conscious

this includes everything in which we are aware of

visual illusion

this involves an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus & its physical reality

subjective contours

this involves the perception of contours where non actually exist

recessive gene

this is a gene that can be masked by a dominant gene

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

this is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses

mesolimbic dopamine pathway

this is associated with pleasure (cocaine, sex, & food)

saturation

this is determined by the complexity of a wavelength

statistics

this is used to record the results from our studies/ research

biopsychosocial model

this model ascribes gender, gender roles, & gender identity to the interaction of heredity (biology) & environment (including psychological & social-cultural factors)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

this nervous system connects CNS to the limbs and organs, essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between the brain and the extremities

central nervous system (CNS)

this nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord

Ponzo Illusion

this optical illusion suggests that the human mind judges an object's size based on its background

sympathetic nervous system

this part of the autonomic nervous system can accelerate heart rate, widen bronchial passages, constrict blood vessels, increase peristalsis in the oesophagus, cause pupillary dilation, piloerection (goose bumps), & perspiration (sweating), and raise blood pressure

Principle of Smallness

this principle suggests that smaller areas tend to be seen as figures against a larger background

nerve (sensorineural) deafness

this results from damaged to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory neurons

right side of brain

this side of the brain is in-charge of spatial navigation & reasoning

left side of brain

this side of the brain is responsible for language (speech) & logic

hypothesis

this statement expresses a relationship between two variable

Freud's Model of Personality Structure

this structure includes: - the ego - the id - the superego

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development

this theory assigns a significant role to mentors such as parents, teachers, & other students

social learning theory

this theory proposes that people learn from each other

expectancy-value theory

this theory suggests that behavior is a function of the expectancies one has and the value of the goal toward which one is working

opponent-process theory

this theory suggests that the opposing retinal processes enable color vision

auditory nerve

this transmits sound messages through the medulla, pons, & thalamus to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobes

basic research

this type of research explores questions that you may be curious about, but not intended to be immediately used

applied research

this type of research has clear, practical applications

stratified sampling

this type of sampling helps study the effect son participants of the same age, gender, etc.

Positive Z Score

this type of score means a number above the mean

Negative Z Score

this type of score means a number below the mean

independent variable

this variable is whatever is being manipulated in the experiment

models

those who we observe

chronic stressors

threatening events that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent time limit

acute stressors

threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear endpoint

preparedness

through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to their survival as a species, & that behaviors contrary to an animal's natural tendencies are learned slowly or not at all

lesion

tissue destruction that is naturally or experimentally caused to help study regions and functions of the brain

attention

to learn through observation, you must pay attention to another person's behavior & its consequences

thermoreceptors

touch receptors located in the skin which respond to changes in temperature

nocioreceptors

touch receptors located in the skin which respond to painful stimuli

mechanoreceptors

touch receptors located in the skin which respond to skin deformation

genetics

twin studies show that eating disorders are more likely to occur in identical twins rather than fraternal twins

sexual scripts

unspoken mental plans that guide our sexual behavior

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of different structures within the brain

social support

various types of aid and help provided by members of one's social networks

compassionate love

warm, trusting, tolerant affection for another whose life is deeply intertwined with our own

maintaining relationships

we resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones

chameleon effect

we unconsciously mimic others' expressions, postures and voice tones to help us feel what they are feeling

rewards theory of attraction

we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us and we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs

ideal self

what we think society wants us to be

anorexia nervosa

when a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent woman) diets and becomes significantly (>15%) underweight, yet still feeling fat, continues to starve

conservative detection

when a person is less likely to detect a signal but more likely to correctly notice when the stimulus is not there

liberal detection

when a person is more likely to correctly detect a signal but also more likely to falsely detect a signal

instrumental aggression

when aggression is used for a clear purpose (example: football)

linear perspective

when parallel lines converge in the distance

discrimination

when something is so different to the conditioned stimuli so you do not get a conditioned response

generalization

when something is so similar to the conditioned stimulus that you get a conditioned response

subliminal stimuli

when stimuli are detectable less than 50% of the time (below one's absolute threshold)

chaining behaviors

when subjects are taught a number of responses successively in order to get a reward

insight learning

when the solution all of sudden comes to someone

hunger pangs

when the stomach growls when it is empty

free association

when the therapist sits behind the patient & asks him other to say whatever comes to mind to break apart the patient's unconscious

social effects of obesity

when women applicants were made to look overweight, subjects were less willing to hire them

higher-order conditioning/ second-order conditioning

when you make a participant develop another conditioned stimulus for one conditioned response

stereotypes

widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group

social rule

widely shared expectations about how people in certain positions are supposed to behave

reciprocal love/liking

you are more likely to like someone who likes you

retention

you must store a mental representation of what you have witnessed in your memory

family (reason for eating disorders)

younger generations develop eating disorders when raised in families in which weight is an excessive concern

sensorimotor stage

- the first stage of Piaget's cognitive development that occurs from birth to approximately age 2 - when the baby explores the world using his or her senses & motor interactions with objects in the environment

rooting

- the neonate's response of turning his or her head when touched on the cheek & then trying to put the stimulus into his or her mouth - what touches the newborn's cheek is frequently a nipple

accommodation

- the process in which we modify our schemas to fit new information - as babies, we learn through this that not all people fir our schema of "mommy"

basic reflexes of the neonate

- these include: - rooting - sucking - swallowing - grasping (gripping) effect - startle effect (moro effect) - the Babinski Reflex

neuropsychologists

- these psychologists explore the relationships between brain/nervous systems & behavior - they are also called biological psychologists or biopsychologists, behavioral geneticists, physiological psychologists, & behavioral neuroscientists

psychometricians

- these psychologists focus on methods for acquiring & analyzing psychological data - they are sometimes called psychometric psychologists or measurement psychologists

embryonic period

- this stage of prenatal development occurs from the third week through the eighth week following conception - during this stage, organs start to develop as a result of differentiation & specialization of cells - the placenta, umbilical cord, & other structures start to form from the outer cells of the embryo - as organs develop, the embryo is particularly sensitive to environmental stimuli such as chemicals & viruses - by the end of the eighth week of prenatal development, the embryo has a head with distinctively formed eyes, limbs, & a skeleton composed of cartilage

sports psychologists

these psychologists help athletes refine their focus competition goals, increase motivation, & deal with anxiety & fear of failure

Evolutionary Perspective

- focuses on Darwinism - we behave the way we do because we inherited those behaviors from our ancestors - thus, those behaviors must have helped ensure our ancestors' survival

B.F. Skinner

- he believed that one could learn how to behave/act - he demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive consequences & not to repeat responses that lead to negative consequences - he lived in the 1900s

Joseph Gall

- he would go around & feel people's heads for bumps on their skulls (phrenology) - he lived in the 1800s

menopause

- the cessation of the ability to reproduce in women - occurs in female at around the age of 50 - this is accompanied by the decrease of the production of female sex hormones

neonates

"newborn babies"

Why were Margaret Floy Washburn & Francis Cecil Sumner important to the field of psychology?

- Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to earn her degree in psychology - Francis Cecil Sumner was the first African-American to earn his degree in psychology

retrospective study

- a case study that investigates development in one person at a time - a researcher interviews an individual at the older end of the age span of interest - this type of study is not always accurate because memory is not always accurate - this study may not be generalizable to a larger population

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

- a cluster of abnormalities that occurs in babies of mother who drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy - characteristics of children with this: - low intelligence - a small head with a flat face - misshapen eyes - a flat nose - a thin upper lip - intellectual impairment (from minor learning disabilities to sever intellectual disability)

zygote

- a fertilized ovum (egg) with the genetic instructions for a new individual normally contained in 46 chromosomes (23 from the egg & 23 from the sperm)

continuity

- a gradual, cumulative change from conception to death - behaviorists who favor this focus on quantitative changes in number or amount (height, weight, etc.)

eclecticism

- about variety - psychologists pick & choose what theorist to use depending on the situation, client, or specific type of behavior they are researching - use of techniques & ideas from a variety of approaches

Biopsychology (Neuroscience) Perspective

- all of your feelings & behaviors have an organic root - in other words, they come from your brain, body chemistry, neurotransmitters, etc.

John Locke believed:

- at birth the mind is a blank slate on which experience writes - this idea helped form modern empiricism (we can observe this learning taking place) - he lived around 1650

maturation

- biological growth processes that bring about orderly changes in behavior, though, or physical growth - relatively unaffected by experience

stability vs. change

- deals with the issue of whether or not personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the life span - psychoanalysts believe that personality traits developed in the first 5 years can predict adult personality - change theorists believe personalities are modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, & acculturation

zygotic period

- during the first 2 weeks following conception, the zygote divides again & again forming first a hollow ball of cells that buries itself into the wall of the uterus - then, a three-layered inner cell mass surrounded by outer cells attach to the uterine lining

fetal period

- during this stage of prenatal development: - the organ systems begin to interact - bone replaces cartilage in the skeleton - sex organs & sense organs become more refined

Cognitive Perspective

- focuses on how we think (or encode information) - how do we see the world? - how did we learn to act to happy or sad events? - cognitive theratpists attempt to change the way you think - focuses on our perception - important cognitive psychologists: - Jean Piaget (studied cognitive development in children) (1900s)

Behavioral Perspective

- focuses on observable behaviors while putting feelings to the side - we behave in ways in ways because we have been conditioned to do so - to change behaviors, we have to recondition the client - stated that behavior is determined mainly by environment & experience rather than by genetic inheritance - important behaviorists: - Ivan Pavlov (paved the way for behaviorism in the early 1900s) - John B. Watson (mid 1900s) - B.F. Skinner (1900s) - E.L. Thorndike (late 1800s-mid 1900s)

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective

- focuses on the unconscious mind - we repress many of our true feelings & are not aware of them - inorder to get better, we must bring forward the true feelings we have in our unconscious - important psychoanylisists: - Sigmund Freud (early 1900s)

G. Stanley Hall

- he coined the term "adolescence" - he studied adolescent psychology - he started the very first American Psychology Journal - he was the first president of the American Psychological Association - he lived in the late 1800s

William James

- he founded functionalism - he was the father of American psychology - functionalism focused on how behavioral processes function--how they enable organisms to adapt, survive, & flourish - this paved the way for evolutionary psychology - he lived in the ate 1800s

Signmund Freud

- he founded psychoanalysis/psychodynamic - his psychoanalysis theory focused on unconscious internal conflicts to explain mental disorders, personality, & motivation - he thought that "the unconscious" is the source of desires, thoughts, & memories below surface of conscious awareness and that early life experiences are important to personality development

Wundt

- he founded structuralism - he is thought to be the father of psychology - he opened the first psychology lab in at the University of Leipzig in Germany - he used introspection (looking in to explore the elemental structure of the human mind) - he paved the way for cognitive psychology - he lived in the late 1800s

Jean Piaget

- he was a Swiss psychologist - he recognized that children think differently from adults - he thought that certain cognitive structures were innate, but only through a child's interaction with the environment could they grow & develop over time - he emphasized maturation (nature) & cognitive development in stages (discontinuity)

Martin Seligman

- he was known for "positive psychology" ("the scientific study of what makes life most worth living" or "the scientific study of positive human functioning & flourishing on multiple levels that include the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, & global dimensions of life") - he has done work in the late 1900s and is still alive

Babinski Reflex

- if the inner sole of a neonate's foot is stroked, then the neonate would curl his or her toes - while if a the outer sole of neonate's foot is stroked, then the toes would spread out

fetus

- in humans, the term for the developing organism between the embryonic stage and birth - the term that describes when the developing individual begins to resemble a human - the developing human organism from about 9 weeks after conception to birth

cohort-sequential study

- in this study, cross-sectional groups are assessed at least two times over a span of months or years, rather than just once - results from one cohort are then compared with other cohorts at the same age to evaluate their similarity - differences indicate a cohort effect - in using this, researchers can separate age-related changes from cohort effects - this study shares disadvantages with longitudinal research, but to a lesser extent

cross-sectional study

- in this type of study, researchers assess developmental changes with respect to a particular factor by evaluating different age groups of people at the same time - example: to study life span changes in mathematical skills, psychologists could give the same math test to groups of 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, 65, and 75-year-olds at the same time - this study can be invalid if a cohort is significantly different in their experiences from other age groups, resulting the cohort effect

Biopsychosocial Model

- integrates biological processes, psychological factors, & social forces to provide a more complete picture of behavior & mental processes - this model is a unifying theme in modern psychology

Plato & Socrates believed:

- knowledge & the mind are "entirely distinct from the body" & thus able to survive its death - some ideas are innate--we are born with them - they lived around 350

Aristotle believed:

- knowledge was not preexisting - knowledge grows from experience that is stored in our memories - "we were born with a mind with a bank slate" - lived around 350

Psychology's Big Three Debates

- nature vs. nurture (environment vs. genetic make-up) - stability vs. change - continuity vs. discontinuity

secondary sex characteristics

- non-reproductive features associated sexual maturity: - hips - breasts - facial hair - muscles - Adam's apple - deep voice - pubic hair - underarm hair

Humanist Perspective

- peaked in the late 1960s and 1970s - focused on spirituality & free will - we have to strive to be the best we can be ("self-actualization") - happiness is defined by the distance between our "self-concept" & our "ideal self" - humanists believe that people have the ability to save their own problems - important humanists: - Abraham Maslow (1900s) - Carl Rogers (1900s)

puberty

- sexual maturation marked by the onset of the ability to reproduce - during this period, reproductive organs start producing mature sex cells & external genitals (vulva & penis) grow - secondary sex characteristics also grow during this period (widening of hips & breast development in females, growth of facial hair, muscular growth, development of the Adam's apple, & deepening of the voice in males, and growth of pubic hair & underarm hair in both)

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor stage 2. pre-operational stage 3. concrete operations; stage 4. formal operational stage

Gestalt Psychology was founded by:

Max Wertheimer

Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic was founded by:

Sigmund Freud

trephination

the act of putting holes in people's skulls to let out evil spirits

sucking

the automatic response of drawing in anything at the mouth

prenatal period

the developmental period between conception and birth

assimilation

the process in which we fit new information into our existing schemas

psychology

the study of behavior & the mind

industrial/organizational psychologists

these psychologists aim to improve productivity & the quality of work life by applying psychological principles & methods to the workplace

engineering psychologists

these psychologists along with human factors psychologists promote the development & application of psychology to improve technology, consumer products, energy systems, communication & information, transportation, decision making, work settings, and living environments

forensic psychologists

these psychologists apply psychological principles to legal issues

school psychologists

these psychologists assess & counsel students, consult with educators & parents, and perform behavioral intervention when necessary

health psychologists

these psychologists concentrate on biological, psychological, & social factors involved in health & illness

clinical psychologists

these psychologists evaluate & treat mental, emotional, & behavioral disorders

personality psychologists

these psychologists focus on aspects of the individual such as traits, attitudes, & goals

social psychologists

these psychologists focus on how a person's mental life & behavior are shaped by interactions with other people

educational psychologists

these psychologists focus on how effective teaching & learning take place