APUSH Ch 1-40

red scare (1919-1920)

- A period of intense anticommunism - The "Palmer raids" of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer resulted in about 6,000 deportations of people suspected of "subversive" activities - Helpful to conservative businesspeople, who used it to break developing unions

initiative

- A progressive reform measure allowing voters to petition to have a law placed on the general ballot - Like the referendum and recall, it brought democracy directly "to the people" and helped foster a shift toward interest group politics and away from old political "machines"

Frederick W. Taylor

- A prominent inventor and engineer who developed "scientific management," a system of shop-floor organization that stressed efficient, highly supervised labor management and production methods - His methods revolutionized manufacturing across the industrialized world

Teller Amendment (1898)

- A proviso to President William McKinley's war plans that proclaimed to the world that when the US had overthrown Spanish misrule, it would give Cuba its freedom - The amendment testified to the apparent "anti-imperialist" designs of the initial war plans

Francis E. Townsend

- A retired physician who had lost his savings in the Great Depression and promoted a plan, popular with senior citizens, to pay every person over sixty years of age $200 a month, provided that the money was spent within the month - One estimate had the scheme costing 1/2 of the national income

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

- A sentimental triumph of the 1920s peace movement - Linked 62 nations in the supposed "outlawry of war" - Delusory because it still allowed defensive wars - Lured Americans into a false sense of security

Wilderness Campaign (1864-1865)

- A series of brutal clashes between Ulysses S. Grant's and Robert E. Lee's armies in Virginia, leading up to Grant's capture of Richmond in April of 1865 - Having lost Richmond, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse

Open Door note (1899-1900)

- A set of diplomatic letters in which Secretary of State John Hay urged the great powers to respect Chinese rights as well as free and open competition within their spheres of influence - Notes established the "Open Door policy," which sought to ensure access to the Chinese market for the United States, despite the fact that it did not have a formal sphere of influence in China

Lochner v. New York (1905)

- A setback for labor reformers - Supreme Court decision that invalidated a state law establishing a 10 hour day for bakers - Held that the "right to free contract" was implicit in the due process clause of the 14th amendment - The reformist progressive wave eventually led the Court to uphold a 10 hour law for factory workers in 1917

Beat Generation (1950s-1960s)

- A small coterie of mid 20th c. bohemian writers and personalities, including Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William S. Burroughs - Bemoaned bourgeois conformity and advocated free-form experimentation in life and literature

Miranda warning (1966)

- A statement of an arrested person's constitutional rights, which police officers must read during an arrest - Came out of the Supreme Court's decision in Miranda v. Arizona in 1966 that accused people have the right to remain silent, consult an attorney, and enjoy other protections - The Court declared that law enforcement officers must make sure suspects understand their constitutional rights, thus creating a safeguard against forced confessions and self-implication

Pullman Strike (1894)

- A strike by railroad workers upset by drastic wage cuts who paralyzed railway traffic from Chicago to the Pacific coast - Strike led by socialist Eugene Debs but not supported by the American Federation of Labor - Eventually President Grover Cleveland intervened, and federal troops forced an end to the strike - Highlighted both divisions within labor and the government's new willingness to use armed force to combat work stoppages

Tweed Ring (1869-1871)

- A symbol of Gilded Age corruption - "Boss" Tweed and his deputies ran the New York City Democratic party in the 1860s and swindled $200 million from the city through bribery, graft, and vote-buying - Tweed was eventually jailed for his crimes and died behind bars

Fordism

- A system of assembly-line manufacturing and mass production named after Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Company and developer of the Model T car - Methods were very economical and allowed Ford to sell the Model T at an affordable price - Was popular outside the US as well, like in Germany

Scientific Management

- A system of industrial management created and promoted in the early 20th c. by Frederick W. Taylor - Emphasized stopwatch efficiency to improve factory performance - The system gained immense popularity across the US and Europe

Eugene V. Debs

- A tireless socialist leader who organized the American Railway Union in the Pullman Strike in 1894 - Later convicted under WWI's Espionage Act in 1918 and sentenced to 10 years in a federal penitentiary - A frequent presidential candidate on the Socialist Party ticket, in 1920 he won over 900,000 votes campaigning for president from his prison cell

Freedom Summer (1964)

- A voter registration drive in Mississippi spearheaded by a coalition of civil rights groups - The campaign drew the activism of thousands of black and white civil rights workers, many of whom were students from the North - Was marred by the abduction and murder of three such workers at the hands of white racists

Middle passage

- A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies - 20 % death rate, slaves were branded and bound before going to auction blocks to be sold

League of Nations (1919)

- A world organization of national governments proposed by President Woodrow Wilson and established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 - It worked to facilitate peaceful international cooperation - Despite emotional appeals by Wilson, isolationists' objections to the League created the major obstacle to American signing of the Treaty of Versailles

A. Mitchell Palmer

- A zealous prosecutor and anti-red (anti-Communist) - Served as Attorney General during the post WWI "red scare," when thousands of foreign nationals were deported because of suspected subversive activities

Nine-Power Treaty (1922)

- Agreement coming out of the Washington "Disarmament" Conference of 1921-1922 that pledged GB, France, Italy, Japan, the US, China, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Belgium to abide by the Open door policy in China - The Five-Power Naval Treaty on ship ratios and the Four-Power Treaty to preserve the status quo in the Pacific also came out of the conference

Three-fifths compromise

- Agreement that each slave counted as three-fifths of a person in determining representation in the House for representation and taxation purposes (negated by the 13th amendment)

Maine (1898)

- American battleship dispatched to keep a "friendly" watch over Cuba in early 1898 - It mysteriously blew up in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898, with a loss of 260 sailors - Later evidence confirmed that the explosion was accidental, resulting from combustion in one of the ship's internal coal bunkers - But many Americans, eager for war, insisted that it was the fault of a Spanish submarine mine and called for war against Spain

Rachel Carson

- American conservationist whose 1962 book "Silent Spring" galvanized the modern environmental movement that gained significant traction in the 1970s

George Rogers Clark

- American frontiersman who captured a series of British forts along the Ohio River (1778-1779) using surprise attacks - Success might have forced British to cede the region north of the Ohio River to the US in Paris

Oliver Hazard Perry

- American naval officer whose decisive victory over a British fleet on Lake Erie during the War of 1812 reinvigorated American morale and paved the way for William Henry Harrison's victory at the Battle of Thames in 1813

James Fenimore Cooper

- American novelist and a member of New York's Knickerbocker Group - Wrote adventure tales, including The Last of the Mohicans, which won acclaim on both sides of the Atlantic - Deepest theme was the viability and destiny of America's republican experiment

Stephen W. Kearney

- American officer during the Mexican-American War, who led a detachment of troops into New Mexico, capturing Santa Fe

Edgar Allen Poe

- American poet and author of Gothic horror short stories, including "The Fall of the House of Usher," which reflected a distinctly morbid sensibility for Jacksonian America, in contrast to the usually optimistic American culture

Patriots

- American rebels who supported the Revolution - AKA whigs - Most numerous in New England where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished

Patrick Henry

- American revolutionary and champion of states' rights - Prominent antifederalist during the ratification debate, opposing what he saw as despotic tendencies in the new national constitution

New lights

- Defended the Awakening for revitalizing American religion

John Trumbull

- Aspiring Connecticut painter who was forced to travel to London to pursue his ambitions b/c of the lack of American art inspiration

William III & Mary II

- Both Protestant - William was Dutch and Mary was English, daughter of James II - Rose to power during the Glorious Revolution

William Howe

- British general who, despite victories on the battle field, failed to deal a crushing blow to Washington's Continental army - By attacking Philadelphia instead of reinforcing General Burgoyne at Saratoga, Howe also inadvertently contributed to that crucial American victory

King George III

- British monarch during the run- up to the American Revolution - contributed to the imperial crisis with his insistence on asserting Britain's power over her colonial possessions

James G. Blaine

- American statesman who served in the House 13 years (1863-1876), followed by a little over four years in the Senate (1876-1881) - Served as Speaker of the House from 1869 to 1875 - As Secretary of State under James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur, Blaine advocated a "Big Sister" policy of United States domination in Latin America

Henry David Thoreau

- American transcendentalist and author of "Walden: Or life in the Woods." - Committed idealist, nonconformist, and abolitionist - Advocated civil disobedience, spending a night in jail for refusing to pay a poll tax to a government that supported slavery

World's Columbian Exposition (1893)

- Americans saw this world's fair, held in Chicago, as their opportunity to claim a place among the world's most "civilized" societies, meaning the countries of western Europe - Honored the 400th anniversary of Columbus's first voyage - Fair honored art, architecture, and science, and its promoters built a mini-city in which to host the fair that reflected all the ideals of city planning popular at the time - For many, this was the high point of the City Beautiful movement

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) (1972)

- An amendment that declared full constitutional equality for women - Although it passed both houses of Congress in 1972, a well-organized grassroots campaign by antifeminists led by Phyllis Schafly persuaded enough state legislatures to vote against ratification - The amendment failed to become part of the Constitution

Tampico Incident (1914)

- An arrest of American soldiers by the Mexican government that spurred Woodrow Wilson to dispatch the American navy to seize the post of Veracruz in April 1914 - Although war was avoided, tensions grew between the US and Mexico

Free Soil Party (1848-1854)

- Antislavery party in the 1848 and 1852 elections that opposed the extension of slavery into the territories - Argued that the presence of slavery would limit opportunities for free laborers - Precursor to the Republican Party

Sedition Act

- Anyone who impeded the policies or falsely defame its officials would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment - Made in response to verbal violence but violated the First Amendment - Another Federalist act to clamp down on Jeffersonians - Supreme Court was all Federalists who didn't declare it unconstituional - Set to expire in 1801 in case the Federalists lost the election

Maximilian

- Archduke of Austria - Became emperor of Mexico in 1864, installed by French Emperor Napoleon III - Well-intentioned but hapless, and he saw his government collapse in 1867 when the French withdrew their support under pressure from the US

Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922)

- Comprehensive bill passed to protect domestic production from foreign competitors - Wanted to boost tariffs from the Underwood Tariff levels to rates of Taft's Payne-Aldrich bill of 1909 - Example of Harding's pro-business inclinations because he passed more legislation raising tariffs than lowering them - As a direct result, many European nations were spurred to increase their own trade barriers

Declaration of Independence

- Formal pronouncement of independence by Thomas Jefferson and approved by Congress - Allowed Americans to appeal for foreign aid and served as an inspiration for several other revolutionary movements

Constitutional Union Party (1860)

- Formed by moderate Whigs and Know-Nothings in an effort to elect a compromise candidate and avert a sectional crisis - Nominated John Bell of Tennessee for the Presidency

Capitalism

- Formed by the richness of Spain from the influx of silver - Transformed the world economy

Harry L. Hopkins

- Former New York social worker who came to be one of the major architects of the New Deal - Headed the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and Works Progress Administration, and served as a personal confidant to President Roosevelt

William McKinley

- Former Republican Congressman from Ohio who won the presidency in 1896 and again in 1900 - Was pro-business, conservative, and unwilling to trouble the waters by voicing unpopular opinions - Gained most of his support in the election of 1896 from the populous East and the upper Mississippi Valley

Reform Bill of 1867

- Granted suffrage to all male British citizens, dramatically expanding the electorate - The success of the American democratic experiment, reinforced by the Union victory in the Civil War, was used as one of the arguments in favor of the bill - Made Britain a true political democracy

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

- Harvard professor of modern languages and popular mid 19th c poet - Won broad acclaim in Europe for his poetry

George Pickett

- Confederate general who led the bold but ill-fated charge against union forces at Gettysburg - Was the "high tide of the Confederacy" because it defined both the northernmost point reached by any significant Southern force and the last real chance for the Confederates to win the war

Chesapeake affair (1807)

- Conflict between GB and the US that precipitated the 1807 embargo - Developed when a British ship, in search of deserters, fired on the American Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia and extracted sailors - Fueled American rage against GB

Freedmen's Bureau (1865-1872)

- Created by Congress to aid newly emancipated slaves by providing food, clothing, medical care, education, and legal support - Its achievements were uneven and depended largely on the quality of local administrators - Achieved greatest success in education, teaching many slaves to read - Led by Oliver O. Howard, a Union general and a sympathetic friend of blacks

Dominion of New England (1686)

- Created by royal authority and imposed from London - Included New England as well as New York and East and West Jersey - Goal was to improve colonial defense from Indians as well as promote the Navigation Laws

War hawks (1811-1812)

- D-R congressmen who pressed Madison to declare war on GB - Largely drawn from the South and West, the war hawks resented British constraints on American trade and accused the British of supporting Indian attacks against American settlements on the frontier

Horace Kallen

- Early 20th c. philosopher who wrote against the grain of "one-hundred-per-cent" Americanism, celebrating ethnic diversity and advocated for the right of newcomers to practice their ancestral customs - Thought that the US should provide a safe place for ethnic and racial groups to preserve their cultural identity - Essays left behind an important legacy for later writers on pluralism and civil rights

Francis Parkman

- Early American historian who wrote a series of volumes on the imperial struggle between Britain and France in North America - "Made in New England" interpretation dominated the writing fo American history until the close of the 19th c

Phillis Wheatley

- Enslaved African-born girl who was never formally educated who grew up to write poetry

Stephen Austin

- Est. the first major Anglo settlements in Texas under an agreement with the Mexican government - Loyal to Mexico, but also advocated for local Texans' rights, particularly the right to bring slaves into the region (which Mexico prohibited) - Briefly imprisoned by Santa Anna for inciting rebellion, but returned to Texas in 1836 to serve as secretary of state of the newly-independent republic until his death later that year

Agricultural Marketing Act (1929)

- Established the Federal Farm Board, a lending bureau for hard-pressed farmers - Also aimed to help farmers help themselves through new producers' cooperatives - As the depression worsened in 1930, the Board tried to bolster falling prices by buying up surpluses, but it was unable to cope with the flood of farm produce to market

Payne-Aldrich Bill (1909)

- Intended to lower tariff rates, but was eventually revised beyond all recognition by senatorial reactionaries, retaining high rates on most imports - President Taft angered the progressive wing of his party when he declared it "the best bill that the Republican Party ever passed"

Albany Congress (1754)

- Intercolonial congress (7/13 colony delegates showed up) originally intended to keep the Iroquois tribes loyal to the British (gave the chiefs lots of presents and guns) - Also to achieve greater colonial unity and unite against France - Adopted a plan of colonial home rule but the colonies thought it was too little freedom and London thought it was too much

Cyrus McCormick

- Inventor of the McCormick mower-reaper, a horse-drawn contraption that fueled the development of large-scale agriculture in the trans-Allegheny West (midwest)

John Deere

- Inventor of the steel plow, which revolutionized farming in the Midwest, where fragile wooden plows had failed to break the thick soil - Light enough to be pulled by horses

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) (est. 1938)

- Investigatory body established in 1938 to root out "subversion" - Sought to expose communist influence in American government and society, in particular through the trial of Alger Hiss

Battle of Buena Vista (1847)

- Key American victory against Mexican forces in the Mexican War - Americans were greatly outnumbered but were able to repel Santa Anna's forces - Elevated General Zachary Taylor to national prominence and helped secure his success in the 1848 presidential election

Battle of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson (February 1862)

- Key victory for Union general Ulysses S. Grant - Secured the North's hold on Kentucky and paved the way for Grant's attacks deeper into Tennessee as well as Georgie and the heart of Dixie

Louis XVI

- King of France from 1774-1792 - Was beheaded with Queen Marie Antoinette during the French Revolution - FR tried to put constitutional shackles on him which he didn't like

Adkins v. Children's Hospital (1923)

- Landmark Supreme Court decision reversing the ruling in Muller v. Oregon, which had declared women to be deserving of special protection in the workplace - Ruled that since women had the vote and were legal equals of men, they could no longer be protected by special legislation

Roe v. Wade (1973)

- Landmark Supreme Court decision that forbade states from barring abortion by citing a woman's constitutional right to privacy - Seen as a victory for feminism and civil liberties by some, the decision provoked a strong counterreaction by opponents to abortion, galvanizing the pro-life movement

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)

- Landmark Supreme Court decision that overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and abolished racial segregation in public schools - The Court reasoned that "separate" was inherently "unequal," rejecting the foundation of the Jim Crow system of racial segregation in the South - Decision was the first major step toward the legal end of racial discrimination and a major accomplishment for the civil rights movement

Voting Rights Act of 1965

- Legislation pushed through Congress by President Johnson that prohibited ballot-denying tactics, such as literacy tests and intimidation - Was a successor to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and sought to make racial disenfranchisement explicitly illegal

Primogeniture

- Laws stating that only eldest sons were eligible to inherit landed estates

Common law

- Laws that originate from court rulings and customs as opposed to legislative statues - US Constitution grew out of this and thus provided only a general organizational framework for the new federal government

Alice Paul

- Leader of the National Woman's party - Was a Quaker activist - Demonstrated against "Kaiser Wilson" with marches and hunger strikes

Clara Barton

- Massachusetts-born teacher and philanthropist who served as a nurse with the Union Army during the Civil War - After the war she became involved with the newly-formed International Red Cross, serving as the 1st president of the American branch from 1882 to 1904

James Wilkinson

- Military governor of the Louisiana Territory who conspired with Aaron Burr to separate from the US and ally with the Spanish-controlled areas of the Americas

Contract with America (1994)

- Multipoint program offered by Republican candidates and sitting politicians in the 1994 midterm election - Platform proposed smaller government, congressional ethic reform, term limits, great emphasis on personal responsibility, and a general repudiation of the Democratic party - This articulation of dissent was a significant blow to the Clinton administration and led to the Republican party's takeover of both houses of Congress for the first time in half a century

Checkers Speech (1952)

- Nationally televised address by vice-presidential candidate Richard Nixon during which he defended himself against allegations of corruption - Using the mass medium of television shortly before the 1952 election, the vice-presidential candidate saved his place on the ticket by saying the only campaign gift he received was a cocker spaniel named Checkers - Television became a formidable political tool

Louisa May Alcott

- New England-born author of popular novels for adolescents, most notably "Little Women"

Allen Ginsberg

- New Jersey-born poet who served as spokesman of the Beat Generation - The 1956 publication of his "Howl and Other Poems" sparked a San Francisco literary renaissance and a local obscenity trail that brought nationwide publicity to the bohemian Beat movement

Erie Canal (1825)

- New York State canal that linked Lake Erie to the Hudson River - Dramatically lowered shipping costs, fueling an economic boom in upstate NY and increasing the profitability of farming in the Old NW

Old lights

- Orthodox clergymen who were skeptical of the emotional and theatrical revivialists

Manuel Noriega

- Panamanian general and dictator from 1983-1989 - Was ousted from power after the U.S. invasion in late 1989, convicted in the US of drug trafficking, and imprisoned in Miami, Florida

Ida Tarbell

- Pioneering journalist who published a devastating but factual exposé of the Standard Oil Company - Her father had been ruined by the oil interests - The most eminent woman in the muckraking movement

Valley Forge

- Place where Washington's army spent the winter of 1777-1778, a 1/4 of troops died here from disease and malnutriton, Steuben comes and trains troops - Lack of food and clothes plagued the colonists

George G. Meade

- Union general who led the Army of the Potomac to victory against Lee's forces at Gettysburg - Meade, unable to stomach the immense human costs of . his victory, refused to pursue Lee back across the Potomac, and thus lost his post to Ulysses S. Grant shortly thereafter

George Whitefield

- Used extraordinary public speaking skills to spread message of human helplessness and divine omnipotence

minstrel shows

- Variety shows performed by white actors in blackface - First popularized in the mid 19th c.

Nat Turner's Rebellion (1831)

- Virginia slave revolt that resulted in the death of 60 whites (mostly women and children) and raised fears among white southerners of further uprisings - Was quickly extinguished by bloody retaliation

Farewell Adress (1796)

- Washington's printed address at the end of his presidency - Warned against "permanent alliances" with other nations - Didn't oppose all alliances, but believed that the young nation should forge alliances only on a temporary basis only for extreme emergencies == Important because it set the precedent for 2 term presidency limit

Charles Francis Adams

- Whig politician and foreign minister to GB during the Civil War - Adams intervened in 1863 to prevent a British firm from selling laird rams to the Confederacy

Monica Lewinsky

- White House intern with whom President Bill Clinton had an extra-marital affair in the late 1990s - Was the center of a protracted scandal during the second Clinton term

Hiawatha

- one of two men who persuaded five nations to unite and work together as a group.

Squatters

- Poor farmers in North Carolina and elsewhere who occupied land and raised crops without gaining legal title to the soil and without slaves

Era of Good Feelings (1815-1819)

- Popular name for the period of 1-party, Republican, rule during Monroe's presidency - The term obscures bitter conflicts over internal improvements, slavery, and the national bank

Pet Banks (1833)

- Popular term for pro-Jackson state banks that received the bulk of federal deposits when Andrew Jackson moved to dismantle the Bank of the US in 1833 - Flooded the country with paper money

Jacobus Arminius

- Preached that individual free will, not God's decree, determined fate and that a person could be saved if they accepted God's grace

Truman Doctrine (1947)

- President Truman's universal pledge of support for any people fighting any communist or communist-inspired threat - Truman presented the doctrine to Congress in 1947 in support of his request for $400 million to defend Greece and Turkey against Soviet-backed insurgencies, which they granted

Turnpike

- Privately funded, toll-based public road constructed in the early 19th c. to facilitate commerce - ==> increased westward movement and development

Nicola Sacco

- Shoe-factory worker and Italian anarchist convicted in 1921 of the murder of a Massachusetts factory paymaster and his guard - Despite a worldwide public outcry, he was electrocuted in 1927

Dwight D. "Ike" Eisenhower

- Supreme Commander of US forces in Europe during WWII - Was a war hero and later became the 34th POTUS - During his two terms, from 1952-1960, Eisenhower presided over the economically prosperous 1950s - Was praised for his dignity and decency, though criticized for not being more assertive on civil rights

Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)

- Supreme Court case that sustained Dartmouth University's original charter against changes proposed by the New Hampshire state legislature, thereby protecting corporations from domination by state governments - Marshall reasoned that the original charter was a contract, and the Constitution protected contracts against state encroachments - Created a precedent that enabled chartered org's to escape the handcuffs of needed public control

Jim Crow Laws (1890s)

- System of racial segregation in the American South from the end of Reconstruction until the mid-twentieth century - Based on the concept of "separate but equal" facilities for blacks and whites - Sought to prevent racial mixing in public, including restaurants, movie theaters, and public transportation - An informal system, it was generally perpetuated by custom, violence, and intimidation

Patronage

- System prevalent during the Gilded Age in which political parties granted jobs and favors to party regulars who delivered votes on election day - Patronage was both an essential wellspring of support for both parties and a source of conflict within the Republican party

William Walker

- Tennessee-born adventurer who made several forays into Central America in the 1850s - After an unsuccessful ploy to take over Baja California in 1853, Walker ventured into Nicaragua, installing himself as President in 1856 - Dream of establishing a planter aristocracy in the Central American nation faltered when neighboring Central American nations allied against him - Met his fate before a Honduran firing squad in 1860

boll weevils

- Term for conservative southern Democrats who voted increasingly for Republican issues during the Carter and Reagan administrations - Strengthened Reagan's political hand

H. Ross Perot

- Texas billionaire businessman who ran populist campaigns for the presidency in 1992 and 1996 - Focused on the issue of the federal deficit and bragged about how he had never held public office - in 1992, he garnered 19% of the popular vote, probably throwing the election to Bill Clinton - His campaigns represented anti-establishment sentiment and desires for "common sense" governance

Goliad (1836)

- Texas outpost where American volunteers, having laid down their arms and surrendered, were massacred by Mexican forces - This incident, along with the slaughter at the Alamo, fueled American support for Texan independence

Henry Ford

- The "Father of the Traffic Jam" - Developed the Model T Ford and pioneered its assembly-line production - As founder of the Ford Motor Company, he became one of the wealthiest men in the world - Built his immense personal empire on his mechanical genius, though his associates provided much of the organizational skills

Sandra Day O'Connor

- The first female justice on the Supreme Court - A graduate of Stanford Law School, she served as an attorney, jurist, and politician in Arizona before being appointed to the Supreme Court by President Reagan in 1981 - On the bench, she was known as a moderate, frequently casting crucial swing votes in important cases - Retired in 2005

Hundred Days (1933)

- The first hundred days of FDR's administration, stretching from March 9 to June 16, 1933 - An unprecedented number of reform bills were passed by a democratic Congress to launch the New Deal - Owed much to the legacy of the pre-WWI progressive movement

Battle of Château-Thierry (1918)

- The first significant engagement of American troops in WWI, and in any European war - To weary French soldiers, the American doughboys were an image of fresh and gleaming youth - Example of how the United States had assumed the role Russia previously held

Tariff of 1816

- The first tariff in American history instituted primarily for protection, not revenue - Created primarily to shield NE manufacturers from the influx of British goods after the War of 1812 - Not enough to provide completely adequate safeguards, but it was a start

Impressment

- The forcible enlistment of sailors - Employed by the British navy against American seamen in times of war against France, 1793-1815 - Continual source of conflict between GB and the US in the early national period

John D. Rockefeller

- The founder of the Standard Oil Company - Developed the technique of horizontal integration and compelled other oil companies to join the Standard Oil "trust" - Became the richest person in the world and the US's first billionaire - Later became known for his philanthropic support of universities and medical research

Canadian Shield

The first part of what became the North American landmass to emerge above sea level

John Peter Zenger

- Journalist who questioned the policies of the governor of New York in the 1700's. He was jailed - he sued, and this court case was the basis for our freedom of speech and press. He was found not guilty.

Market Revolution

- 18th and 19th c. transformation from a disaggregated, subsistence economy to a national commercial and industrial network - Also widened gap between rich and poor, but general prosperity during the time period

Andy Warhol

- Pioneering "Pop" artist known for his iconic portraits of Cold War America's material objects, including soup cans and soda bottles

Rutherford B. Hayes

- 19th POTUS - Former Republican governor of Ohio - Became President after the contested 1876 election - By 1880 he had lost the support of his party and was not re-nominated for the office - most significant act was to end Reconstruction by withdrawing the last federal troops from the South - Obscure enough to be dubbed "The Great Unknown"

rock 'n' roll

- "Crossover" musical style that rose to dominance in the 1950s, merging black rhythm and blues with white bluegrass and country - Featured a heavy beat and driving rhythm - Became a defining feature of the 1950s youth culture

Cahokia

- Mississippian Native American settlement which housed over 25,000 people - Near present day St. Louis

The Age of Reason (1794)

- Thomas Paine's anticlerical treatise that accused churches of seeking to acquire "power and profit" and to "enslave mankind"

American Temperance Society (est. 1826)

- Founded in Boston as part of a growing effort of 19th c. reformers to limit alcohol consumption - Implored drinkers to sign the temperance pledge and organized children's clubs, aka the "Cold Water Army" - ==> less drinking among women than earlier in the century and probably much less per capita consumption of hard liquor

How did the ideals set forth in the Declaration of Independence reverberate in France? (3.2)

- French Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789) deliberately echoed the American Declaration of Independence when it stated that liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression were basic human rights - American Revolution inspired the French Revolution

Napoleon Bonaparte

- French Emperor who waged a series of wars against his neighbors on the European continent from 1800 until his final defeat at Waterloo in 1815 - In 1803, having failed to put down the Haitian rebellion, he relinquished France's remaining NA possessions by selling Louisiana Territory to the US == Hoped that one day the US would thwart British interests in the New World

Huguenots

- French Protestants who clashed with Roman Catholics in France

Admiral de Grasse

- French admiral - Contributed to the Battle of Yorktown by using his ships to blockade the British from coming in to offer reinforcements

Comte de Rochambeau

- General in command of French forces during the American Revolution - fought alongside George Washington at Yorktown

Arthur Zimmermann

- German foreign secretary during WWI and author of the infamous "Zimmerman note," which proposed a German-Mexican alliance against the US

Republican motherhood

- Ideal of family organization and female behavior after the American Revolution that stressed the role of women in guiding family members toward republican virtue

Abraham Lincoln Brigade (1936-1939)

- Idealistic American volunteers who served in the Spanish Civil War, defending Spanish republican forces from the fascist General Francisco Franco's nationalist coup - Some 3,000 Americans served alongside volunteers from other countries

Leisler's Rebellion (1689-1691)

- Ill-starred and bloody insurgence that rocked New York City as a result of discontent of aspiring merchants towards lordly landholders

Ancient Order of Hibernians (mid 1800s)

- Irish semi-secret society that served as a benevolent organization for downtrodden Irish immigrants in the US - ==> Molly Maguires

Richard Montgomery

- Irish-born British army veteran, who served as a general in the Continental army during the Revolution - joined Benedict Arnold in a failed attempt to seize Quebec in 1775.

William Clark

- Joined Lewis in leading the expedition of Louisiana territory from 1804-1806 - Played a key role in shaping America's Indian policy, seeking to strengthen American relations with Indians thru trade

Frederick Law Olmsted

- Journalist and leading American landscape architect - Landmark designs include New York's Central Park, Boston's "Emerald Necklace," and the campuses of Stanford University and the University of California at Berkeley

Charles Grandison Finney

- Leading revival preacher during the Second Great Awakening - Presided over mass camp meetings throughout New York State, championing temperance and abolition, and urging women to play a greater role in religious life

Earl Warren

- Liberal California politician appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Dwight Eisenhower in 1953 (served until 1969) - Was principally known for moving the Court to the left in defense of civil and individual rights in such cases as Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), and Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

Why was family life in New England so different from family life in the South?

- NE colonies founded on the basis of religious freedom so society was heavily involved with religion - "Protestant Work Ethic" was prominent because it was part of their religion to work hard for profit ==> economic growth - Southern life based on large plantations, which meant there were fewer interactions between groups of people - Economy largely farm based and labor was more divided amongst gender, and slaves were prominent

Henry A. Kissinger

- National Security Advisor and Secretary of State during the Nixon Administration - Was responsible for negotiating an end to the Yom Kippur War as well as the Treaty of Paris that led to a cease-fire in Vietnam in 1973

National Security Council Memorandum Number 68 (NSC-68) (1950)

- National Security Council recommendation to quadruple defense spending and rapidly expand peacetime armed forces to address Cold War tensions - Reflected a new militarization of American foreign policy, but the huge costs of rearmament were not expected to interfere with what seemed like the limitless possibilities of postwar prosperity

malaise speech (1979)

- National address by Jimmy Carter in July 1979 in which he chided American materialism and urged a communal spirit in the face of economic hardships - Although Carter intended the speech to improve both public morale and his standing as a leader, it had the opposite effect and was widely perceived as a political disaster for the embattled president

Why the positions of political leaders in the 1790s on issues, such as the relationship between the national government and the states, economic policy, foreign policy, and the balance between liberty and order, led to the formation of Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties (3.2)

- National government and the states: Federalists wanted strong national gov while D-R wanted more power to the states - Econ: Federalists wanted a strong central bank and taxes to pay back debt, wile D-R didn't like the taxes and thought states should handle their own debt - Foreign Policy: Federalists really wanted to avoid war with GB while D-R wanted to help France - Federalists supported a more elitist government while D-R wanted better representation

code talkers

- Native American men who served in the military by transmitting radio messages in their native languages, which were undecipherable by German and Japanese spies - Sudden combination of unfamiliar peoples sometimes produced violent friction

Know-Nothing party (1850s)

- Nativist political party, also known as the American party, that emerged in response to an influx of immigrants, particularly Irish Catholics

Adolf Hitler

- Nazi dictator of Germany from 1933 to 1945 - Seized control of the Nazi party by capitalizing on the shortsighted postwar policies of the victorious Allies and promised Germans that he would get them revenge - Was the mastermind behind the Holocaust - Most dangerous of the dictators because he combined tremendous power with impulsiveness - His greedy quest for power provoked WWII

National Banking System (1863)

- Network of member banks that could issue currency against purchased government bonds - Created during the Civil War to establish a stable national currency and stimulate the sale of war bonds - First significant step toward a unified banking network since Andrew Jackson killed the Bank of the US in 1836

Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) (est. 1933)

- New Deal program designed to raise agricultural prices by paying farmers not to farm - Based on the assumption that higher prices would increase farmers' purchasing power and thereby help alleviate the Great Depression - Ended up raising farm income, but also increased unemployment and criticism

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) (1935-1955)

- New Deal-era labor organization that broke away from the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in order to organize unskilled industrial workers regardless of their particular economic sector or craft - Gave a great boost to labor organizing in the midst of the Great Depression and during WWII - Merged back with the AFL in 1955

Dorothea Dix

- New England teacher-author and champion of mental health reform - assembled damning reports on insane asylums and petitioned the Massachusetts legislature to improve conditions - Prescribed rigorous exercise regimens for prisoners

Salmon Chase

- New England-born abolitionist who, as Secretary of the Treasury, pushed Lincoln to take a tougher stance on slavery during the Civil War - In 1864, Radical Republicans unsuccessfully tried to replace Lincoln with Chase on the Republican ticket - Later that year, Lincoln appointed Chase as chief justice of the Supreme Court, where Chase served until his death

Millard Fillmore

- New York Congressman and Vice President under Taylor, later taking over the presidency after Taylor's death in 1850 - A practical politician who threw his support behind the Compromise of 1850, ensuring its passage - He was passed over for the Whig nomination in 1852 when the party chose to select the legendary war hero, Winfield Scott

Herman Melville

- New York author who spent his youth as a whaler on the high seas, which inspired his epic novel "Moby Dick"

Jackson Pollock

- New York based painter who became the father of abstract expressionism with his spontaneous "action paintings" - Dripped paint on huge flats stretched across his studio floor, abandoning realistic representation

Horace Greeley

- New York newspaper editor - Ran for president in 1872 under mantles of the Liberal Republican and Democratic Parties - Ironically endorsed by Democrats, even when he had roasted them as editor, but he appeased them by calling for the North and South to make peace with one another

Arthur Miller

- New York-born playwright who dramatized the pitfalls of postwar American materialism in "Death of a Salesman" and Cold War hysteria in "The Crucible," among other plays

Ernest Hemingway

- Novelist and author of "The Sun Also Rises" and "A Farewell to Arms" - Former newspaper correspondent and wartime ambulance driver - Became an international celebrity for his searing war novels, clipped prose, and personal exploits

James Wolfe

- Officer since he was 14, called for a nighttime sneak-up on Quebec and his army fought the French on the Plain of Abraham - Fatally wounded but the city surrendered

Bonus Army (1932)

- Officially known as the Bonus Expeditionary Force (BEF) - Rag-tag group of 20,000 veterans marched on Washington to demand immediate payment of bonuses earned during WWI - General Douglas MacArthur dispersed the veterans with tear gas and bayonets - Led to even more criticism of the once-popular Hoover

Freedom Riders (1961)

- Organized mixed race groups who rode interstate buses deep into the South to draw attention to and protest racial segregation, beginning in 1961 - This effort to challenge racism, which involved the participation of many northern young people as well as southern activists, proved a political and public relations success for the civil rights movement - When federal troops were dispatched to connect them, the Kennedy administration had reluctantly but fatefully agreed to support the civil rights movement

Mason-Dixon line (1820s)

- Originally drawn by surveyors to resolve the boundaries between Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Virginia in the 1760s, it came to symbolize the North-South divide over slavery

Stephen C. Foster

- Popular American folk composer - Pennsylvania-born white - Popularized minstrel songs, which fused African rhythms with nostalgic melodies - Made a valuable contribution to American folk music by capturing the plaintive spirit of the slaves - "Oh! Susanna" (1848)

Greek Revival (1820-1850)

- Popular building style during the mid 19th c that imitated Ancient Greek structural forms in search of a democratic architectural vernacular - Emphasis on pointed arches, sloped roofs, and large stained glass windows - Inspired by the contemporary Greek independence movement

Burned-Over District

- Popular name for western New York, a region particularly swept up in the religious fervor of the Second Great Awakening - ==> Millerites (aka Adventists) believing that Christ would return in 1844

Seward's Folly (1867)

- Popular term for Secretary of State William Seward's purchase of Alaska from Russia - The derisive term reflected the anti-expansionist sentiments of most Americans immediately after the Civil War

Tom Watson

- Populist leader who initially advocated interracial political mobilization but later became a symbol of the party's shift to white supremacy

Jonathan Edwards

- Preached salvation through good works and dependence on God's grace - "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

Edmond Genet

- Representative of the French Republic who in 1793 tried to recruit Americans to invade Spanish and British territories in blatant disregard of Washington's Neutrality Proclamation

Stamp tax (1765)

- Required use of stamped paper to certify payment of tax - Stamps were required on bills of sale

Walker Tariff (1846)

- Revenue enhancing measure that lowered tariffs form 1842 levels, thereby fueling the trade and increasing Treasury receipts

Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot)

- Sent by the English to explore the northeastern coast of North America

Brain Trust (1930s)

- Specialists in law, economics, and welfare, many of them young university professors - Advised President FDR and helped write his speeches and develop the policies of the New Deal

How did the treatment of Americans by British officers and the military, during the war, contribute to simmering resentment against the mother country? Do the attitudes and behavior of the colonists during the war suggest that Americans felt less real patriotic loyalty to Britain and that the ties had become largely practical ones?

- The British refused to recognize the militia men as over the rank of captain, and the America thought of the red coats as snobs - America during the war felt less patriotic towards the British and for the first time starting thinking of themselves as Americans

Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930)

- The highest protective tariff in the peacetime history of the US, passed initially to assist the farmers but was modified beyond recognition by lobbyists in the Senate - Example of Washington "Horse trading" - To foreigners, it seemed like a declaration of economic warfare on the entire outside world - Plunged both America and other nations deeper into the terrible depression that had already begun

Mary McLeod Bethune

- The highest-ranking African-American in the Roosevelt administration - Headed up the Office of Minority Affairs and was a leader of the unofficial "Black Cabinet," which sought to apply New Deal benefits to blacks as well as whites

Predestination

- The idea that some souls (the elect) had been destined for eternal bliss and others for eternal torment - Good works didn't get you into heaven because God already made up his mind

Thomas Alva Edison

- The inventor of, among other things, the electric light bulb, the phonograph, the mimeograph, the moving picture, and a machine capable of taking X-rays - Ultimately he held more than 1,000 patents for his inventions - Figured out how to apply the principles of mass production to his inventions

WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) (1939)

- The woman's branch of the US Navy established during WWII to employ women in noncombatant jobs - Like the WACs, it allowed women to participate in the armed services in ways that went beyond their traditional roles as nurses

Battle of the Alamo (1836)

- Two hundred American volunteers were slain by Santa Anna, who wiped them out in a 13 day siege - "Remember the Alamo" became a cattle cry in support of Texan independence

Dominion of Canada (est. 1867)

- Unified Canadian government created by Britain to bolster Canadians, politically and spiritually, against potential attacks or overtures from the US

John Pope

- Union general whose army suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Robert E. Lee in the Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas)

Mary Harris "Mother" Jones

- organized coal miners, their wives, and their children to fight for better working conditions - Example of how women also participated in the fight for better working conditions

Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders' positions on slavery and economic policy (4.1)

- western War Hawks went to war over national interests in War of 1812 - Hartford Convention placed their interests over the national government, by demanding changes in the Constitution (particularly on economic issues of foreign trade) - Unrest from the poorer classes during the Panic of 1819 sowed the seeds of a Jacksonian democracy

John Jay

- 1st chief justice, negotiated Treaty of Paris and later the much-criticized Jay Treaty of 1794 - Sent by Washington to GB to try to avoid war == Hamilton sabotaged by telling GB America's bargaining strategy and subsequently Jay won few concessions - Later became governor of New York

Warren G. Harding

- 29th POTUS, from 1921 to his death in office in 1923 - Began his career as a newspaper publisher before getting elected to the Ohio Senate, where he served from 1899 to 1903 - Served as lieutenant governor of Ohio (1903-1905) and as a US Senator (1915-1921) before winning the presidency - Time in office was beset with scandals, many of them the result of disloyalty of designing friends

Queen Anne's War

- 2nd conflict between Euro powers for control of North America - English vs French in the North & English vs Spanish in Florida - Peace treaty had France cede Acadia (Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to Britain - Britain won ==> generation of peace

Federal Trade Commission Act (est. 1914)

- A banner accomplishment of Woodrow Wilson's administration - Empowered a standing, presidentially appointed commission to investigate illegal business practices in interstate commerce like unlawful competition, false advertising, and mislabeling of goods - An attack on trusts, the last of the "triple wall of privilege"

Moctezuma

- Aztec chieftain who believed Cortés to be th god Quetzalcoatl, and allowed the conquistadors to march into his capital unopposed - Gave them as much gold as they needed at first, then attacked

Army-McCarthy hearings (1954)

- Congressional hearings called by Senator Joseph McCarthy to accuse members of the army of communist ties - In this widely televised spectacle, McCarthy finally went too far for public approval - The hearings exposed the senator's extremism and led to his eventual disgrace

Pendleton Act (1883)

- Congressional legislation that established the Civil Service Commission, which granted federal government jobs on the basis of examinations instead of political patronage, thus reining in the spoils system - Also made compulsory campaign contributions rom federal employees illegal - Divorced politics from patronage, but also helped drive politicians into "marriages of convenience" with big-business leaders

Nineteenth Amendment (1920)

- Constitutional amendment, passed by Congress in 1919 and ratified in 1920, that gave women the right to vote - Occurred over 70 years after the first organized calls for woman's suffrage in Seneca Falls

Thomas J. ("Stonewall") Jackson

- Daring Confederate general and brilliant tactician, who routinely took men on long marches to outflank Union lines - Led his troops to victory at the First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) and protected Virginia's Shenandoah Valley from Northern invasion in the first year of the Civil War - Joining Lee at Richmond, he helped halt the Union's Peninsula Campaign in 1862 - Killed by friendly fire at the battle of Chancellorsville in May of 1863

Black Power (1966)

- Doctrine of militancy and separatism that rose in prominence after 1965 - Black Power activists rejected MLK's pacifism and desire for integration - Rather, they promoted pride in African heritage and an often militant position in defense of their rights

Charter

- Document that guaranteed overseas settlers the same rights of Englishmen at home

Federal Style

- Early national style of architecture that borrowed from neoclassical models and emphasized symmetry, balance, and restraint - Famous builders associated with this style included Charles Bulfinch and Benjamin Latrobe

plantation

- Established by the Portuguese - Large-scale commercial agriculture and exploitation of slave labor - This kind of economy shaped the New World

Anti-Masonic Party (est. 1826)

- First founded in NY, it gained considerable influence in NE and the mid-Atlantic during the 1832 election, campaigning against the politically influential Masonic order, a secret society - Anti-Masons opposed Jackson, a Mason, and drew much of their support from evangelical Protestants

Ngo Dinh Diem

- First president of South Vietnam, where he took power following the Geneva accords in 1954 - Was propped up by the US until he was overthrown and assassinated by a coup in 1963

Treaty of Fort Stanwix

- First treaty between the US and an Indian nation - Pro-British Iroquois forced to cede land

Bartolomeo Vanzetti

- Fish peddler and Italian anarchist convicted in 1921 of the murder of a Massachusetts factory paymaster and his guard - Despite a worldwide public outcry, he was electrocuted in 1927

Russo-American Treaty (1824)

- Fixed the line of 54˚40' (the southern tip of the Alaska panhandle) as the southernmost boundary of Russian holdings in North America

Trail of Tears (1838-1839)

- Forced march of 15,000 Cherokee Indians from their Georgia and Alabama homes to Indian Territory - Some 4,000 Cherokees died on the difficult journey

Jane Addams

- Founded Hull House, America's most prominent settlement house, to help immigrants assimilate through education, counseling, and municipal reform efforts - Advocated pacifism throughout her life, including during WWI, and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931

Lord Baltimore

- Founded Maryland in 1634 for financial reasons and also to create a refuge for fellow Catholics, who were being persecuted against in England - Allowed religious freedom at first but then Protestants showed up and threatened to start persecuting again

Massachusetts Bay Colony

- Founded by non-separatist Puritans - Grew to be the largest and most influential New England colony

Pocahontas

- "Saved" John Smith from his "execution" - Intermediary between Indians and settlers and helped maintain a shaky peace and provided needed food

Barbados slave code (1661)

- Formal code that denied fundamental rights to slaves and gave masters complete control over them - Made by English authorities to control the increasing slave population - Adopted in Carolina in 1696 which set the foundation for the North American slave system

Father Junipero Serra

- Founded the first of 21 missions in San Diego - Converted natives to Christianity and taught them horticulture and basic craft but also stripped them of their native cultures - Diseases from Europe also killed many native Californians

James I

- Gave the charter for the Virginia Company, had the James River named after him - After a while he started to despise Virginia b/c he hated tobacco and the representative House of Burgesses - Revoked his charter and made Virginia a royal colony directly under his control (1624)

Buffer

- Georgia was intended to protect the valuable Carolinas from Spaniards in Florida and against hostile French in Louisiana - Georgia was the only colony to get money from the British government because it was an important imperial defense

Martin Luther

- German friar who nailed protests against Catholic doctrines to the Catholic church - Ignited the Protestant Reformation which swept across Europe and spread to the US

Great Ice Age

- Ice sheets transformed the North American surface by scraping away the topsoil and making holes in the rocky surface which turned into lakes - Lowered the sea level enough for nomadic Asian Hunters to cross over the Bering isthmus and become the ancestors of Native Americans

Antinomianism

- Idea that the elect don't need to obey the laws of God or man

Encomienda

- Institutions that allowed governments to give Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to try to Christianize them - Basically slavery

Christopher Columbus

- Italian sailor who persuaded Ferd and Isabella to give him 3 ships to explore the New World - Was looking for a water route to the Indies but instead discovered an enormous land barrier - ==> global economic system - Brought horses and sugar to the new world

John Rolfe

- Married Pocahontas, the first known interracial marriage in Virginia - Saved the economy of Virginia by establishing the tobacco industry

Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille

- Married and united the kingdom of Spain - Brutally expelled Muslims from Spain - Eager to race the Portuguese to the Indies for wealth

Metacom (King Philip)

- Massasoit's son, called King Philip by the English - Forged a pan Indian alliance and coordinated attacks on New England villages, destroyed 12 completely - Was slaved, captured, then beheaded

caravel

- New kind of ship that could sail more closely into the wind

Mestizos

- People of mixed Indian and European heritage

Francisco Pizarro

- Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that conquered the Inca Empire - Captured and killed Incan emperor Atahualpa, and claimed the lands for Spain - Got a whole bunch of silver for Spain

Bartolomé de Las Casas

- Spanish missionary who opposed the encomienda system in Hispaniola

Spanish Armada

- Spanish navy invaded the English Channel, but the English used swifter, more maneuverable crafts that wrecked the Spanish ships that were further wrecked when a storm (the "Protestant Wind" scattered the fleet - Beginning of the end for Spanish imperial dreams, helped ensure England's naval dominance in the North Atlantic and eventually the world's oceans

Conversion

- The "receipt" of God's gift of salvation - The experience of God revealing the elect's heavenly destiny

In what ways are the early (pre-1600) histories of Mexican and the present-day American Southwest understood differently now that the United States is being so substantially affected by Mexican and Latin American immigration and culture? To what extent should this now be regarded as part of our American history?

- The history is being understood differently now because of the massive influence Spanish culture has had and is having on the US - History can now be looked at as a way to find out where some American words/traditions came from because of the intermixing of Spanish culture - A major part of the US history because past Spanish land is present US land and some aspects of the Spanish remain intact

Columbian exchange

- The transportation of flora and fauna between the New World and the Old World - Introduced new foods and animals to both sides - Also included disease which decimated NA populations

What were the push and pull factors for immigrants coming to each region of English colonies (New England, the middle colonies, and the southern colonies)?

NE Pull: Make money, practice own religion, keep family together, fishing and/pr farming MC Pull: Practice own religion, agriculture and industry SC Pull: Plantation industry, keep family together Push: uncertainty about the new environment

Brigham Young

- "Mormon Moses" - 2nd president of the Mormons who led his followers to Salt Lake City, Utah, after Joseph Smith's murder - Under Young's discipline and guidance, the Utah settlement prospered, and the church expanded to include over 100,000 members by Young's death in 1877 - Government couldn't control him so they marched against him in 1857 before the conflict was defused

William Pitt

- "Organizer of Victory" who wisely planned to steer away from attacks on the French in the West Indies where the British were losing strength and instead to concentrate on the Québec and Montreal area of Canada - Dispatched expedition to take down Louisbourg in 1758 - Sent James Wolfe to take Québec

Coureurs de bois

- "Runners of the woods" who hunted beaver for fur - Went around having a good time and naming things (i.e. Baton Rouge)

lyceum (1835)

- (For the Greek name for the ancient Athenian school where Aristotle Taught) - Public lecture hall that hosted speakers on topics ranging from science to moral philosophy - Part of a broader flourishing of higher education in the mid 19th c.

How, following the Louisiana Purchase, the US sought influence and control over North America and the Western Hemisphere through a variety of means, including exploration, military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine (4.3)

- *Louisiana Purchase* acquired from Napoleon (loss of Haiti and desperate need for cash led him to sell it for $15 million) - Lewis and Clark sent to explore - Congress consistently lowered the price of land to encourage migration and yeoman status (Jeffersonian ideal) - William Henry Harrison defeated Temskwatawa at *Battle of Tippecanoe* in 1811 - *War of 1812* fought, in large part, to assert control over West, because British were arming Native Americans and encouraging resistance to American hegemony - *John Quincy Adams is* the most important diplomat of the period: negotiated T*reaty of Ghent*, ending War of 1812; *Rush-Bagot Treaty* fixed the national boundary on the Great Lakes; he also negotiated the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase with Britain along Canadian border; *Adams-Onis Treaty* acquired Florida from Spain [Andrew Jackson had already invaded it, and Adams used Jackson to scare Spain into selling it] and ceded claims Texas to Spain - *Monroe Doctrine*, combined with position of neutrality, would drive most of American foreign policy well into the 20th century; John Quincy Adams crafted the Monroe Doctrine as a response to the independence movements in central and South America: 1) New World now off limits to Europe; 2) promised to not interfere with European politics or wars [neutrality reinforced]; 3) Western hemisphere meant for republics, not aristocracies

How, following the Louisiana Purchase, the United States government sought influence and control over North America and the Western Hemisphere through a variety of means, including exploration, military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts (4.3)

- *Louisiana Purchase* acquired from Napoleon (loss of Haiti and desperate need for cash led him to sell it for $15 million) - Lewis and Clark sent to explore - Congress consistently lowered the price of land to encourage migration and yeoman status (Jeffersonian ideal) - William Henry Harrison defeated Temskwatawa at *Battle of Tippecanoe* in 1811 - *War of 1812* fought, in large part, to assert control over West, because British were arming Native Americans and encouraging resistance to American hegemony - *John Quincy Adams is* the most important diplomat of the period: negotiated T*reaty of Ghent*, ending War of 1812; *Rush-Bagot Treaty* fixed the national boundary on the Great Lakes; he also negotiated the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase with Britain along Canadian border; *Adams-Onis Treaty* acquired Florida from Spain [Andrew Jackson had already invaded it, and Adams used Jackson to scare Spain into selling it] and ceded claims Texas to Spain - *Monroe Doctrine*, combined with position of neutrality, would drive most of American foreign policy well into the 20th century; John Quincy Adams crafted the Monroe Doctrine as a response to the independence movements in central and South America: 1) New World now off limits to Europe; 2) promised to not interfere with European politics or wars [neutrality reinforced]; 3) Western hemisphere meant for republics, not aristocracies

How the Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining the meaning of the Constitution (4.1)

- *Marbury v. Madison (1803)* established the principle of judicial review over presidential or congressional actions (judicial review over states already established, but Marbury firmed up the right) (next use on a federal level: 54 years later in the Dred Scott decision) - *Fletcher v. Peck (1810)* ruled that states could not overturn contracts previously agreed to (limits state power, protects investors from other states , encouraged investment from one state to another in a national economy) - *Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)* refused to allow New Hampshire to overturn charter for Dartmouth, to turn it into public university (a contract is a contract) - *McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)* denied the state of Maryland the right to tax a national institution (affirmed supremacy of national government; affirmed loose construction of the Constitution as the correct one, not strict interpretation Maryland wanted)

How Supreme Court decisions asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws (4.1)

- *Marbury v. Madison (1803)* established the principle of judicial review over presidential or congressional actions (judicial review over states already established, but Marbury firmed up the right) (next use on a federal level: 54 years later in the Dred Scott decision) - *Fletcher v. Peck (1810)* ruled that states could not overturn contracts previously agreed to (limits state power, protects investors from other states , encouraged investment from one state to another in a national economy) - *Dartmouth College v. Woodward* (1819) refused to allow New Hampshire to overturn charter for Dartmouth, to turn it into public university (a contract is a contract) - *McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)* denied the state of Maryland the right to tax a national institution (affirmed supremacy of national government; affirmed loose construction of the Constitution as the correct one, not strict interpretation Maryland wanted)

How congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the 1820 Missouri Compromise, only temporarily stemmed growing tensions between opponents and defenders of slavery (4.3)

- *Missouri Compromise* an attempt to replicate compromises from Constitutional Convention that had kept the country together over the issue of slavery (Missouri asked for entry as a slave state, but Tallmadge Amendment blocking Missouri slavery and Northern-controlled House blocked it; Maine requested entry as a free state, but Southern-controlled Senate blocked it; South then tried three arguments: 1) new territories had "equal rights" with previous states, where no provisions blocking slavery applied; 2) Constitution guaranteed a state control over its internal affairs, including slavery; 3) Congress had no right to interfere with property owners) - Henry Clay (The Great Compromiser) worked out the deal: 1) Missouri and Maine both admitted; 2) future state admissions would be in pairs, one free and one slave; and 3) no future slavery north of the southern boundary of Missouri

How, during the presidential administrations of George Washington and John Adams, political leaders created institutions and precedents that put the principles of the Constitution into practice? (3.2)

- *Washington:* == created the cabinet: Jefferson at State, Hamilton at Treasury, Knox at War == established title of "Mr. President" (opposed to Your Majesty) == created U.S. Army == put an unofficial two-term limit into play == maintained right to fire any government appointee under him without Senate approval == president doesn't go to Congress [one time didn't work] == established neutrality as our foreign policy, until WWII == Washington used the veto twice == federal court systems established == oversaw Bill of Rights [he had no formal role] == oversaw first new states: Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792), Tennessee (1796) == Assumed national and state debts / excise taxes to service debt / created Bank of the United States [Hamilton] == Selected site for national capitol on Potomac == Jay's Treaty and Pinckney's Treaty established foreign treaties == Farewell address warned about parties and foreign alliances *Adams:* == created U.S. Navy and Marines == XYZ Affair leads to undeclared naval war, which Adams ends with first peace treaty instead of further war == establishes Library of Congress == fires Hamilton's stooges from Cabinet, establishing president as head of party and government == decision to hand over power peacefully to Jefferson establishes precedent of peaceful transfer of power to political enemy == appointment of John Marshall creates a strong Supreme Court

Reign of Terror (1793-94)

- 10-month periods of brutal repression when some 40,000 individuals were killed as enemies of the French Revolution - Guillotined king and queen and preemptive attacks on neighboring countries - While many Jeffersonians maintained their faith in the French Republic (despotism to liberty required some bloodshed), Federalists withdrew their already luke-warm support once the Reign of Terror began

Jame K. Polk

- 11th POTUS and a North Carolina Democrat - America's first "dark horse," or unexpected candidate - Campaigned on a platform of American expansion, advocating the annexation of Texas and the "reoccupation" of Oregon - As POTUS, he provoked war with Mexico, added vast tracts of land to the US but provoking a bitter sectional conflict over the expansion of slavery into newly acquired territories

Sunbelt

- 15 state crescent through the American South and Southwest that experienced terrific population and productivity expansion during WWII and particularly in the decades after the war - Eclipsed the old industrial Northeast (the "Frostbelt"), which broke the historic grip of the North on the nation's political life

James Buchanan

- 15th POTUS - Pennsylvania-born Democrat who sympathized with the South and opposed any federal interference with slavery - As POTUS, he supported Kansas' Lecompton Constitution and opposed the Homestead Act, antagonizing Northern Democrats and hopelessly splitting the once powerful Democratic Party

Abraham Lincoln

- 16th POTUS - Illinois lawyer and political - Briefly served in Congress from 1847-1848, intruding the famous "spot" resolutions on the Mexican war - He gained national prominence in 1858 during the Lincoln-Douglas debates debates in the Illinois senate race and emerged as the leading contender for the Republican nomination in 1860 - Election in 1860 drove South Carolina from the Union, eventually leading to the Civil War

Andrew Johnson

- 17th POTUS - Born in North Carolina and assumed the presidency after Lincoln's assassination in 1865 - Champion of states' rights and the Constitution - Much to the disgust of Radical Republicans in Congress, Johnson, a Democrat, took a conciliatory approach towards the South during Reconstruction, granting sweeping pardons to former Confederates and supporting Southern Black Codes against freedmen - He was impeached in 1868 by the House of Representatives for breaching the Tenure of Office Act - Acquitted by the Senate, he remained in office to serve out his term

Deism

- 18th c. religious doctrine that emphasized reasoned moral behavior and the scientific pursuit of knowledge - Rejected the ideal of original sin and the divinity of Christ, but did believe that a Supreme Being created the universe.

Neal S. Dow

- 19th c. temperance activist, dubbed the "Father of Prohibition" for his sponsorship of the Maine Law of 1851, which prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol in the state

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

- 32nd POTUS - The only American president to be elected to four terms of office - He first won the presidency against Republican incumbent Herbert Hoover in 1932 in the depths of the Great Depression and was credited with having developed a program, called the New Deal, that shepherded the nation out of crisis - When WWII broke out in Europe, he steered the US into the war, which in the end proved more effective than the New Deal in helping the nation recover from difficult economic times - His gallant struggle against polio and his enormous talents as a politician helped make him a beloved leader for a dozen difficult years in the nation's history

John F. Kennedy

- 35th POTUS, from 1961-1963 - A Navy hero from WWII and a son of a prominent Boston businessman - Won election to the House of Representative in 1946 and to the Senate in 1952 - In 1960, he narrowly defeated incumbent vice-president Richard Nixon in 1960 to become the youngest person ever elected president - As President, he launched New Frontier programs and urged legislation to improve civil rights - He assumed blame for the Bay of Pigs invasion and was credited for impressively handling the Cuban Missile Crisis - Was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald

Lyndon Baines Johnson

- 36th POTUS, from 1963-1969 - A Texas Democrat who rose to tremendous power in the Senate during the New Deal - Johnson was tapped to be John F. Kennedy's running mate in 1960 - Chosen largely to help solidify support for the Democratic ticket in the anti-Catholic South - Assumed the presidency after Kennedy's assassination in 1963 - As POTUS, he was responsible for liberal programs such as the Great Society, War on Poverty, and civil rights legislation, as well as the escalation of the Vietnam War - After a series of challenges from within his party, he chose not to run for reelection in 1968

Richard M. Nixon

- 37th POTUS, 1969-1974 - Rose to national prominence as a "communist hunter" and member of HUAC in the 1950s - Was Vice President under Eisenhower from 1953-1961 and defended American capitalism in the 1959 Kitchen Debate with Krushchvev - Ran unsuccessfully for president against John F. Kennedy in 1960, but was elected to the presidency in 1968 and 1972 - Resigned the presidency amid the Watergate scandal in 1974

Gerald "Jerry" Ford

- 38th POTUS - Long-serving Congressman from Michigan - Was appointed vice president when Spiro Agnew resigned in the fall of 1973 - He succeeded to the presidency upon Nixon's resignation in August 1974 and focused his brief administration on containing inflation and reviving public faith in the presidency - Pardoned Nixon for any crimes, which outraged Democrats and hurt his chances of being reelected - Was defeated narrowly by Jimmy Carter in 1976

James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr.

- 39th POTUS - A peanut farmer and former governor of Georgia - Defeated Gerald Ford in 1976 - As President, he arranged the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel in 1978 but saw his foreign policy legacy tarnished by the Iranian Revolution and hostage crisis in 1979 - Domestically, he tried to rally the American spirit in the face of economic decline, but was unable to stop the rapid increase in inflation - After leaving the presidency, he achieved widespread respect as an elder statesman and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2002

Tripolitan War (1801-1805)

- 4 year conflict between the American navy and the North African nation of Tripoli over piracy in the Mediterranean - Jefferson was a staunch noninterventionist and reluctantly deployed American forces, eventually securing a peace treaty

Ronald Reagan

- 40th POTUS - Former actor and CA governor - Elected in 1980 with a pronounced conservative mandate to fix the American economy by scaling back taxes and the role of government in business - Second term focused on foreign policy issues - Was a staunch Cold Warrior whose massive defense spending added stress to the Soviet Union's military budget and may have ultimately contributed to the end of the Cold War

George H. W. Bush

- 41st POTUS - Former congressman, diplomat, businessman, Republican party chairman, and director of the CIA - Served for 8 years as Reagan's vice president before being elected President in 1988 - As President, he oversaw the end of the Cold War and the revitalization of the American military in the Persian Gulf War - Faced a severe economic recession late in his term that damages his popularity, and he lost his bid for reelection in 1992

William Jefferson ("Bill") Clinton

- 42nd POTUS - Former Arkansas governor and founding member of the Democratic Leadership Council - Promoted "third way" politics and distanced his policies from traditional Democratic programs - Signed the Welfare Reform Act in 1996 to fulfill a campaign promise to "end welfare as we know it" - Was the first Democrat to be reelected since FDR and first president to be impeached since Andrew Johnson

Border States

- 5 slave states- Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and West Virginia- that did not secede during the Civil War - To keep the states in the Union, Abraham Lincoln insisted that the war was not about abolishing slavery but rather protecting the Union - If the North had attacked first, these states probably would have joined the South and helped them win the war

Boston Massacre (1770)

- 60 townspeople taunted about 10 redcoats b/c still angry over death of an 11 year old who was shot during a protest - Troops opened fire and killed or wounded 11 citizens - Only 2 redcoats were found guilty, the others were branded on the hand and released

French and Indian War

- 9 year war between the British and the French in North America - ==> French leaving NA ==> 7 year's war in Europe

London Economic Conference (1933)

- A 66-nation economic conference organized to stabilize international currency rates - FDR's decision to revoke American participation contributed to a deepening world economic crisis - FDR was unwilling to sacrifice the possibility of domestic recovery for the sake of international cooperation - Its collapse strengthened the global trend toward extreme nationalism, making international cooperation even more difficult throughout the 1930s

Haymarket Square (1886)

- A May Day rally that turned violent when someone threw a bomb into the middle of the meeting, killing several dozen people - Eight anarchists were arrested for conspiracy contributing to the disorder, although evidence linking them to the bombing was thin - Four were executed, one committed suicide, and three were pardoned in 1893 - Led to the dissolving of the Knights of Labor because the public mistakenly thought that they were associated with the anarchists

Fundamentalism

- A Protestant Christian movement emphasizing a literal interpretation of the Bible and opposing religious modernism, which sought to reconcile religion and science - It was especially strong in the Baptist Church and the Church of Christ, first organized in 1906

Herbert C. Hoover

- A Quaker-humanitarian tapped to head the Food Administration during WWI - Rejected ration cards, which were used in Europe, but instead waged a propaganda campaign that promoted voluntary action to save food for export - During the 1920s, he became the Secretary of Commerce, promoting economic modernization and responsible leadership by business to hold off further expansion of government power - Elected to the presidency in 1928 as a Republican, he soon faced the crisis of the Great Depression, which he tried to combat with the same voluntary efforts and restrained government action that had been his hallmark over the previous decade - Lost the election of 1932 to Democrat Franklin Roosevelt, who advocated a more activist role for the federal government

"Butcher" Weyler

- A Spanish general who arrived in Cuba in 1896 to put down the insurrection - Became notorious for herding many civilians into barbed-wire reconcentration camps, where many died from insanitary conditions

Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois (1886)

- A Supreme Court decision that prohibited states from regulating the railroads because the Constitution grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce - As a result, reformers turned their attention to the federal government, which now held sole power to regulate the railroad industry

Schenck v. United States (1919)

- A Supreme Court decision that upheld the Espionage and Sedition Acts, reasoning that the freedom of speech could be curtailed when it posed a "clear and present danger" to the nation - Example of how civil liberties were limited during WWI

John T. Scopes

- A Tennessee high-school biology teacher who was prosecuted in 1925 for teaching the theory of evolution - Former presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan joined the prosecution - The talented Clarence Darrow served as defense attorney - Was found guilty and fined $100, but the supreme court of Tennessee, while upholding the law, set aside the fine on a technicality (law not appealed until 1967)

Insular Cases (1901-1904)

- A badly divided Supreme Court decreed in these cases that the Constitution did not follow the flag - In other words, Puerto Ricans and Filipinos were subject to American rule but did not enjoy all American rights

J. P. Morgan

- A banker who became a national symbol of the power of banks during the Gilded Age - Helped all the big businesses of the era consolidate their holdings and ultimately bought Carnegie's steel empire for more than $400 million in 1900 - Also helps to bail the US government out o a currency crunch in 1895 when he organized a loan to the government of $65 million in gold - In 1902 his Northern Securities Company became one of the first targets of Teddy Rosevelt's trustbusting crusades, but Roosevelt's 1907 decision to allow a steel merger under Morgan's watch showed the limits of Roosevelt's efforts

McCarthyism

- A brand of malicious, fear-mongering anti-communism associated with the career of Senator Joseph McCarthy - In the early 1950s, Senator McCarthy used his position in Congress to baselessly accuse high-ranking government officials and other Americans of conspiracy with communism - The term named after him refers to the dangerous forces of unfairness and fear wrought by anticommunist paranoia

Roosevelt Corollary (1904)

- A brazen policy of "preventive intervention" advocated by Theodore Roosevelt in his Annual Message to Congress in 1904 - Adding support to the Monroe Doctrine, his corollary stipulated that the US would retain a right to intervene in the domestic affairs of Latin American nations in order to restore military and financial order

American plan (1920s)

- A business-oriented approach to worker relations popular among firms in the 1920s to defeat unionization - Managers sought to strengthen their communication with workers and to offer benefits like pensions and insurance - Insisted on an "open shop" in contrast to the mandatory union membership through the "closed shop" that many labor activists had demanded in the strike wave after WWI

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) (1961-1974)

- A campus-based political organization founded in 1961 by Tom Hayden that became an iconic representation of the New Left - Originally geared toward the intellectual promise of "participatory democracy" - Emerged at the forefront of the civil rights, antipoverty, and antiwar movements during the 1960s

Union Party (1864)

- A coalition party of prowar Democrats and Republicans formed during the 1864 election to defeat antiwar Northern Democrats - Caused the Republican party to temporarily pass out of existence - Nominated Lincoln after the "ditch Lincoln" movement collapsed

Francisco ("Pancho") Villa

- A combination of bandit and Robin Hood - Emerged as a chief rival to Mexican President Carranza and tried to provoke the United States into war by going on a killing spree north of the border in New Mexico - President Wilson dispatched General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing in an attempt to capture Villa, but the expedition ended in defeat for American forces

Crédit Mobilier scandal (1872)

- A construction company was formed by owners of the Union Pacific Railroad for the purpose of receiving government contracts to build the railroad at highly inflated prices—and profits - In 1872 a scandal erupted when journalists discovered that the Crédit Mobilier Company had bribed congressmen and even the vice president to allow the ruse to continue

"Lost Generation"

- A creative circle of expatriate American artists and writers, including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Gertrude Stein - Found shelter and inspiration in post-WWI Europe

Harlem Renaissance (1920s)

- A creative outpouring among African American writers, jazz musicians, and social thinkers, centered around Harlem in the 920s - Celebrated black culture and advocated for a "New Negro" in American social, political, and intellectual life

Office of Price Administration (OPA) (1941-1947)

- A critically important wartime agency charged with regulating the consumer economy by rationing scarce supplies, such as automobiles, tires, fuel, nylon, and sugar - Curbed inflation by setting ceilings on the price of goods - Also controlled rents in parts of the country overwhelmed by war workers - Extended after WWII ended to continue the fight against inflation

pragmatism

- A distinctive American philosophy that emerged in the late 19th c. around the theory that the true value of an idea lay in its ability to solve problems - The pragmatists thus embraced the provisional, uncertain nature of experimental knowledge - Among the most well-known purveyors of pragmatism were John Dewey, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., and William James

Anti-Imperialist League (1898-1921)

- A diverse group formed to protest American colonial oversight in the Philippines - Included university presidents, industrialists, clergymen, and labor leaders - Strongest in the Northeast, and was the largest lobbying organization on U.S. foreign-policy issue until the end of the 19th c. - It declined in strength after the US signed the Treaty of Paris (which approved the annexation of the Philippines) and especially after hostilities broke out between Filipino nationalists and American forces

McNary-Haugen Bill (1924-1928)

- A farm relief bill championed throughout the 1920s - Aimed to keep agricultural prices high by authorizing the government to buy up surpluses and sell them abroad - Congress twice passed the bill, but President Coolidge vetoed it in 1927 and 1928 - Farm prices stayed down, but farmers' political temperatures stayed high, reaching a fever pitch in the election of 1924

Homestead Act (1862)

- A federal law that sold settlers 160 acres of land for about $30 if they lived on it for 5 years and improved it by, for instance, building a house on it - The act helped make land accessible to hundreds of thousands of westward-moving settlers, but many people also found disappointment when their land was infertile or they saw speculators grabbing up the best land - Supported by federal draft agents

Big Sister policy (1880s)

- A foreign policy of Secretary of State James G. Blaine aimed at rallying Latin American nations behind American leadership and opening Latin American markets to Yankee traders - The policy bore fruit in 1889 when Blaine presided over the First International Conference of American States

Merrimack (1862)

- A former wooden US warship plated with old iron railroad rails that was clumsy but powerful and destroyed two wooden ships of the Union - threatened the Union's blockading fleet - Successes against wooden ships signaled an end to wooden warships - Fought a historic though inconsequential battle against Union ironclad Monitor in 1862

Benjamin Wade

- A founder of the Republican Party and Senator from Ohio from 1851 to 1869 - A passionate abolitionist, he pressured President Lincoln throughout the Civil War to pursue harsher policies toward the South - Co-sponsored the Wade-Davis Bill in 1864, which required 50% of the registered voters of a southern state to take a loyalty oath as a pre-condition for restoration to the Union, rather than the 10% proposed by Lincoln - As President Pro Tempore (placeholder) of the Senate in 1868, he was next in line for the presidency should Andrew Johnson be impeached, and the prospect that someone of such radical views might become president may have contributed to the failure of the effort to impeach Johnson

Crispus Attucks

- A free black man who was the first person killed in the Boston Massacre - Considered the first death in the Revolutionary War

Gifford Pinchot

- A friend of Theodore Roosevelt, Pinchot was the head of the federal Division of Forestry and a noted conservationist who wanted to protect, but also *use,* the nation's natural resources, like forests and rivers - Father of the modern Forest Service - In 1922, he won election to the Pennsylvania governor's mansion, on the Republican ticket

Committee on Public Information (1917)

- A government office during WWI known popularly . as the Creel Committee for its chairman George Creel - Was dedicated to winning everyday Americans' support for the war effort - Regularly distributed pro-war propaganda and sent out an army of "four-minute men" to rally crowds and deliver "patriotic pep"

Operation Wetback (1954)

- A government program to round up and deport as many as 1 million illegal Mexican migrant workers in the US - The program was promoted in part by the Mexican government and reflected burgeoning concerns about non-European immigration to America

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1970)

- A governmental organization signed into law by Richard Nixon in 1970 designed to regulate pollution, emissions, and other factors that negatively influence the natural environment - Its creation marked a newfound commitment by the federal government to actively combat environmental risks and was a significant triumph for the environmentalist movement

Meat Inspection Act (1906)

- A law passed by Congress to subject meat shipped over state lines to federal inspection - The publication of Upton Sinclair's novel "The Jungle" so disgusted American consumers with its description of conditions in slaughterhouses and meatpacking plants that it mobilized public support for government action - While the largest packers resisted certain parts of the act, they accepted it as an opportunity to drive their smaller competitors out of business and get the government's seal of approval on their exports

Espionage Act (1917)

- A law prohibiting interference with the draft and other acts of national "disloyalty" - Together with the Sedition Act of 1918, which added penalties for abusing the government in writing, it created a climate that was unfriendly to civil liberties - Targeted antiwar socialists and members of the radical Industrial Workers of the World

Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)

- A law that forbade trusts or combinations in business - Landmark legislation because it was one of the first congressional attempts to regulate big business for the public good - At first the law was mostly used to restrain trade unions, as the courts tended to side with companies in legal cases - Also ineffective at first because it was not well enforced and there were loopholes - In 1914 the act was revised so it could more effectively be used against monopolistic corporations

John Dewey

- A leader of the pragmatist movement of the late 19th and early 20th c - Applied the philosophy to education and social reform, advocating "learning by doing" as well as the application of knowledge to solving real life problems - Became an outspoken promoter of social and political reforms that broadened American democracy

Carrie Chapman Catt

- A leader of the revived women's suffrage movement - Served as president of NAWSA from 1900-1904 and again from 1915-1920 - Also active internationally, helping women in other countries gain suffrage and advocating for international peace - Under Catt, NAWSA linked women's suffrage to traditional women's roles which registered encouraging gains, like being alllowed to vote in local elections

Reinhold Niebuhr

- A liberal Protestant theologian whose teachings and writings aimed to relate Christian faith to the realities of modern politics - A socialist and pacifist as a young man, he come out of WWII committed to the doctrine of the "just war" and the necessity of resisting dark forces of evil like Hitler and Stalin - Remained outspoken in defense of progressive social causes

Southern Renaissance

- A literary outpouring among mid 20th century southern writers, begun by William Faulkner - Marked by a new critical appreciation of the region's burdens of history, racism, and conservatism

D-Day (1944)

- A massive military operation led by American forces in Normandy beginning on June 6, 1944 - The pivotal battle led to the liberation of France and brought on the final phases of WWII in Europe

trust

- A mechanism by which one company grants control over its operations, through ownership of its stock, to another company - The Standard Oil Company became known for this practice in the 1870s as it eliminated its competition by taking control of smaller oil companies

Henry Demarest Lloyd

- A muckraking journalist and reform leader whose book, "Wealth Against Commonwealth" (1894) criticized the sins of the Standard Oil Company - Became one of the leading intellectuals behind the progressive movement, influencing such figures as Clarence Darrow, Florence Kelley, and John Dewey

American Federation of Labor (est. 1886)

- A national federation of trade unions that included only skilled workers - Was a federation because it was an association of self-governing national unions, which retained their independence under the guidance of the AFL - Led by Samuel Gompers for nearly 4 decades, the AFL sought to negotiate with employers for a better kind of capitalism that rewarded workers fairly with better wages, hours and conditions - Its membership was almost entirely white and male until the middle of the 20th century

William Randolph Hearst

- A newspaper magnate who started by inheriting his father's San Francisco Examiner and ultimately owned newspapers and magazines published in cities across the United States - Largely responsible for the spread of sensationalist journalism - The Hearst Corporation still owns dozens of newspapers, magazines, and other media outlets in the US and around the world

Tuskegee Institute (est. 1881)

- A normal and industrial school led by Booker T. Washington in Tuskegee, Alabama - Focused on training young black students in agriculture and the trades to help them achieve economic independence - Washington justified segregated, vocational training as a necessary first step on the road to racial equality, although critics accused him of being too "accommodationist"

Battle of Midway (1942)

- A pivotal naval battle fought near the island of Midway on June 3-6, 1942 - Fighting was all done by aircraft - The victory halted Japanese advances in the Pacific

Henry Cabot Lodge

- A prominent Republican senator from Massachusetts - Chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and a persistent thorn in President Wilson's internationalist side when he crusaded against the League of Nations - He and Wilson hated each other

Whitewater (1994)

- A series of scandals during the Clinton administration that stemmed from a failed real estate investment from which the Clintons were alleged to have illicitly profited - The accusations prompted the appointment of a special federal prosecutor, though no indictments - Example of how a mobilized conservative movement utilized the new media infrastructure to amplify accusations and alleged scandals

Baron von Steuben

- A stern, Prussian drillmaster that taught American soldiers during the Revolutionary War how to successfully fight the British.

Homestead Strike (1892)

- A strike at Carnegie steel plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania - Ended in an armed battle between the strikers, 300 armed Pinkerton detectives hired by Carnegie, and federal troops, which killed 10 people and wounded more than 60 - Strike was part of a nationwide wave of labor unrest in the summer of 1892 that helped the Populists gain some support from industrial workers and allowed them to become one of the few third parties to break into the electoral column

Triangular trade

- A three way system of trade during 1600-1800s Africa sent slaves to America, America sent Raw Materials to Europe, and Europe sent Guns and Rum to Africa

Immigration Act of 1924

- AKA the "National Origins Act" - Established quotas for immigration to the US - Immigration from southern and eastern Europe was sharply curtailed, while immigrants from Asia were shut out altogether - Purpose was to freeze America's existing racial composition, which was largely northern European - Only immigrants exempt from the quotas were Latin Americans and Canadians, whose proximity made them easy to attract for jobs when times were good and easy to send back when they were not - As a result, for the first time, more foreigners left than arrived, ending a period of virtually unrestricted immigration

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

- Abolitionist and woman suffragist - Organized the first Woman's Rights Convention near her home in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 - After the Civil War, she urged Congress to include women in the 14th and 15th amendments, despite urgings form Fredrick Douglass to let freedman have their hour - In 1869 she, along with Susan B. Anthony, founded the National Woman Suffrage Association to lobby for a constitutional amendment granting women the vote

Lucy Stone

- Abolitionist and women's rights activist, who kept her maiden name after marriage inspiring other women, "Lucy Stoners," to follow her example - Campaigned to include women in the 14th and 15th amendments, but she didn't join Stanton and Anthony in denouncing the amendments when it became clear the changes would not be made - Founded the American Woman Suffrage Association in 1869, which lobby for suffrage primarily at the state level

American Anti-Slavery Society (1833-1870)

- Abolitionist society founded by William Lloyd Garrison, who advocated the immediate abolition of slavery - By 1838, the organization had more than 250,000 members across 1,350 chapters

Gettysburg Address (1863)

- Abraham Lincoln's oft-quoted speech, delivered at the dedication of the cemetery at Gettysburg battlefield - Lincoln framed the war as a means to uphold the values of liberty

Tecumseh

- Accomplished Shawnee warrior who sought to establish a confederacy of Indian tribes east of the Mississippi - Opposed individual tribes' selling of land to the US, arguing the land belonged to all the Native peoples - After 1811, he allied with the British, fighting fiercely against the US until his death in 1813 (dream of an Indian confederacy died with him)

Did the Loyalists deserve to be persecuted and driven out of the country? What difference does it make to understand the Revolution as a civil war between Americans as well as a war against the British?

- According to Spencer, yes. But, they were entitled to their opinions and probably could have been tolerated - Understanding it as a civil war makes the hard line between Americans and British blurry because there were some Americans who sided with the British

Gadsden Purchase (1853)

- Acquired additional land from Mexico for $10 million to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad - Northerners didn't like it because it was a lot of money for what they saw a desert - Railroad was easier to build in the south because there was less mountains and the route wouldn't pass through unorganized territory

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

- Acquisition of Louisiana Territory from France - More than doubled the territory of the US, opening vast tracts for settlement - Jeff thought it was unconstitutional but allowed it just in case Napoleon quickly revoked it - It was a bargain, at 3 cents an acre - Short term: Vast expanse of territory and the feeble reach of the government obliged to control it raised fears of secession and foreign intrigue - Long term: Greatly expanded the power of the federal government

Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

- Act that broke up Indian reservations and distributed land to individual households - Attempted to assimilate Native Americans with white men - Leftover land was sold for money to fund U.S. government efforts to "civilize" Native Americans

Gold Standard Act (1900)

- Act that guaranteed that paper currency would be redeemed freely in gold, putting an end to the already dying "free-silver" campaign - Made possible by the discoveries of new gold deposits and the perfecting of the cheap cyanide process for extracting gold from low-grade ore

Alien Laws (1798)

- Acts passed by a Federalist Congress raising the residency requirement for citizenship to fourteen years and granting the president the power to deport dangerous foreigners in times of peace - Federalist effort to muffle Jeffersonian foes

"Intolerable Acts"

- Acts that took away many of colonial Massachusetts' chartered rights - Restrictions place on town hall meetings, new Quartering Act mandated that British soldiers could stay anywhere

Compromise of 1850

- Admitted California as a free state - Opened New Mexico and Utah to popular sovereignty - Ended the slave trade (though not slavery itself) in Washington, D.C. - Introduce a more stringent fugitive slave law - Widely opposed in both the North and the South, and did little to settle the escalating dispute over slavery - North got the better deal, because California being admitted as a free state tipped the Senate balance against the South

Langston Hughes

- African-American poet and leading literary voice of the Harlem Renaissance - His modernist poems incorporated colloquial black speech and gave poetic expression to the 20th c. African-American condition

Great Rapprochement (1896)

- After decades of occasionally "twisting the lion's tail," American diplomats began to cultivate close, cordial relations with Great Britain at the end of the 19th c., a relationship that would intensify further during World War I

mining industry

- After gold and silver strikes in Colorado, Nevada, and other western territories in the 2nd half of the 19th c., fortune seekers by the thousands rushed to the West to dig - These metals were essential to U.S. industrial growth and were also sold into world markets - After surface metals were removed, people sought ways to extract ore from under the ground, leading to the development of heavy mining machinery - This in turn led to the consolidation of the mining industry, because only big companies could afford to buy and build the necessary machines

Tuscarora War

- After the Tuscarora Indians attacked North Carolina in 1711, the NC's joined with friends from the south to crush the Indians in war - Sold hundreds into slavery and left survivors wandering north looking for the Iroquois

Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)

- Agreement by which the US and Japan agreed to respect each other's territorial possessions in the Pacific and to uphold the Open Door in China - The agreement was credited with easing tensions between the two nations, but it also resulted in a weakened American influence over further Japanese hegemony in China

Compromise of 1877

- Agreement that finally resolved the 1876 election and officially ended Reconstruction - In exchange for the Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, winning the presidency, Hayes agreed to withdraw the last of the federal troops from the former Confederate states (Louisiana and South Carolina) - Republicans also assured Democrats that they would receive presidential patronage and support for a bill financing the Texas and Pacific Railroad's construction of a southern transcontinental line (promise wasn't kept) - Deal effectively completed the southern return to white-only, Democratic-dominated electoral politics - Sacrificed civil rights of southern blacks, and the Republican party quietly abandoned its commitment to racial equality

Convention of 1800

- Agreement to formally dissolve the US treaty with France, originally signed during the Rev War - In return, US had to pay damage claims of American shippers - Difficulties posed by America's peacetime alliance with France contributed to American's long-standing opposition to entangling alliances with foreign powers

Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810)

- Aimed at resuming peaceful trade with GB and France, the act stipulated that if either GB or France repealed its trade restrictions, the US would reinstate the embargo against the non repealing nation - When Napoleon offered to lift his restrictions on British ports, the US was forced to declare an embargo on GB, pushing them closer to war

Second Continental Congress (1775)

- All 13 colonies got together not to declare independence but to keep fighting in hopes of the king and parliament addressing their greivances - Drafted appeals that would be disregarded - Raised money for an army and navy

Corrupt bargain (1824)

- Alleged deal between presidential candidates John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay to throw the election, to be decided by the House of Representatives, in Adams's favor - Though never proven, the accusation became the rallying cry for supporters of Andrew Jackson, who had actually garnered a lot of the popular vote

Central Powers (1914)

- Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, later joined by Turkey and Bulgaria - Opposed the Allies in World War I

Allies (1914)

- Alliance of Great Britain, Russia, and France, later joined by Italy Japan, and the US - Opposed the Central Powers in World War I

Rome-Berlin Axis (1936)

- Alliance of Nazi Germany, led by Hitler, and Fascist Italy, led by Mussolini, formed by under this nefarious treaty - Pact was signed after both countries had intervened on behalf of the fascist leader Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War

Missouri Compromise (1820)

- Allowed Missouri to enter as a slave state but preserved the balance between North and South by carving free-soil Maine out of Massachusetts and prohibiting slavery from territories acquired in the Louisiana Purchase, north of the line of 36˚ 30' - Both the N and S won something: The S won the prize of Missouri as an unrestricted slave state and the N won the concession that Congress could forbid slavery in the remaining territories

Quebec Act

- Allowed the French residents of Quebec to retain their traditional political and religious institutions - Extended the boundaries of the province southward to the Ohio river - Taken by mistake by the colonists to be part of GB's response to the Boston Tea Party b/c it affected all the colonies

Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (1943)

- Allowed the federal government to seize and operate plants threatened by labor disputes - Passed amidst worries about the effects that labor strikes would have on war production - Criminalized strike action against government-run companies

Wagner Act (1935)

- Also known as the National Labor Relations Act - Protected the right of labor to organize in unions and bargain collectively with employers - Established the National Labor Relations Board to monitor unfair labor practices on the part of employers - Its passage marked the culmination of decades of labor protest

Wilmot Proviso (1846)

- Amendment that sought to prohibit slavery from territories acquired from Mexico - Introduced by Pennsylvania congressman David Wilmot, the failed amendment ratcheted up tensions between North and South over the issue of slavery - Eventually endorsed by the legislatures of all but one of the free states

Elizabeth Blackwell

- America's first female physician - Helped organize the U.S. Sanitary Commission during the Civil War to aid the Union War effort by training nurses, collecting medical supplies, and equipping hospitals

containment doctrine (1947)

- America's strategy against the Soviet Union based on the ideas of George Kennan - Declared that the Soviet Union and communism were inherently expansionist and had to be stopped from spreading through both military and political pressure - Containment guided American foreign policy throughout most of the Cold War

Matthew C. Perry

- American Naval Officer sent by Millard Fillmore to negotiate a trade deal with Japan - Backed by an impressive naval fleet - Showered Japanese negotiates with lavish gifts - Combined military bravado with diplomatic finesse to negotiate the landmark Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854, ending Japan's two centuries of isolation

How plans to further unify the U.S economy, such as the American System, generated debates over whether such policies would benefit agriculture or industry, potentially favoring different sections of the country (4.2)

- American System promoted by Henry Clay and Whigs [and later, Lincoln, who enacted much of it during Civil War]; North largely in favor, as it promoted the kind of society they were building - South preferred a less nationalist approach, and one more supportive of slavery and agriculture

Hudson River school (1820s-1830s)

- American artistic movement that produced romantic renditions of local landscapes - Celebrated the raw sublimity and grand divinity of nature - Led by British-born Thomas Cole and New Jerseyan Asher Durand

Francis Scott Key

- American author and lawyer who composed "The Star-Spangled Banner" (the national anthem) while watching Fort McHenry being bombarded from his detainment on a British ship

Charles A. Lindbergh

- American aviator who made history as the first person to fly solo across the Atlantic - Became an instant international hero, but his reputation was later tarnished by anti-Semitic vies he voiced during WWII

George F. Kennan

- American diplomat who authored the "containment doctrine" in 1947, arguing that the Soviet Union was inherently expansionist and had to be stopped, via political and military force, from spreading throughout the world

Nicholas P. Trist

- American diplomat who negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 - Ended the Mexican-American War and acquired a vast secession of territory from Mexico

Battle of Bunker Hill (1775)

- American forces mowed down oncoming British (who didn't flank but instead came head-on) until they ran out of gunpowder and had to abandon the hill - 3,000 British vs ~ 1,500 Americans

Were all the American grievances really justified, or were the British actually being more reasonable than most Americans have traditionally believed?

- American grievances were justified because they were being excessively taxed without representation in the Parliament and acts like the "Intolerable Acts" were annoying to Americans

Isaac Singer

- American inventor and manufacturer, who made his fortune by improving on Elias Howe's sewing machine - Fueled the ready-made clothing industry in NE

Alfred Thayer Mahan

- American naval officer and author whose book of 1890, "The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1600-1783," impressed a generation of imperialists around the world with its argument that control of the sea was the key to world dominance - Helped stimulate the naval race among the great powers that gained momentum around the turn of the century

John Foster Dulles

- American politician principally known for serving as Eisenhower's Secretary of State - Wanted to roll back the gains of the red tide while balancing the budget by cutting military spending - An ardent Cold Warrior, he drafted the "policy of boldness" designed to confront Soviet aggression with threat of "massive retaliation" via thermonuclear weapons, and supported American intervention in Vietnam

John Adams

- American revolutionary, statesmen, and 2nd president of the US - Radical patriot who guided the Continental Congress towards the idea of independence from England - 1778-1788, international diplomat to France, GB, and the Netherland - Elected president in 1796 after being Washington's VP - Administration suffered from Federalist infighting, international turmoil (with France), and domestic uproar over the Alien and Sedition Acts, all of which contributed to his defeat in the election of 1800 == Did not appeal to the masses ("respectful irritation")

Creole (1841)

- American ship captured by a group of rebelling Virginia slaves - Slaves successfully sought asylum in the Bahamas, raising fears among southern planters that the British West Indies would become a safe haven for runaway slaves

Meriwether Lewis

- American soldier and explorer who led the famous expedition through Louisiana territory from 1804-1806 - Briefly served as governor of Upper Louisiana territory before committing suicide

Robert R. Livingston

- American statesman who served as minister to France from 1801-1804 and negotiated the purchase of Louisiana Territory for $5 million more than he was supposed to - "Bought a wilderness to get a city"

To what degree was a unique American nationality developing in the eighteenth-century colonies? Were regional differences in the colonies growing more pronounced or retreating in the eighteenth century?

- An American nationality was developing with an emphasis on freedom - Regional differences still existed, the North was strict, traditional, lived in villages, and religious families, while the South was less strict, used private tutor, lived on plantations, and family were not as religiously moral

Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941)

- An American naval base in Hawaii where Japanese warplanes destroyed numerous ships and caused 3,000 casualties - FDR called it a day that would "live in infamy" - Attack brought the United States into WWII

Federal Reserve Act (1913)

- An act establishing twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks and a Federal Reserve Board, appointed by the president, to regulate banking and create stability on a national scale in the volatile banking sector - Board was also empowered to issue paper money, so the amount of money in circulation could be increased as needed for the legitimate requirements of business - The most important economic legislation between the Civil War and the New Deal - Carried the nation through the financial crises of WWI (1914-1918)

ABC-1 agreement (1941)

- An agreement between GB and the US developed at a conference in Washington DC between January 29 and March 27, 1941 - Stipulated that if the US were to enter WWII, the two nations and their allies would coordinate their military planning, making a priority of protecting the British Commonwealth - That would mean "getting Germany first" in the Atlantic and the European theater and fighting more defensively on other military fronts

sharecropping

- An agricultural system that emerged after the Civil War in which black and white farmers rented land and residences from a plantation owner in exchange for giving him a certain "share" of each year's crop - Sharecropping was the dominant form of southern agriculture after the Civil War, and landowners manipulated this system to keep tenants in perpetual debt and unable to leave their plantations - For generations to come, southern blacks were condemned to live under conditions scarcely better than slavery

Iroquois Confederacy

- An alliance of five northeastern Amerindian peoples (after 1722 six) that made decisions on military and diplomatic issues through a council of representatives - Fought with neighboring Indians at first then later the French, English, and Dutch over the fur trade - Worked the English and French rivalry to their advantage but British defeat shattered the confederation

Keynesianism (1930s)

- An economic theory based on the thoughts of British economist John Maynard Keynes - Held that central banks should adjust interest rates and governments should use deficit spending and tax policies to increase purchasing power and hence prosperity - Was a major turning point in the government's relation to the economy, and it became the new economic orthodoxy and remained so for decades

abstract expressionism

- An experimental style of mid 20th century modern art exemplified by Jackson Pollock's spontaneous "action paintings," created by flinging paint on canvases stretched across the study floor - Abandoned realistic representation

Quarantine Speech (1937)

- An important speech by FDR in which he called for "positive endeavors" to "quarantine" land-hungry dictators, presumably through economic embargoes - The speech triggered protest from isolationist politicians, who feared that this policy would lead to war - Startled by this response, FDR retreated and sought less direct means to curb the dictators

World Trade Organization (WTO) (est. 1995)

- An international body created to promote and supervise liberal trade among nations - Successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (1948) - Marked a key world trade policy achievement of the Clinton administration

Boxer Rebellion (1900)

- An uprising in China directed against foreign influence - "Boxers" killed more than 200 foreigners and thousands of Chinese Christians, also besieged the foreign diplomatic community in the capital of Beijing - Suppressed by an international force of some 18,000 soldiers, including several thousand Americans - Paved the way for the revolution of 1911, which led to the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912

contras

- Anti-Sandinista fighters in the Nicaraguan civil war - Were secretly supplied with American military aid, paid for with money the US made by covertly selling arms to Iran

Nelson Mandela

- Anti-apartheid activist and leader of the African National Congress - After spending 27 years in prison in South Africa, Mandela became the first black president of South Africa in 1994, dramatically signaling the end of racial apartheid in the country

Liberty Party (Est. 1840 - 1848)

- Antislavery candidates in the 1840 and 1844 elections before merging with the Free Soil party - Supporters sought to eventually abolish slavery, but in the short run hoped to hold expansion of slavery into territories and abolish the domestic slave trade - Hastened the annexation of Texas

The Impending Crisis of the South (1857)

- Antislavery tract, written by white southerner Hinton R. Helper, arguing that nonslaveholding whites actually suffered most in a slave economy - Fueled fear among the South's planter elite that the nonslaveholding majority would abandon them - Used as campaign literature for Republicans in the North, which the South disliked

International Style

- Archetypal, post WWII modernist architectural style - best known for its "curtain-wall" designs of steel-and-glass corporate high-rises

William Lloyd Garrison

- Ardent abolitionist and publisher of "The Liberator," an antislavery newspaper that advocated the immediate emancipation of slaves - In 1833, he founded the American Anti-Slavery Society, the largest abolitionist organization in the North, counting more than 250,000 members by 1838 - Advocated for the "Virtuous" North to secede from the "wicked" South but didn't explain how the creation of an independent slave republic would end slavery

English Civil War

- Armed conflict between royalists and parliamentarians - Resulted in the victory of pro-Parliament forces and the execution of Charles I

Paxton Boys

- Armed march on Philadelphia by Scotts-Irish frontiersmen in protest against the Quaker establishment's lenient policies toward Native Americans.

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty (1987)

- Arms limitation agreement settled by Reagan and Gorbachev after several attempts - Banned all intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe and marked a significant thaw in the cold war

Fletcher v. Peck (1810)

- Arose when a Georgie legislature was swayed by bribery and granted 35 million acres to private speculators, and then the next legislature tried to cancel it (folding to public outrage), but Marshall said they had to honor the contract even though it was made fradulently - Established firmer protection for private property and asserted the rights of the Supreme Court to invalidate state laws in conflict with the Federal Constitution

Dawes Plan (1924)

- Arrangement negotiated to reschedule German reparations payments - Stabilized the German economy and opened the way for further American private loans to Germany - Financial cycle turned into US bankers loaning money to Germany, Germany paying reparations to France and Britain, and then France and Britain paying war debts to the US, which boosted American credit (and later crashed during the Great Depression)

Lord De La Warr

- Arrived in 1610 delivering orders from the Virginia Company to declare war against the Indian tribes in the Jamestown area - Used "Irish tactics" to attack, including raiding villages, burning houses, confiscating things, and burning cornfields

William D. ("Big Bill") Haywood

- As a leader of the Industrial Workers of the World, the Western Federation of Miners, and the Socialist Party of America, Haywood was one of the most feared American labor radicals - During WWI, he became a special target of anti-leftist legislation - Convicted along with his associates under the Espionage Act and Sedition Act

In what ways was colonial life attractive, and in what ways would it seem tedious and dull to the average twenty-first-century American? How were the educational, cultural, and leisured sides of colonial life affected by the basic nature of the economy?

- Attractive b/c religious freedom, easier to move up the social ladder, only paid 1/4 of the taxes that English citizens paid, rules were less strictly enforced - Unattractive because work was from sunup to sundown and was difficult, no running water, indoor plumbing, or lighting, and food was bland - Rise in population ==> rise in schools, but in the south tutors were hired because schools were too far - Different cultures were settled based on availability of land - Economy revolved around agriculture, which required long, hard labor and left little time for anything else

What was attractive and unattractive about the closely knit New England way of life?

- Attractive because their life spans were longer, families were stable, Puritanism made for unity and purpose, foundations of democracy started in Puritan churches - However, also gave way to the Salem witch trials and harsh treatment of dissenters

Sigmund Freud

- Austrian physician who led the way in developing the field of psychoanalysis - One of the most influential minds of the 20th c. - Known for his argument that sexual repression was responsible for a variety of nervous and emotional ills

Thomas Jefferson

- Author of the Declaration of Independence - Ambassador to France, 3rd president of the US - Leader of the Democratic-Republican party who advocated for a limited national government, particularly financially - Established rule where people could sit anywhere at dinner regardless of rank (pellmell) - Had 2 personalities, the scholarly philosopher and the harassed public official - Repealed many policies that the Fed government put in place (Except Ham's financial system) - Oversaw significant expansion of the federal state thru the purchase of Louisiana Territory and the enactment of the Embargo of 1807 - Since opposition to the Feds held the D-R's together and the Feds were fading, TJeff had to use his own charm to hold the party together

Frederick Jackson Turner

- Author of the famous "frontier thesis," in which Turner argued that the taming of the West had shaped the nation's character - The experience of molding wilderness into civilization, he argued, encouraged Americans' characteristic embrace of individualism and democracy - Although turner is now criticized for, among other things, entirely ignoring the role of Native Americans in the West, his argument remains a keystone of thought about the West in American history

Noche triste

- Aztecs attacked the Spanish and chased them away from Tenochtitlán - Cortes then laid siege to the city and it fell

Nicholas Biddle

- Banker, financier, and President of the Second Bank of the US from 1822 until the bank's charter expired in 1836 - Held an an immense (and to many constitutional) amount of power over the nation's financial affairs

Proclamation of 1763

- Banned settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians - Not designed to oppress colonists but instead to prevent another bloody eruption like Pontiac's uprising - ==> Rebellious colonists did it anyway

Lend-Lease Bill (1941)

- Based on the motto "Send guns, not sons" - Abandoned former pretenses of neutrality by allowing Americans to sell unlimited supplies of arms to any nation defending itself against the Axis powers - Patriotically numbered 1776, the bill was praised as a device for keeping the nation out of WWII - Opposition came from isolationists and anti-Roosevelt Republicans - Was, in effect, an economic declaration of war

Bank War (1832)

- Battle between President Andrew Jackson and congressional supporters of the Bank of the US over the bank's renewal (Clay and Webster wanted to renew it earlier) - Jackson vetoed the bank bill, arguing that the bank favored moneyed interests at the expense of western farmers and that the monopolistic bank was unconstitutional

Battle of Wounded Knee (1890)

- Battle between the U.S. Army and the Dakota Sioux, in which 200 Native Americans and 29 U.S. soldiers died - Tensions erupted violently over two major issues: the Sioux practice of the "Ghost Dance," which the U.S. government had outlawed, and the dispute over whether Sioux reservation land would be broken up because of the Dawes Act

Battle of Long Island

- Battle for control of New York - British troops overwhelmed the colonial militias and retained control of the city for most of the war - Washington and his troops barely escaped

How an ambiguous relationship between the federal government and American Indian tribes contributed to problems regarding treaties and American Indian legal claims relating to seizure of their lands (3.3)

- Battle of Fallen Timbers resulted in the Treaty of Greenville, in which the Miami confederacy gave up Northwest land in return for money and some sovereignty

Pequot War

- Battles between English settlers and Pequot Indians in the Connecticut River valley - Resulted in the slaughtering of the Pequots by the Puritans and their Narragansett Indian allies - Kicked off decades of uneasy peace

James Meredith

- Became the first black American to attend the University of Mississippi in 1962 after being blocked several times by segregationist politicians - An icon of the Civil Rights Movement - Receded from public view following his brave steps toward educational integration

Why was the French Empire ultimately so much less successful than either the Spanish or the British Empires?

- Because of foreign wars, and domestic strife, including frightful clashes between Roman Catholics and Protestant Huguenots - France did not force people to move to the New World and the amount of land France had was not equal to the wealth gained from it

Arminianism

- Belief that salvation is offered to all humans but is conditional on acceptance of God's grace. Different from Calvinism, which emphasizes predestination and unconditional election.

Manifest Destiny (1840s and 1850s)

- Belief that the US was destined by God to spread its "empire of liberty" across North America - Served as a justification for mid 19th c. expansionism

Social Darwinists (Late 1800s)

- Believers in the idea, popular in the late 19th century, that people gained wealth by "survival of the fittest" - Therefore, the wealthy had simply won a natural competition and owed nothing to the poor, and indeed service to the poor would interfere this organic process - Some Social Darwinists also applied this theory to whole nations and races, explaining that powerful peoples were naturally endowed with gifts that allowed them to gain superiority over others - This theory provided one of the popular justifications for US imperial ventures like the Spanish-American War

Poor Richard's Almanack (1732-1758)

- Ben Franklin's collection of wisdom and advice to old and young people and emphasized thrift, industry, morality, and common sense

The Feminine Mystique (1963)

- Best-selling book by feminist thinker Betty Friedan - Challenged women to move beyond the drudgery of suburban housewifery and helped launch what would become second-wave feminism

Martin Delany

- Black abolitionist and advocate of relocating freed blacks to Africa, even visiting West Africa's Niger Valley in search of a suitable location in 1859

David Walker

- Black abolitionist and author of the incendiary "Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World," which advocated a bloody end to white supremacy

Sojourner Truth

- Black abolitionist, preacher, and woman's rights activist - Worked tirelessly on behalf of slaves and freed blacks

Malcolm X

- Black militant, radical minister, and spokesman for the Nation of Islam until 1964 - Having eschewed his family name "Little," he preached a doctrine of no compromise with white society - Was assassinated in NYC in 1965

United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) (1914)

- Black nationalist organization founded in 1914 by the Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey in order to promote resettlement of African Americans to their "African homeland" and to stimulate a vigorous separate black economy within the United States - While Garvey's financial enterprises ultimately failed, the race bride that he inspired among the UNIA followers helped city newcomers gain self-confidence and self-reliance in cities

Nat Turner

- Black slave who led an ill-fated rebellion in Virginia in 1831 - Deeply-religious turner sought a violent overthrow to the sinful institution of slavery - Before they were apprehended, Turner and his followers murdered more than 60 whites, sending a shockwave thru the South

Dred Scott

- Black slave who sued his master for freedom, triggering the landmark Supreme Court decision that extended federal protection for slavery in the territories - Was backed by abolitionists and based his case on the 5 years he spent with his master in free soil Illinois and Wisconsin

Battle of Shiloh (April 1862)

- Bloody Civil War battle on the Tennessee-Mississippi border that left more than 23,000 soldiers dead, wounded, or missing, and ended in a marginal Union victory - Grant had intended to capture the junction of the main Confederate north-south and east-west railroads in the Mississippi Valley, but was foiled - Although Grant successfully counterattacked, the Confederate strength during this battle confirmed there would be no quick end to the war in the West

Samuel Adams

- Boston revolutionary who organized Massachusetts' committees of correspondence to help sustain opposition to British policies - A delegate to the First and Second Continental Congresses - continued to play a key role throughout the revolutionary and early national periods, later serving as governor of Massachussets - Called the common people his "trained mob"

John Hancock

- Boston smuggler and prominent leader of the colonial resistance - served as president of the Second Continental Congress. - became the first governor of Massachusetts in 1780

Winslow Homer

- Boston-born artist who excelled in portraying New England's pastoral farms and swelling seas in the native realist style

Ralph Waldo Emerson

- Boston-born scholar and leading American transcendentalist - Essays, most notably "Self-Reliance," stressed individualism, self-improvement, optimism, and freedom - Lyceum lecturer and influential practical philosopher and public intellectual - Outspoken critic of slavery, and supported the Union cause in the Civil War

Nonimportation agreements

- Boycotts against British goods adopted in response to the Stamp Act and, later, the Townshend and Intolerable Acts - the most effective form of protest against British policies in the colonies - ==> English laborers thrown out of work due to lack of exports

Muckrakers (1890s-1920s)

- Bright young reporters at the turn of the 20th c. who won this unfavorable nickname from Teddy Roosevelt - Boosted the circulations of their magazines by writing exposés of widespread corruption in American society - Subjects included business manipulation of government, white slavers, child labor, and the illegal deeds of the trusts - Helped spur the passage of reform legislation, but by arousing public conscience, not drastic political change - Sought to cleanse American capitalism and democracy

In 1775, which side would a neutral observer have expected to win—Britain or the colonies? Why?

- Britain, because it had the sheer manpower and a trained army

West Africa Squadron (est. 1808)

- British Royal Navy force formed to enforce the abolition of the slave trade in 1807 - Intercepted hundreds of slave ships and freed thousands of Africans - Suppression of the international slave trade ==> growth of a vigorous internal slave trade

Samuel Slater

- British born mechanic and father of the American "Factory System," establishing textile mills throughout New England - Put the first efficient American machinery for spinning cotton thread in place in 1791

George Canning

- British foreign secretary who proposed that the US combine with Britain in a joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin American territory, and specifically warning the European despots to keep away from Latin American republics - Adams thought that this was Britain's way of protecting their stake in Cuba from America

Treaty of Paris (1783)

- British formally recognized the independence of the US - British ceded territory east of the Mississippi - Americans promised to restore Loyalist property and repay debts to British creditors

Lord Charles Cornwallis

- British general during the Revolutionary War who, having failed to crush Greene's forces in South Carolina, retreated to Virginia, where his defeat at Yorktown marked the beginning of the end for Britain's efforts to suppress the colonial rebellion

Isaac Brock

- British general who helped fight off an American invasion of Upper Canada during the war of 1812 - Successfully captured Detroit from American forces in August 1812, but died later that year

John "Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne

- British general who led an ill-fated invasion of upstate New York, suffering a crushing defeat by George Washington at Saratoga

Charles Darwin

- British naturalist whose 1859 book "On the Origin of Species" outlined a theory of evolution based on natural selection, in which the strongest individuals of a particular species survived and reproduced while weaker individuals died out - Theory had an enormous impact not just on science but on religion and society as well, as people wrestled with the challenge evolutionary theory posed to Biblical notions of divine creation and applied the idea of natural selection to human society

Lusitania (1915)

- British passenger liner that sank after it was torpedoed by Germany on May 7, 1915 - Germany justified the attack by saying the ship was carrying small-arms ammunition - Killed 1,198 people, including 128 Americans, and pushed the US closer to war - Led to heightened anti-German sentiment in the US

William Wilberforce

- British politician who championed the abolition of the slave trade, and later slavery itself - Evangelical Christian who delivered rousing speeches on the floor of the Commons, galvanizing public support for the abolitionist cause

Charles ("Champagne Charley") Townshend

- British prime minister whose Townshend Acts, sparked fierce protests in the colonies and escalated the imperial conflict

Thomas Paine

- British-born pamphleteer and author of Common Sense, a fiery tract that laid out the case for American independence - Later an ardent supporter of the French Revolution, Paine became increasingly radical in his views, publishing the anti-clerical The Age of Reason in 1794, which cost him the support of his American allies.

Alabama (1862-1864)

- British-built and manned Confederate warship that raided Union shipping during the Civil War - One of many built by the British for the Confederacy, despite Union protests - Officered by Confederates but was manned by Britons and never entered a Confederate port - Made Britain the chief naval base of the Confederacy - Competing British shippers were delighted while the North was angry that they had to divert naval strength from its blockade to deal with the "British Pirates"

Henry VIII

- Broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s and launched the English Protestant Reformation

Walt Whitman

- Brooklyn-bron poet and author of "Leaves of Grass," a collection of poems written largely in free verse, which exuberantly celebrated America's democratic spirit - Located divinity in commonplace natural objects and in the human body

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (1933)

- Brought cheap electric power, full employment, low-cost housing, and environmental improvements to Americans in the Tennessee Valley - Aimed to discover how much the production and distribution of electricity cost, so that a "yardstick" could be established to test the fairness of rates charged by private companies, which utility corporations didn't like - One of the most revolutionary of the New Deal public works projects

Stamp Act Congress

- Brought delegates from 9 colonies to NYC to draw up a statement of their rights and grievances to convince the king and Parliament to repeal the legislation - Significant step towards intercolonial unity

Robert S. McNamara

- Businessman turned Secretary of Defense from 1969-1968 - Was the author of the "flexible response" doctrine, which created a variety of military options and avoided a stark choice between nuclear warfare and none at all - As Defense Secretary, he was the chief architect of the Vietnam War

Bay of Pigs invasion (1961)

- CIA plot in 1961 to overthrow Fidel Castro by training Cuban exiles to invade and supporting them with American airpower - Mission failed and became a public relations disaster early in JFK's presidency - Drove Castro and the Cuban government further into the Soviet's hands

responsorial

- Call and response style of preaching that melded Christian and African traditions - Practiced by African slaves in the South

Shakers (est. 1770s)

- Called "Shakers" for their lively dance worship - Emphasized simple, communal living and were all expected to practice celibacy - First transplanted to America from England by Mother Ann Lee, the Shakers counted 6,000 members by 1840, though by the 1950s the movement had largely died out

New Jersey Plan

- Called for equal representation in a unicameral Congress that didn't take size or population into account, as stated in the existing Articles of Confederation - Small states feared that the Virginia Plan would result in the bigger states ruling over the rest

Virginia Plan

- Called for representation in bicameral Congress to be based on population, which gave the larger states an advantage - ==> Smaller states creating their own plan for representation

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) (1960)

- Cartel comprising Middle Eastern states and Venezuela first organized in 1960 - Aimed to control access to and prices of oil, wresting power from Western oil companies and investors - In the process, it gradually strengthened the hand of non-Western powers on the world stage

Cohens v. Virginia (1821)

- Case that reinforced federal supremacy by establishing the right of the Supreme Court to renew decisions of state supreme courts in question involving the powers of the federal government - Angered states' rights proponents

Glorious (or Bloodless) Revolution (1688-1689)

- Catholic James II was dethroned and Dutch William III and English Mary II were brought to the throne - ==> collapse of the Dominion when a Boston mob picked up on the zeal

Father Charles Coughlin

- Catholic priest from Michigan who goaded 40 million radio listeners with his weekly anti-New Deal harangues - Made his fans anti-Semitic, fascistic, and demagogic - Was a well known opponent of FDR's New Deal policies

What were the causes and effects of the Great Awakening? How did such an intense religious revival affect those who experienced conversion as well as those who did not? How did the Awakening help to create a sense of shared American identity?

- Caused by the Enlightenment in Europe making devout Christians feel like they were losing their connection with God through these discoveries - Effects: included a revived sense of religious purpose, greater emphasis on education, various Christian sects grew in size and importance, and religion once again became a large part of life - Affected those with conversion because it assured them that they would get into heaven and looked down on the non-converted - Religion became a common ground and a similar way of life for the colonies

Bank of the United States (1791)

- Chartered by Congress as part of Alexander Hamilton' s financial program, the bank printed paper money and served as a depository for Treasury funds - Drew opposition from Jeffersonian Republicans, who argued that the bank was unconstitutional b/c the Constitution did not authorize the government to charter banks (thought states should do that)

John Marshall

- Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1801 until his death in 1835 - Strengthened the role of the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review - Court also expanded the power of the federal government thru a series of decisions that established federal supremacy over the states - Continued Federalist ideas even after the party died

Roger B. Taney

- Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1836-1864 - Overturned Marshall's strict emphasis on contract rights, ruling in favor of community interest in the famous Charles River Bridge case in 1837 - Also presided over the landmark Dred Scott decision, which ruled that Congress had no power to restrict slavery in the territories and that slaves were not citizens of the US but only property

Warren E. Burger

- Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1969 to 1986 - Was responsible for bringing the Court somewhat back to the right after the liberal Earl Warren years - Presided over major cases involving abortion, affirmative action, the death penalty, and school desegregation

Jerry Falwell

- Christian evangelical reverend and radical right-wing traditionalist - In 1979, Falwell founded the Moral Majority, a political action committee dedicated to moral values and in opposition to feminism and gay rights

How were government and religion—or church and state—related in New England and the middle colonies? How does the colonial view of these matters compare with more recent understandings?

- Church and state were tightly related because only Puritans were allowed to contribute to the representative government - Religious leaders yielded great power in the commonwealth because they controlled admission to the church - Just like today, where Church and State are separate, some minority groups argued for religious toleration and this was eventually added to the Bill of Rights

Republicanism

- Citizens should willingly put aside their selfish interests for the common good - Stability of society depends on the virtue of its citizens - Opposed to aristocracy and monarchy

Battle of Gettysburg (July 1863)

- Civil War battle in Pennsylvania that ended in Union victory, spelling doom for the Confederacy, which never again managed to invade the North - Site of General George Pickett's daring but doomed charge on the Northern Lines - Jefferson Davis hoped his negotiators would arrive in Washington from the South just as Lee's triumphant army marched on it from Gettysburg to the north, but Lincoln's victory at Gettysburg allowed him to block the Confederate peace mission from passing Union lines

Second Battle of Bull Run (August 1862)

- Civil War battle that ended in a decisive victory for Confederate general Robert E. Lee, who was emboldened to push further into the North - Lee defeated General John Pope, and hoped to strike a strong enough blow in Maryland to not only encourage foreign intervention but also seduce the still-wavering Border State and its sisters from the Union, though Maryland didn't give in

Ex parte Milligan (1866)

- Civil War-era case in which the Supreme Court ruled that military tribunals could not be used to try civilians if civil courts were open - Example of the peacetime military rule seemed starkly contrary to the spirit of the Constitution

Martin Luther King, Jr.

- Civil rights leader and Baptist preacher who rose to prominence with the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 and founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957 - SCLC aimed to mobilize - Was an outspoken advocate for black rights throughout the 1960s, most famously during the 1964 March on Washington where he delivered the "I have a Dream" speech - Was assassinated in Memphis in 1968 while supporting a sanitation workers' strike

Bleeding Kansas (1856-1861)

- Civil war in Kansas over the issue of slavery in the territory, fought intermittently until 1861, when it merged with the wider national Civil War

Revolution of 1800

- Close electoral victory of Democratic Republicans over the Federalists, who lost their congressional majority and the presidency - Peaceful transfer of power between rival parties solidified faith in America's political system

Orders in Council (1806-1807)

- Closed the European ports under French control to foreign shipping, including American, unless the vessels first stopped at a British port - Napoleon retaliated by ordering the seizure of all merchant ships, including American, that entered British ports - Cut off American trade with both parties

Manhattan Project (1942)

- Code name for the American commission established in 1942 to develop the atomic bomb - The first experimental bomb was detonated on July 16, 1945, in the desert of New Mexico - Atomic bombs were then dropped on two cities in Japan in hopes of bringing the war to an end: Hiroshima on August 6th, and Nagasaki on August 9, 1945

The Federalist

- Collection of essays written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton - Lay out federalist arguments in favor of the new Constitution - Important source for constitutional interpretation

land-grant colleges

- Colleges and universities created from allocations of public land through the Morrill Act of 1862 and the Hatch Act of 1887 - These grants helped fuel the boom in higher education in the late 19th c. and many of today's public universities derive from them

Loyalists

- Colonials loyal to the king, AKA Tories - Most numerous in places where the Anglican church was strong

Royal colonies

- Colonies controlled by the British king through governors appointed by him and through the king's veto power over colonial laws.

Proprietary colonies

- Colonies in which the proprietors (who had obtained their patents from the king) named the governors, subject to the king's approval.

Roanoke Island

- Colony established by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585 in North Carolina, which eventually failed

Jamestown

- Colony set up on the malarial banks of the James River, which was easy to defend but mosquito infested and unhealthy - 1606-1607: 40 colonists died - 1609: Leaders and supplies shipwrecked - The English "gentleman" were more focused on looking for nonexistent gold than finding food

Alfred E. "Al" Smith

- Colorful New York governor who was the unsuccessful Democratic candidate for president in 1928 - His Catholicism and "wet" stance on Prohibition made him a controversial figure, even in the traditionally loyal Democratic South - Although Smith lost the electoral vote to a Hoover landslide, his appeal to urban voters foreshadowed the Northern urban and Southern coalition that would gain Franklin Roosevelt the White House in 1932 - Swept 5 states of the former Confederacy and all of the Border States, which was unusual for a Republican candidate

George Dewey

- Commander of the American Asiatic Squadron who boldly captured Manila Bay and the Philippines at the launch of the Spanish American War - His actions ultimately led to fierce debates about the propriety of American imperialism

Henry Hudson

- Commissioned by the Dutch to find a shortcut through the continent but instead found a wooded and watered area for the Dutch near the Delaware and New York Bays

New Harmony (1825-1827)

- Communal society of around 1,000 members, established in New Harmony, Indiana, by Robert Owen - The community attracted a hodgepodge of individuals, form scholars to crooks, and fell apart due to infighting and confusion after just two years

holding companies

- Companies that own part or all of other companies' stock in order to extend monopoly control - Often, a holding company does not produce goods or services of its own but only exists to control other companies - The Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914 sought to clamp down on these companies when they obstructed competition

Robert E. Lee

- Confederate general in command of first, the Army of the Potomac, and later, the entire Confederate army during the Civil War - Was a bold tactician who kept his army on the offensive throughout most of the war, skillfully outmaneuvering Union armies in key battles - Lee's fortunes reversed after his defeat at Gettysburg, though he continued to battle Union forces throughout Virginia until his surrender at Appomatox - After the war Lee was indicted for treason but never charged, and he actively worked to bring about a peaceful reunion of North and South

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)

- Congressional legislation that established the Interstate Commerce Commission, compelled railroads to publish standard rates, and prohibited rebates and pools - Railroads quickly became adept at using the act to achieve their own ends, but it gave the government an important means to regulate big business - Tended to stabilize, not revolutionize, the existing business system, but was the first large-scale federal attempt to regulate business in the interest of society at large

Harriet Beecher Stowe

- Connecticut-born abolitionist and author of best-selling Uncle Tom's cabin, a novel that awakened millions of Northerners to the cruelty of slavery - Novel helped start the Civil War and also helped the North win

Margaret Thatcher

- Conservative Prime Minister of Britain from 1979 to 1990 - An ideological partner to President Ronald Reagan - Enacted economic liberalization reforms (reduce government involvement in business )and attempted to to check the power of labor unions in GB - Led a successful British military operation in the Falkland Islands war in 1982

Phyllis Schlafly

- Conservative activist and antifeminist who argued that the ERA would remove traditional protections that women enjoyed by forcing the law to see them as men's equals - Thought that the ERA would threaten the basic family structure of American society - Started the STOP ERA campaign (Stop Taking Our Privileges), which was very successful and stopped the ratification of the amendment

Thirteenth Amendment (1865)

- Constitutional amendment prohibiting all forms of slavery and involuntary servitude - Former Confederate states were required to ratify the amendment prior to gaining reentry into the Union - Legally achieved the principles of the Emancipation Proclamation

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

- Constitutional amendment that extended civil rights to freedmen and prohibited states from taking away such rights without due process 1) Conferred civil rights, including citizenship, for freedmen 2) Reduced proportionately the representation of a state in Congress and in the Electoral College if it denied blacks the vote, ending the 3/5s clause but stopping short of the right to vote 3) Disqualified former Confederates from taking federal and state office 4) Guaranteed the national debt, while repudiating all Confederate debts - Inserted the word "male" into the Constitution in referring to the Constitution in referring to a citizen's right to vote - One of the most sweeping amendments ever passed and became a major pillar of constitutional law

Eighteenth Amendment (1919)

- Constitutional amendment that prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages - Ushered in the era known as prohibition - Especially popular in the South and West - However, prohibitionists, were very naive because they ignored that fact that outlawing something overnight that has never been regarded as a crime is nearly impossible and that the government was incapable of enforcing a law that was opposed by the majority of people - Not a complete failure, because bank savings increased, absenteeism in industry decreased, and death rates from alcoholism declined - As a whole, less alcohol was consumed than before prohibition

Olive Branch Petition

- Continental Congress wrote this professing American loyalty to the crown and begging the king to prevent further hostilities, but the king refused and declared the colonies were in rebellion

Hartford Convention (1814-1815)

- Convention of Federalists from 5 NE states who opposed the War of 1812 and resented the strength of southern and western interests in Congress and the White House - Wanted to abolish the 3/5s clause, to limit presidents to a single term, and to prohibit the election of two successive presidents from the same state (they didn't like the Virginia Dynasty) - But, right when they were going to present their ideas to Washington the Treaty of Ghent was announced and their complaints were rendered petty - The end of the Federalist party

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

- Convention of major European powers to redraw the boundaries of continental Europe after the defeat of Napoleon's France - Distracted GB from peace treaties with the Americans

Admiralty courts

- Courts where juries are not allowed and the defendants have the burden of proof (guilty until proved innocent)

Judiciary Act of 1801

- Created 16 new federal judgeships and other judicial offices passed by the expiring Federalist Congress - Ensured a Federalist hold on the judiciary

The Association

- Created from the Congress, called for a complete boycot of British goods: nonimportation, nonexportation, and nonconsumption

Glass-Stegall Banking Act (1933)

- Created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which insured individual bank deposits - Ended a century-long tradition of unstable banking that had reached a crisis in the Great Depression

insurrectos

- Cuban insurgents who sought freedom from colonial Spanish rule - Their destructive tactics threatened American economic interests in Cuban plantations and railroads

Fidel Castro

- Cuban revolutionary who overthrew Batista dictatorship in 1958 and assumed control of the island country - His connections with the Soviet Union led to a cessation of diplomatic relations with the US and such international affairs as the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis - A controversial figure, Castro oversaw his country through the end of the Cold War, when financial and military support form the Soviet Union dissipated, and through nearly a half-century of trade embargo with the US - Remained the head of Cuba's government until his retirement in February 2008

Seventh of March speech (1850)

- Daniel Webster's impassioned address urging the North to support the Compromise of 1850 - Argued that the topography and climate would keep slavery from becoming entrenched in Mexican Cession territory (later proved wrong b/c California became a major cotton state) and urged northerns to make all reasonable concessions to prevent disunion - Webster saw disunion worse than the evils of slavery

Jacob A. Riis

- Danish-born police reporter and pioneering photographer who exposed the ills of tenement (slum) living in his 1890 book illustrated with powerful photographs, "How the Other Half Lives" - Work led to the establishment of "model tenements" in NYC

Black Monday (October 19, 1987)

- Date of the largest single-day decline in the Dow Jones Industrial Average until September 2001 - The downturn indicated instability in the booming business culture of the 1980s but did not lead to a serious economic recession

Battle of Saratoga (1777)

- Decisive colonial victory in Upstate New York - Helped secure French support for the Revolutionary cause - Burgoyne surrendered to Horatio Gates

Battle of Fredericksburg (1862)

- Decisive victory in Virginia for Confederate Robert E. Lee, who successfully repelled a Union attack on his lines - More than 10,000 Union soldiers were killed due to General Burnside's rash frontal attack on Lee's strong position

Declaration of the Rights of Man

- Declaration of rights adopted during the French Revolution - Modeled after the American Declaration of Independence

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

- Declared all slaves in rebelling states to be free but did not affect slavery in nonrebelling Border States - Was a stronger at being a proclamation than an emancipation, because where he *could* free slaves he would not, while where he *would* free slaves he could not - Unofficial liberation did take place - In his proclamation, Lincoln addressed the fleeing slaves' plight and strengthened the moral cause of the Union at home and abroad, while foreshadowing the ultimate doom of slavery - The proclamation closed the door on possible compromise with the South and encouraged thousands of Southern slaves to flee to Union lines - Also caused desertions from Border State soldiers who had agreed to fight for the Union, not against slavery

Freeport Doctrine (1858)

- Declared that since slavery could not exist without laws to protect it, territorial legislatures, not the Supreme Court, would have the final say on the slavery question - First Argued by Stephen Douglas in 1858 in response to Lincoln's "Freeport Question"

Yamasee Indians

- Defeated by the south Carolinans in the war of 1715-1716. The Yamasee defeat devastated the last of the coastal Indian tribes in the Southern colonies

Robert F. Wagner

- Democratic Senator from New York State from 1927-1949 - Responsible for the passage of some of the most important legislation enacted through the New Deal - The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 was popularly known as the Wagner Act in honor of the Senator - Also played a major role in the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 and the Wagner-Steagall Housing Act of 1937

Hillary Rodham Clinton

- Democratic Senator from New York who, in 2008, became the first highly competitive female candidate for president - A lawyer and political activist, Clinton was First Lady from 1993 to 2001, and then became the first former First Lady to serve in elected office when she was elected to the Senate - Tried unsuccessfully to win the Democratic nomination for President in 2008

William Jennings Bryan

- Democratic congressman from Nebraska who was an outspoken "free silver" advocate - His "Cross of Gold" speech at the Democratic convention in 1896 won him the party's nomination

Clement L. Vallandigham

- Democratic congressman from Ohio who led the Copperhead faction of the party in opposition to the Civil War - Convicted by a military tribunal for his treasonous outbursts, Vallandigham was banished to the South, though he later made his way to Canada and made an unsuccessful bid for the Ohio governorship

baby boom (1946-1964)

- Demographic explosion from births to returning soldiers and others who had put off starting families during the war - This large generation of new Americans forced the expansion of many institutions such as schools and universities

scalawags (1860s)

- Derogatory term for pro-Union Southerners (often former Unionists and Whigs) whom Southern Democrats accused of plundering the resources of the South in collusion with Republican governments after the Civil War

Blue laws

- Despite being fairly modern with economic opportunity, civil liberty, and religious freedom, these laws also banned plays, cars, dice, excessive hilarity, and "ungodly revelers"

mechanization of agriculture (1870s & 1880s)

- Development of engine-driven machines like the combine, which helped to dramatically increase the productivity of land in the 1870s and 80s - This process contributed to the consolidation of agricultural business that drove many family farms out of existence

How did Indian societies of South and North America differ from European societies at the time the two came into contact? In what ways did Indians retain a worldview different from that of the Europeans?

- Different physically and spiritually. The Native Americans were a small group of only 4 million, not taking up much of the land. Unlike the Europeans, the Native Americans believed nature was connected with spiritual properties. The Indian societies were not as advanced as the European societies, having not changed or developed the natural land. Also, the Indians had no concept of money, while the Europeans valued money greatly

XYZ Affair (1797)

- Diplomatic conflict between France and the US when US envoys to France were asked to pay a hefty bribe for the privilege of meeting with the French foreign minister, Talleyrand - Many Americans called for war against France, while American sailors and privateers waged an undeclared war against French merchants in the Carribbean

Caroline (1837)

- Diplomatic row between the US and GB - Developed after GB troops set fire to an American steamer carrying supplies across the Niagara River to Canadian insurgents, during Canada's short-lived insurrection - Americans protested the flagrant violation of neutrality

Trent Affair (1861)

- Diplomatic row that threatened to bring the British into the Civil War on the side of the Confederacy, after a Union warship stopped a British steamer and arrested two Confederate diplomats on board - The London Foreign Office prepared an ultimatum demanding surrender of the prisoners and an apology, and slow communications gave passions on both sides time to cool, so Lincoln released them saying they had to fight "one war at a time."

Romanticism (1800-1855)

- Early 19th c. movement in European and American literature and the arts that, in reaction to the hyper-rational Enlightenment - Emphasized imagination over reason, nature over civilization, intuition over calculation, and the self over society

Randolph Bourne

- Early 20th c. critic who advocated greater cross-fertilization among immigrants - Believed that the United States should engage in cosmopolitan interchange to become more international and multicultural - Essays left behind an important legacy for later writers on pluralism and civil rights

National Recovery Administration (NRA) (est. 1933)

- Early New Deal program designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed - utilized centralized planning mechanisms that monitored workers' earnings and working hours to distribute work and established codes for "fair competition" - helped ensure that similar procedures were followed by all firms in any particular industrial sector - Known by its critics as the "National Run Around" - Combined immediate relief with long-range recovery and reform

Thorstein Veblen

- Eccentric Norwegian-American economist who savagely attacked "predatory wealth" and "conspicuous consumption" in his most important book, "The Theory of the Leisure Class" (1899) - Argued that the leisure class just made money for money's sake rather than making goods to satisfy real needs - Thought that useful engineers should have social leadership instead of the leisure class

Panic of 1837

- Economic crisis triggered by bank failures, elevated grain prices, and Jackson's efforts to curb over-speculation on western lands and transportation improvements - In response, POTUS Martin Van Buren proposed the "Divorce Bill," which pulled treasury funds out of the banking system altogether, contracting the credit supply

Mercantilism

- Economic theory stating that wealth is power and that a country's wealth is measured by th amount of gold or silver in its treasury - Exports must be greater than imports

supply-side economics

- Economic theory that underlay Reagan's tax and spending cuts - Contrary to Keynesianism, supply-side theory declared the government policy should aim to increase the supply of goods and services, rather than the demand for them - Held that lower taxes and decreased regulation would increase productivity by providing increased incentives to work, thus increasing productivity and the tax base - Although it helped spur an economic recovery in 1983, it widened the gap between rich and poor Americans

The Man Without a Country (1863)

- Edward Everett Hale's fictional account of a treasonous soldier's journeys in exile - The book was widely read in the North, inspiring greater devotion to the Union - Inspired by the strange story of Vallandigham

Voter Education Project (1962-1968)

- Effort by Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and other civil rights groups to register the South's historically disenfranchised black population - Typified a common strategy of the civil rights movement, which sought to counter racial discrimination by empowering people at grassroots levels to exercise their civic rights through voting

John Calvin

- Elaborated Luther's ideas that would affect future Americans - Argued that God was all-powerful and all-good while humans were weak and wicked due to original sin - God knows who's going to heaven and who's not

Hiram W. Johnson

- Elected Republican Governor of California in 1910 - Oversaw numerous progressive reforms, including the passage of woman suffrage at the state level - Prosecuted grafters and helped break the dominant grip of the Southern Pacific Railroad on California politics - In 1917 he entered the Senate, where he proved an isolationist in foreign affairs - Famous for declaring that "the first casualty when war comes, is truth"

Chester Arthur

- Elected as Vice President in 1880, Arthur became the 21st POTUS after Garfield's assassination - Primarily known for his efforts at civil service reform, culminating in the Pendleton Act - Surprised critics by prosecuting several fraud cases and giving his former Stalwart pals the cold shoulder

James A. Garfield

- Elected to the presidency in 1880 and became the 20th POTUS - Served as president for only a few months before being assassinated by Charles Guiteau, who claimed to have killed him because he was denied a job through patronage when Garfield was elected - Assassination fueled efforts to reform the spoils system

cotton gin (1793)

- Eli Whitney's invention that sped up the process of harvesting cotton (50x more effective than humans) - Made cotton cultivation more profitable, revitalizing the southern economy - Slavery had been dying out but the booming cotton industry brought it back

Embargo Act (1807)

- Enacted in response to GB and French mistreatment of American merchants, the act banned the export of all goods form the US to any foreign port - Placed great strains on the American economy, while only marginally affecting its European targets, and was therefore repealed in 1809 - Revived the Federalist Party, who called for nullification of the embargo - Failed b/c Jefferson miscalculated how much GB and France depended on the US (they didn't) and didn't foresee the unpopularity of a "self-crucifying" weapon and the difficulty of enforcing it - However, also laid the foundation for America's industrial might

Treaty of Kanagawa (1854)

- Ended Japan's 200 year period of economic isolation, establishing an American consulate in Japan and securing American coaling rights in Japanese ports - Also provided for proper treatment of shipwrecked sailors

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)

- Ended the Mexican-American War - Mexico agreed to cede territory reaching NW from Texas to Oregon in exchange for $18.25 million in cash and assumed debts

Treaty of Ghent (1814)

- Ended the War of 1812 in a virtual draw - Restored prewar borders but failed to address any of the grievances that first brought America into the war (Indian menace, search and seizure, Orders in Council, impressment, and confiscations)

Jack Kerouac

- Energetic novelist and progenitor of the bohemian Beat Generation (a termed he coined) - Gained celebrity after publishing the group's unofficial bible, "On the Road"

Virginia Company

- English joint-stock company that received a charter from King James I that allowed it to found the Virginia colony - Main goal was gold, also desire to find passage thru America to the Indies

Were the English colonizers crueler or more tolerant than the Spanish conquistadores? Why did the Spanish tend to settle and intermarry with the Indian population, whereas the English killed the Indians, drove them out, or confined them to separate territories? How did this pattern of interaction affect both white and Indian societies?

- English were crueler because they were determined to force them off their land rather than coexist peacefully - Spanish tended to settle and intermarry because their purpose was to find gold and other valuable resources, as well as spread Christianity, rather than just gain land - English hostile attitudes towards the natives resulted in wars and raids that drove native populations farther and farther from their homes and reduced their numbers

How many Americans moved west of the Appalachians and developed thriving new communities along with Ohio and Mississippi rivers (4.2)

- Eric Canal and railroads accelerated internal migration to Ohio and Mississippi River valleys, as farmers sought new lands - Puritans migrated in entire towns and churches; white landowning farmers fled South into Ohio to escape economic limitations of slave society

Adamson Act (1916)

- Established an eight-hour day for all employees on trains involved in interstate commerce, with extra pay for overtime - Was the first federal law to regulate the hours of workers in private companies - Upheld by the Supreme Court in Wilson v. New (1917)

Sally Tompkins

- Established an infirmary for wounded Confederate soldiers in Richmond Virginia - When Confederate hospitals were brought under military control, Jefferson Davis commissioned Tompkins as an officer with the rank of captain, making her the first female military officer in American history

Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War (1861-1865)

- Established by Congress during the Civil War to oversee military affairs - Largely under the control of radical Republicans, the committee agitated for a more vigorous war effort and actively pressed Lincoln on the issue of emancipation - Resented the expansion of presidential power in wartime

National War Labor Board (NWLB) (1918)

- Established by FDR to act as an arbitration tribunal and mediate disputes between labor and management that might have led to work stoppages and thereby undermined the war effort - Also charged with adjusting wages with an eye to controlling inflation - Imposed ceilings on wage increases, which labor unions hated

War Production Board (WPB) (1942)

- Established in 1942 by executive order to direct all war production, including procuring and allocating raw materials, to maximize the nation's war machine - Had sweeping powers over the U.S. economy and was abolished in Nov. 1945 soon after Japan's defeat

Why was the United States so uniformly held in contempt by European governments after the Revolution? Was it due more to the Articles of Confederation or to being a recently created nation?

- European countries didn't like the Articles because it was proof that a democracy could work which could encourage revolutions and governmental changes - Articles encouraged a limited government (power-wise) which some countries didn't want - Probably due to the Articles of Confederation and the revolutionary ideals it embodied

Why was the Old World able to dominate the New World? What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Old World? What were the strengths and weaknesses of the New World?

- Europeans had superior technology, were immune to European diseases, and vast numbers - However, they were not used to the environment of the New World and struggled to farm and hunt at first - The New World Indian tribes had formed various alliances with the other tribes as well as vast territories that posed a great challenge to the Europeans - Lacked communication and had no solid political states, Europeans were able to divide and conquer them

Nation-states

- Ex: The Aztec Empire - There weren't really any when the Europeans showed up which is why they were able to take over relatively easily

Society of the Cincinnati

- Exclusive, hereditary organization of former officers in the Continental Army - Many resented the pretentiousness of the order, viewing it as a relic of pre-Revolutionary traditions

Henry James

- Expatriate novelist and brother of philosopher William James - A master of "psychological realism," he experiment in novels like "The Portrait of a Lady" and "The Wings of the Dove" with point-of-view and interior monologue

John C. Frémont

- Explorer who helped overthrow the Mexican government in California after the outbreak of war with Mexico - Later ran for president as the Republican nominee in 1856, losing the election to Democratic candidate James Buchanan

Roger Williams

- Extreme separatist who argued for Puritans to completely split from the corrupt Church of England - Challenged the legality of the Bay Colony charter because it did not compensate the Indians fairly - Denied the authority of the civil government to regulate religious behavior - Exiled and fled to Rhode Island and built the first Baptist church in America - Allowed religious tolerance, manhood suffrage

Ku Klux Klan (est. 1866)

- Extremist, paramilitary, right-wing secret society founded in the mid-19th century and revived during the 1920s - Was antiforeign, antiblack, anti-Jewish, antipacifist, anti-Communist, anti-internationalist, anti-evolutionist, and antibootlegger, but pro-Anglo-Saxon and pro-Protestant - Its members, cloaked in sheets to conceal their identities, terrorized freedmen and sympathetic whites throughout the South after the Civil War - By the 1890s, Klan-style violence and Democratic legislation succeeded in virtually disenfranchising all southern blacks - Undermined attempts to empower blacks politically

Good Neighbor Policy (1933)

- FDR's foreign policy that started with Herbert Hoover but is most associated with FDR, which stressed nonintervention in Latin America - Was a departure from the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine - FDR's attempts to usher in a new era of friendliness hurt some US bondholders but boosted his popularity in Latin America

Court Packing Plan (1937)

- FDR's politically motivated and ill-fated scheme to add a new justice to the Supreme Court for every member over 70 who would not retire - His object was to overcome the Court's objections to New Deal reforms - Its failure to pass through Congress was FDR's first legislative defeat at the hands of his own party, reflecting how many don't like the president tampering with the Supreme Court

Tallmadge Amendment (1819)

- Failed attempt to prohibit slaves from being brought to Missouri - Also aimed for the gradual emancipation of children born to enslaved parents already there - Southerners viciously opposed the amendment, seeing it as a threat to the sectional balance between North and South - Depression-cursed pioneers (who wanted unrestricted expansion of the West) and NW diehard Federalists (who wanted to break the Virginia Dynasty) also spoke out against it

Crittenden Amendments (1860)

- Failed constitutional amendments that would have given federal protection for slavery in all territories south of 36° 30' where slavery was supported by popular sovereignty - Proposed in an attempt to appease the South - Vetoed by Lincoln, who didn't want to yield concessions to the South

Operation Dixie (1948)

- Failed effort by the CIO after WWII to unionize southern workers, especially in textile factories - Failed to overcome white workers' lingering fears of racial mixing

Black Legend

- False concept saying that the conquerors merely tortured and butchered the Indians (killing for Christ), stole their gold, infected them with smallpox, and overall sucked - This is true, but they also made a giant empire which set the foundation for a bunch of Spanish-speaking nations - Spanish allowed marriage and incorporating indigenous culture while the English shunned them

Harriet Tubman

- Famed conductor on the Underground Railroad - Helped rescue more than 300 slaves from bondage - Born into slavery - Fled to the North in 1849 but returned to the South 19 times to guide fellow bondsmen to freedom - After the Civil War, she worked to give freedmen access to education in North Carolina

Milton Friedman

- Famous American economist who promoted the idea of free trade and condemned Keynesian economics and activist government

Why George Washington's Farewell Address encouraged national unity, as he cautioned against political factions and warned about the danger of permanent foreign alliances (3.3)

- Farewell Address established American foreign policy until WWII (isolationism), but it failed completely to prevent the rise of political parties

Three-sister farming

- Farming system where beans grow on cornstalks and squash covers the planting mounds to retain moisture in the soil - ==> high population densities

Benito Mussolini

- Fascist leader of Italy from 1922 to 1943 - Launched Italy into WWII on the side of Axis Powers and became a close ally of Adolf Hitler

Radical Whigs

- Feared that the arbitrary power of the monarch over the elected Parliament threatened liberty - Called out corruption in the English government and warned citizens to be on guard against it

Volstead Act (1919)

- Federal act enforcing the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the manufacture, sale and transportation of alcoholic beverages

Peace Corps (1961)

- Federal agency created by President Kennedy in 1961 to promote voluntary service by Americans in foreign countries - Provides labor power to help developing countries improve their infrastructure, health care, educational systems, and other aspects of their societies - Part of Kennedy's New Frontier vision - Represented an effort by postwar liberals to promote American values and influence through productive exchanges across the world

Harpers Ferry (1859)

- Federal arsenal in Virginia seized by abolitionist John Brown in 1859 - Though Brown was later captured and execute, his raid alarmed southerners, who believed that northerners shared in Brown's extremism

Patent Office (est. 1790)

- Federal government bureau that reviews patent applications - A patent is legal recognition of a new invention, granting exclusive rights to the inventor for a period of years

midnight judges

- Federal judges appointed by Adams during the last days of his presidency - Positions were revoked when the newly elected Republican Congress repealed the Judiciary Act

Civil Rights Act of 1964

- Federal law that banned racial discrimination in public facilities and strengthened the federal government's power to fight segregation in schools - Title VII of the act prohibited employers from discriminating based on race in their hiring practices, and empowered the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to regulate fair employment

Federal Highway Act of 1956

- Federal legislation signed by Dwight D. Eisenhower to construct thousands of miles of modern highways in the name of national defense - Officially called the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act - Dramatically increased the move to the suburbs, as white middle-class people could more easily to commute to urban jobs - Created a lot of construction jobs, helped trucking and automobile industries while hurting the railroads, and exacerbated problems of air quality and energy consumption

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

- Federal legislation that prohibited most further Chinese immigration to the US - First major legal restriction on immigration in US history - Ended in 1943

Samuel Chase

- Federalist Supreme Court Justice who stirred anger among Jeffersonian Republicans for his biting criticism of Republican policies - The House of Rep's tried to impeach him in 1804 but failed to make the case that his unrestrained partisanship qualified as "high crimes and misdemeanors." Acquitted by the Senate, he served on the court until his death.

Betty Friedan

- Feminist author of "The Feminine Mystique" in 1960 - Book sparked a new consciousness among suburban women and helped launch the second-wave feminist movement

Margaret Sanger

- Feminist who led the organized birth-control movement and openly championed the use of contraceptives - Also established contraceptive clinics throughout the US

Theodore Dwight Weld

- Fervent abolitionist and author of "American Slavery as It Is," an antislavery tract that dramatized the horrors of slave life - Appealed to rural audiences

Preston S. Brooks

- Fiery South Caroline congressman who senselessly caned Charles Sumner on the Senate floor in 1856 - Violent temper flared in response to Sumner's "Crime Against Kansas" speech, in which the Massachusetts senator threw better insults at the Southern slaveocracy, singling out Brooks' South Carolina colleague, Senator Andrew Butler

Jeremiad

- Fiery sermons that conveyed the frustration of the declining piety of parishioners in New England in the 17th century - Named after the doom-y prophet Jeremiah form the Old Testament

Panic of 1857

- Financial crash brought on by gold-fueled inflation, overspeculation, and excess grain production - Raised calls in the North for higher tariffs and for free homesteads on western public lands - Dampened a period of feverish prosperity

Korean War (1950-1953)

- First "hot war" of the Cold War - Began when the Soviet-backed North Koreans invaded South Korea and U.N. forces, dominated by the US, launched a counteroffensive - War ended in a stalemate in 1953 - Although the US was officially participating in a United nations "police action," the US provided 88% of the troops and the commander of the entire operation, MacArthur, took orders from Washington

Bill of Rights (1791)

- First 10 amendments to the Constitution - Safeguard precious American principles such as freedom of religion, speech, & press - Prohibits cruel & unusual punishment and arbitrary government seizure of private property - 9th and 10th Amendments by Madison leaned more anti-federalist by limiting gov't influence

Hiram Revels

- First African-American Senator, elected in 1870 to the Mississippi seat previously by Jefferson Davis - Born to free black parents in North Carolina, Revels worked as a minster throughout the South before entering politics - After serving for just one year, he returned to Mississippi to head a college for African American males

Articles of Confederation (1781)

- First American constitution that established the US as a loose confederation of states under a weak national Congress - Congress not granted the power to regulate commerce or collect taxes - Outlined the general powers of the central government like treaties & postal service - Replaced by a more efficient Constitution in 1789

Battles of Lexington and Concord

- First battles of the Revolutionary War - Colonial militia successfully defended their munitions stockpiles and forced the British to retreat to Boston

Sugar Act (1764)

- First law ever passed by Parliament to raise tax revenue in the colonies for the crown - Increased duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies but was lowered after protests from colonists

Battle of Bull Run (Manassas Junction) (July 1861)

- First major battle of the Civil War and a victory for the South - Dispelled Northern illusions of swift victory, which helped them buckle down to the task at hand - Victory inflated the South's overconfidence and led to deserting soldiers and slackened conflict preparations

Boris Yeltsin

- First president of Russia - Took over as the former Soviet republic became independent in 1991 - Led the country through the breakdown of the communist economy and introduced important market reforms - Led the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 15 loosely confederated states dominated by Russia, made up of the former USSR territories - Signed START II accord with President Bush to commit both powers to reduce their long-range nuclear arsenals by 2/3s within 10 years

Platt Amendment (1901)

- Following its military occupation, the United States successfully pressured the Cuban government to write this amendment into its constitution - It limited Cuba's treaty-making abilities, controlled its debt, and stipulated that the US could intervene militarily to restore order when it saw fit - The Cubans hated the amendment, which served McKinley's ultimate purpose of bringing Cuba under American control

Charles II

- For a while the British monarchy was hands-off, until Charles II regained power - Aggressive management of the colonies - Destroyed Puritan hopes of purifying the English church - Didn't like Massachusetts because it didn't really listen so he gave charters to Rhode Island and Connecticut and revoked theirs which really ticked them off

policy of boldness (1954)

- Foreign-policy objective of Eisenhower's secretary of state John Foster Dulles, who believed in changing the containment strategy to one that more directly engaged the Soviet Union and attempted to roll back communist influence around the world - Led to a buildup of America's arsenal to threaten "massive retaliation" against communist enemies, launching the Cold War's arms race

George C. Marshall

- Former WWII general who became secretary of state under President Truman - Was the originator of the concept of the Marshall Plan to provide aid to reconstruct Western Europe in 1947

Berlin Wall (1961-1989)

- Fortified and guarded barrier between East and West Berlin erected on orders from Soviet premier Nikita Krushchev in 1961 to stop the flow of people to the West - Until its destruction in 1989, the wall was a vivid symbol of the divide between the communist and capitalist worlds

War of 1812 (1812-1815)

- Fought between GB and the US largely over issues of trade and impressment - Fought mostly in Canada b/c that's where the British were weakest, but the US was beaten back shortly after crossing the Canadian border due to disorganization - However, the Americans fared better on water - War ended in a relative draw but demonstrated America's willingness to defend its interests militarily, earning the new nation respect from European powers - Was, in a diplomatic sense, the Second War for American Independence - Federalist party was the main casualty of the war

Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) (Est. 1874)

- Founded in Ohio in the 1870s to combat the evils of excessive alcohol consumption - Went on to embrace a broad reform agenda, including campaigns to abolish prostitution and gain the right to vote for women

Joseph Smith

- Founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormons) - Gained a following after he claimed an angel directed him to a set of golden plates, which he deciphered and became the Book of Mormon - Communal, authoritarian church and his advocacy of plural marriage antagonized his neighbors in Ohio, Missouri, and finally Illinois, where he was murdered by a mob in 1844

William T. Johnson

- Free New Orleans black, known as the "barber of Natchez" - Eventually owned 15 slaves - Part of the "third race" that consisted of free blacks

Denmark Vesey

- Free black who orchestrated an aborted slave uprising in Charleston, SC in 1822 - Plan was uncovered before he could put it in motion, and he and 34 accomplices were put to death

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (est. 1994)

- Free-trade zone encompassing Mexico, Canada, and the US - A symbol of the increased reality of a globalized marketplace - Was passed despite opposition from protectionists and labor leaders who feared losing jobs to low-wage Mexican workers

European Economic Community (EEC) (est. 1957)

- Free-trade zone in Western Europe created by Treaty of Rome in 1957 - Often referred to as the "Common Market" - Originally included France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg - The body eventually expanded to become the European Union, which by 2005 included 27 member states

Voyageurs

- French explorers who recruited Indians into the fur trade - Used canoes - Disease and alcohol decimated Indians and hunting beaver violated their culture and started to erase it

rendezvous

- French for "meeting" - Principal marketplace of the Northwest fur trade, which peaked in the 1820s and 1830s - Each summer, traders set up camps in the Rocky Mountains to exchange manufactured goods for beaver pelts - Led to annihilation of beavers and later buffalo from that region

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand

- French foreign minister in 1797 - Attempts to solicit bribes from American envoys in the XYZ affair ==> widespread calls for war with France - American envoys refused to pay - Later backed down and said if America sent a new minister he would treat him nicely

Marquis de Lafayette

- French nobleman who served as major general in the colonial army during the American Revolution and aided the newly-independent colonies in securing French support

Michel-Guillaume Jean de Crèvecouer

- French settler who described the new American identity as a mixture of several cultures and identities

King William's War (1689-1697)

- French trappers vs British settlers, with their respective Indian allies - Colonial part of the War of the League of Augsburg in Europe - No troops from home so used primitive guerrilla warfare - Britain won

John J. Audubon

- French-born naturalist and author of the beautifully illustrated Birds of America - Audubon Society for the protection of birds was named after him, though he shot them for sport when he was younger

Potsdam conference (1945)

- From July 17 to August 2, 1945, President Harry S Truman met with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and British leaders Winston Churchill and later Clement Attlee (when the Labour party defeated Churchill's Conservative party) near Berlin to deliver an ultimatum to Japan: surrender or be destroyed - Sounded the death knell of the Japanese

Robert M. ("Fighting Bob") La Follette

- From Wisconsin - One of the most militant of the progressive Republican leaders - Served in the Senate and in the Wisconsin governor's seat, and was a recurring contender for the presidency, keeping the spirit of progressivism alive into the 1920s - While governor, he wrested considerable control from the crooked corporations and returned it to the people, also perfected a way to regulate public utilities

détente (1967 - 1979)

- From the French for "reduced tension," the period of COld War thawing when the US and the Soviet Union negotiated reduced armament treaties under Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter - As a policy prescription, détente marked a departure from the policies of proportional response, mutually assured destruction and containment that had defined the earlier years of the Cold War

Land Act of 1820

- Fueled the settlement of the Northwest and Missouri Territories by lowering the price of public land - Also prohibited the purchase of public acreage on credit, thereby eliminating one of the causes of the Panic of 1819

Woman's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls (1848)

- Gathering of feminist activities in Seneca Falls, New York, where Elizabeth Cady Stanton read her "Declaration of Sentiments," stating that "all men and women are created equal" - Launched the modern women's rights movement, but was initially eclipsed by the campaign against slavery in the decade before the Civil War

Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794)

- General "Mad Anthony" Wayne defeated the Miamis and the British refused to shelter fleeing Indians - Abandoned by their British fake friends, the Indians made a peace treaty with Wayne

Meuse-Argonne offensive (1918)

- General John J. ("Black Jack") Pershing led American troops in this effort to cut the German railroad lines supplying the western front - One of the few major battles that Americans participated in during the entire war, it was still under way when the war ended

Leonid Brezhnev

- General Secretary of the Communist Party and premier of the Soviet Union from 1964, when he ousted Krushchev, to his death in 1982 - Engaged in détente with American presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter and in both series of SALT negotiations - Also led the Soviet Union during its initial foray into Afghanistan in 1979

Nathanael Greene

- General in command of the Continental army in the Carolina campaign of 1781 - the "Fighting Quaker" successfully cleared most of Georgia and South Carolina of British troops despite losing a string of minor battles - Used tactic of delay, standing and then retreating

Battle of Yorktown

- George Washington and his friends from the French army sieged Cornwallis at Yorktown - French naval fleets blocked reinforcements - Cornwallis surrendered ==> heavy blow to the British war effort ==> eventual peace

Kristallnacht (1938)

- German for "night of broken glass" - Refers to the murderous pogrom that destroyed Jewish businesses and synagogues and sent thousands to concentration camps on the night of November 9th, 1938 - Thousands more attempted to find refuge in the US but were ultimately turned away due to restrictive immigration laws

Zimmerman Note (1917)

- German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman had secretly proposed a German-Mexican alliance against the US - Enticed Mexico with veiled promises of recovering Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona - When the note was intercepted and published in March 1917, it caused an uproar that made some Americans more willing to enter the war

Hessians

- German princes who needed money and were hired to help King George III squash the rebellion by sending thousands of German troops - All from the German principality of Hesse - More interested in booty than duty and many deserted and became citizens

U-boats

- German submarines, named for the German Unterseeboot, or "undersea boat" - Proved deadly for Allied ships in the war zone - U-boat attacks played an important role in drawing the US into WWI

John Jacob Astor

- German-born fur trader and NY real estate speculator, who amassed an estate of $30 million before his death - Example of a millionaire made from the Market Revolution

Albert Einstein

- German-born scientist who immigrated to the US in 1933 to escape the Nazis - He helped to persuade FDR to push ahead with preparations for developing the atomic bomb, but later ruefully declared that "annihilation of any life on earth has brought within the range of technical possibilities"

Patroonships

- Giant feudal estates along the Hudson River that were granted to people who agreed to settle 50 people on them

Committees of correspondence

- Goal was to keep up and spread the spirit of resistance by exchanging letters - Also kept opposition to British policy alive - Soon each colony had a central committee through which ideas and information where exchanged with other colonies ==> led to the first American congresses

U.S. Sanitary Commission (est. 1861)

- Government agency founded with the help of Elizabeth Blackwell that trained nurses, collected medical supplies, and equipped hospitals in an effort to help the Union army - Commission helped professionalize nursing and gave many women the confidence and organizational skills to propel the women's movement in the postwar years

Confederate States of America (est. 1861-1865)

- Government established after 7 southern states seceded from the Union - Later joined by 4 more states from the upper South - Elected Jefferson Davis to lead them

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) (Est. 1932)

- Government lending agency established by the Hoover administration in order to assist insurance companies, banks, agricultural, organizations, railroads, and local governments - Ended up benefiting large corporations - Precursor to later agencies that grew out of the New Deal and symbolized a recognition by Republicans that some federal action was required to address the Great Depression

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (1933-1942)

- Government program created by Congress to hire young unemployed men to improve the rural, outdoors environment with work such as planting trees, fighting fires, draining swamps, and maintaining national parks - Proved to be an important foundation for the post-WWII environmental movement - Was the most popular of the New Deal "alphabetical agencies," and it effectively conserved both human resources and natural resources

DeWitt Clinton

- Governor of New York state and promoter of the Erie Canal, which linked the Hudson River to the Great Lakes - "Clinton's Big Ditch," as the canal was called, transformed upstate NY into a center of industry and gave rise to the Midwestern cities of Cleveland, Detroit, and Chicago

William Berkeley

- Governor of Virginia who didn't like the mass immigration of poor bachelors who didn't contribute much -

Edict of Nantes (1598)

- Granted limited toleration to French Protestants - Ended religious wars

Eli Whitney

- Great American inventor - Best known for his Cotton Gin, which revolutionized the Southern economy - Also pioneered the use of interchangeable parts in the production of muskets, which gave the North an advantage during the Civil War

Were the Salem witch trials a peculiar, aberrant moment in an age of superstition, or did they reflect common human psychological and social anxieties that could appear in any age? How harshly should those who prosecuted the witches be condemned?

- Grew from not only the superstitions of the age but also the turmoil of Indian wars and the unsettled social and religious conditions of the rapidly evolving village - Not extremely harshly because their search for a scapegoat was understandable given their circumstances

Dust Bowl (1933)

- Grim nickname for the Great Plains region devastated by drought and dust storms during the 1930s - Led to the migration of thousands of displaced "Okies" and "Arkies" into California

Hoovervilles

- Grim shantytowns were impoverished victims of the Great Depression slept under newspapers and in makeshift tents - Their visibility (and sarcastic name) tarnished the reputation of the Hoover administration

Toussaint L'Ouverture

- Haitian revolutionary who led a successful slave uprising and helped establish an independent Haiti in 1797 - In 1802, he was captured by a French force sent to reestablish control over the island - Shipped back to France and imprisoned for treason, succumbed to pneumonia in 1803

Sir Walter Raleigh

- Half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who set up the doomed colony of Roanoke Island

Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)

- Harriet Beecher Stowe's widely read novel that dramatized the horrors of slavery - Focused on the cruel separation of slave families - Heightened northern support for abolition and escalated the sectional conflict

W. E. B. Du Bois

- Harvard-educated leader in the fight for racial equality, first African-American to earn a PhD - Believed that liberal arts education would provide the "talented tenth" of African Americans with the ability to lift their race into full participation in society - From NY, where he was a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), he relentlessly brought attention to racism in America and demanded legal and cultural change - During his long life he published many important books of history, sociology, and poetry and provided intellectual leadership to those advocating civil rights - One of his deepest convictions was the necessity of American blacks connecting their freedom struggle with African independence and he died as a resident of the new nation of Ghana - Differences with Washington reflected the contrasting life experiences of southern and northern blacks

T. S. Eliot

- Harvard-educated poet who became one of the 20th c.'s most influential practitioners of "high modernism" - His poetic masterpieces included "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" and "The Waste Land"

Booker T. Washington

- Head of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, where he advocated for vocational education for African-Americans so that they could gain economic security - Believing that southern whites were not yet ready for social equality, he instead concentrated on gaining economic power for blacks without directly challenging the southern racial order

Sir Edmund Andros

- Head of the new dominion who made people angry because: == He was affiliated with the Church of England == He restricted the courts, press, and schools, revoked land titles, taxed people whenever, and enforced anti-smuggling measures - Tried to escape the mob in women's clothes but got exposed when people saw his boots

War Industries Board (1917)

- Headed by Bernard Baruch - Federal agency that coordinated industrial production during WWI, setting production quotas, allocating raw materials, and pushing companies to increase efficiency and eliminate waste - As a result of the Board's economic mobilization, industrial production in the US increased 20% during the war

Pacific Railroad Act (1862)

- Helped fund the construction of the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad with the use of land grants and government bonds - Part of the legislation that the Republicans had passed to favor the North

American System (1820s)

- Henry Clay's 3 pronged system to promote American industry - Advocated a strong banking system (to bolster credit), a protective tariff (to help eastern manufacturing), and a federally funded transportation network (canals and highways to benefit the West) - Foodstuffs and raw materials would flow from the South and West to the North and East and manufactured goos would flow in the opposite direction, tying the country together economically and politically

V-J (Victory in Japan) Day (August 15, 1945)

- Heralded the surrender of Japan - Official surrender ceremonies were conducted by MacArthur on the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay - Was the final end to WWII

William Henry Harrison

- Hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe and 9th POTUS - A Whig who won the 1840 election on a "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" campaign, which played up his credentials as a backwoods westerner and Indian fighter (though he was actually rich) - Nominated by the Whigs because he was enemyless and issueless - Died of pneumonia 4 weeks after his inauguration

Nuremberg war crimes trial (1945-1946)

- Highly publicized proceedings against former Nazi leaders for war crimes and humanity in postwar Germany - Led to several executions and long prison sentences

What was really at stake in the debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists? Did the Federalists win primarily because of their superior political skills or because they had a clearer view of the meaning of the Revolution and the future of the United States? What role did the ratification process play in the fight between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists (and did it favor one side or the other)?

- How strong the federal government was and how much power it would gain or lose - Federalists favored a strong central government, Anti-federalists favored power to stay with the people - Federalists won because of their political skills, power and influence, wealth, education, and organization - Ratification process allowed for the Federalists and Anti-Federalists to present their arguments and contribute ideas

What would have happened to the Constitutional Convention if Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Thomas Paine, Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and Patrick Henry all attended?

- If Jefferson, Paine and the others had attended, they would all have pushed for the inclusion of a Bill of Rights explicitly laying out the claims of the people against the powers of the government. - In addition, they all would have pushed for a weaker central government and more powers to the states (except for John Adams who would have pushed for an even stronger central government)

New Immigrants (1880s-1924)

- Immigrants from southern and eastern Europe who formed a recognizable wave of immigration from the 1880s until 1924, in contrast to the immigrants from western Europe who had come before them - Ex: Italians, Jews, Croats, Slovaks, Greeks, and Poles - By-product of the urbanization and overcrowding of Europe - These new immigrants congregated in ethnic urban neighborhoods, where they worried many native-born Americans, some of whom responded with nativist anti-immigrant campaigns and others of whom introduced urban reforms to help the immigrants assimilate

Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)

- Important New Deal labor legislation that regulated minimum wages and maximum hours for workers involved in interstate commerce - The exclusion of agricultural, service, and domestic workers meant that many blacks, Mexican Americans, and women—who were concentrated in these sectors— did not benefit from the act's protection

modernism

- In response to the demanding conditions of modern life, this artistic and cultural movement revolted against comfortable Victorian standards and accepted chance, change, contingency, uncertainty, and fragmentation - Originating among avant-garde artists and intellectuals around the turn of the 20th c., modernism blossomed into a full-fledged cultural movement in art, music, literature, and architecture - Questioned social conventions and traditional authorities

Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829)

- Incendiary abolitionist tract advocating the violent overthrow of slavery - Published by David Walker, a southern-born free black

Morrill Tariff Act (1861)

- Increased duties about 5-10%, boosting them to about the moderate level of the Walker Tariff of 1846 - Designed partly to provide additional revenue for the war but also to provide more protection for the prosperous manufacturers who were being plucked by the new internal taxes - Important because a protective tariff became identified with the Republican party, which was welcomed by American industrialists

California gold rush (started in 1849)

- Inflow of thousands of miners to northern California after news reports of the discovery of gold at Sutters' Mill in January of 1848 had spread around the world by the end of that year - Onslaught of migrants prompted Californians to organize a government and apply for statehood in 1849

Underground Railroad

- Informal network of volunteers that helped runaway slaves escape from the South and reach free-soil Canada - Seeking to halt the flow of runaway slaves to the North, southern planters and congressmen pushed for a stronger fugitive slave law

Carpetbaggers (1860s)

- Insulting name used by Southern whites to describe Northern businessmen and politicians who came to the South after the Civil War to work on Reconstruction projects or invest in Southern infrastructure - Southerners thought they had come to the South to seek personal power and profit while they mostly wanted to help modernize the "New South"

United Nations (U.N.) (est. 1945)

- International body formed in 1945 to bring nations into dialogue in hopes of preventing further world wars - Much like the former League of Nations in ambition, the U.N was more realistic in recognizing the authority of the Big Five powers in keeping peace in the world - Thus, it guaranteed veto power to all permanent members of its Security Council: Britain, China, France, the Soviet Union, and the US - Was warmly received by the Senate because it provided safeguards for American sovereignty and freedom of action

Suez crisis (1956)

- International crisis launched when Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, which had been owned mostly by French and British stockholders - Led to a British and French attack on Egypt, which failed without aid from the US - Marked an important turning point in the post-colonial Middle East and highlighted the rising importance of oil in world affairs

Earth Day (April 22, 1970)

- International day of celebration and awareness of global environment issues launched by conservationists on April 22, 1970 - Aimed to raise awareness and encourage world leaders to act

"10 percent" Reconstruction plan (1863)

- Introduced by President Lincoln - Proposed that a state be readmitted to the Union once 10% of its voters had pledged loyalty to the US and promised to honor emancipation - Provoked a sharp reaction in Congress because Republicans feared that the restoration of the planter aristocracy to power and the possible reenslavement of blacks

Samuel F. B. Morse

- Inventor of the telegraph and the telegraphic code that bears his name - He led the effort to connect Washington and Baltimore by telegraph and transmitted the first long-distance message—"What hath God wrought"—in May of 1844 - By the eve of the Civil War, a web of wires spanned nearly the entire continent, revolutionizing news gathering, diplomacy, and finance

Saddam Hussein

- Iraqi dictator who led the Ba'ath party in a coup in 1968 and ruled Iraq until the U.S. invasion - Inaugurated hostilities with neighboring Iran in 1980, leading to the protracted and bloody Iran-Iraq War - Bought arms from the US to use against Iran - Invaded Kuwait in 1990, prompting a broad-based military operation led by the US to liberate the country - After that war, Hussein retained power under strict sanctions and no-fly demilitarized zones throughout the 1990s, but he thwarted international atomic weapons inspectors - After his fall in 2003, he went into hiding but was ultimately captured, tried, and executed by the Iraqi government

Augustus Saint-Gaudens

- Irish-born sculptor who immigrated to America and produced some of the nation's finest Beaux-Arts sculptures, including the Robert Gould Shaw Memorial on the Boston Common

What has the Revolution meant to later generations of Americans, including our own? Do we still think of the United States as a revolutionary nation? Why or why not?

- It established the key ideals of freedom and liberty and showed the Americans were willing to fight for their rights - Yes, because America continues to fight for democracy and liberties around the world and stay at the forefront of new ideas

What was the Revolutionary movement, at its core, really all about? Was it about the amount of taxation, the right of Parliament to tax, the political corruption of Britain and the virtue of America, the right of a king to govern America, or the colonies' growing sense of national identity apart from Britain? Was the Revolution truly a radical overturning of government and society—the usual definition of a revolution—or something far more limited or even conservative in its defense of traditional rights?

- It was really a movement for colonial rights, and the ability of Parliament to tax, the British government corruption, and all that factored into it as well

Indian Removal Act (1830)

- Jackson's order for the removal of Indian tribes still residing east of the Mississippi to newly established dIndian Territory west of Arkansas and Missouri - Tribes resisting eviction were forcibly removed by American forces, often after prolonged legal or military battles - Heaviest blows fell on the Five Civilized Tribes

Martin Van Buren

- Jacksonian Democrat who Andrew Jackson helped become eighth POTUS after serving as VP under Jackson's second term - Presided over the "hard times" brought by the Panic of 1837, clinging to Jackson's monetary policies and rejecting federal intervention in the economy - First POTUS born in the US

How the United States government forged diplomatic initiatives aimed at dealing with the continued British and Spanish presence in North America, as U.S. settlers migrated beyond the Appalachians and sought free navigation of the Mississippi River (3.3)

- Jay's Treaty got the British to agree to abandon Northwest Territory Forts more than a decade after they were supposed to - Pinckney's Treaty secured the right to use the Mississippi from the Spanish

How did European conflict and tensions with Britain and France fuel increasingly bitter partisan debates throughout the 1790s? (3.2)

- Jeffersonians argued for joining the fight on the side of the French while Hamiltonians really wanted to avoid war with GB (Neutrality Proclamation) - Jay's Treaty and Pinckney's Treaty resulted from this conflict

How, in the early 1800s, political parties continued to debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers (4.1)

- Jeffersonians dedicated to reducing the powers of the federal government (allowed *Alien and Sedition Acts*, *Bank of the United States* to lapse; removed forty of Federalist "midnight appointments"; abolished all internal taxes, including the dreaded Whiskey Rebellion tax; reduced size of army; Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin lowered national debt in half, cut ties with Hamiltonian elites) - Jeffersonians, somewhat hypocritically, expanded the power of the federal government through the disaster of the *Embargo Act of 1807*, and the smashing success of the *Louisiana Purchase* - Federalists saw their power seriously threatened by new states in West and South that would almost certainly be Jeffersonian) - Jefferson was pro-French, until issue of New Orleans being blocked arose (Louisiana Purchase resolved this problem) - *Embargo Act*, then *Non-Intercourse Act*, tried to ban and/or limit trade with Britain and France to try and stop them from interfering with American trade, as well as British impressment - *War of 1812* deeply opposed by Federalists, who wanted to keep trading with Britain, and definitely did NOT want war, despite interference with trade and impressment; Jeffersonian *War Hawks* were westerners who wanted the war to go grab Canada, kill western Indians (Tecumseh and his brother Temskwatawa), and grab Florida (voting records show it was a "western war with eastern labels") - Federalists blocked the War of 1812 in any way possible - refused to make loans to the government, refused to commit militias, refused to support tariffs to finance war, even celebrated British victories at times - *Hartford Convention of 1814* toyed with secession, but instead proposed limiting the powers of the federal government (*one term presidency*, *abolishing 3/5 clause*, *2/3 vote to declare war*, prohibit trade, or admit new states); Jackson's victory in New Orleans, and end of war, made them seem traitors - Hamiltonian idea of protective tariff resurrected by Henry Clay in the aftermath of War of 1812; *Tariff of 1816 (textiles)* - *Second Bank of the United States* created in 1816 by Henry Clay and James Madison because they'd realized without a national bank, federal government couldn't run a war or economy effectively (Federalists ran the biggest state banks) - Clay proposed internal improvements to expand infrastructure, but Madison vetoed on a strict interpretation, and suggested a constitutional amendment to allow them

Standard Oil Company (1870-1911)

- John D. Rockefeller's company, formed in 1870, which came to symbolize the trusts and monopolies of the Gilded Age - By 1877 Standard Oil controlled 95% of the oil refineries in the United States - Was one of the first multinational corporations and at times distributed more than half of its kerosene production outside the US - By the turn of the century it had become a target for trust-busting reformers, and in 1911 the Supreme Court ordered it to break up into several dozen smaller companies

Wendell L. Willkie

- Known as the "rich man's Roosevelt - A novice politician and Republican businessman who lost to FDR in the 1940 presidential campaign - Although Willkie won more votes than any previous GOP candidate, Roosevelt still beat him by a landslide - Was an outspoken liberal and not opposed to the New Deal as a whole but instead opposed its inefficiencies

GI Bill (1944)

- Known officially as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act and more informally as the GI Bill of Rights, this law helped returning WWII soldiers reintegrate into civilian life by securing loans to buy homes and farms and set up small business - It also made tuition and stipends available for them to attend college, as well as job training programs - Intended to cushion the blow of 15 million returning servicemen on the employment market and to nurture the postwar economy

Old Northwest

- Land northwest of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi River, and south of the Great Lakes - Acquired by the federal government from the states - Well organized management and sale under the land ordinances of 1785 and 1787 established a precedent for handling land acquisitions

Muller v. Oregon (1908)

- Landmark Supreme Court case in which crusading attorney (and future Supreme Court justice) Louis D. Brandeis persuaded the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of limiting the hours of women workers - Coming on the heels of Lochner v. New York, it established a different standard for male and female workers - Progressives hailed Brandeis's achievement as a triumph or existing legal doctrine that gave employers complete control over the workplace

Battle of Antietam (September 1862)

- Landmark battle in the Civil War that essentially ended in a draw but demonstrated the prowess of the Union Army - McClellan, using a copy of Lee's battle plans, halted Lee's advances but was criticized for not pursuing Lee and thus removed from field command - The closest the Confederacy had been to victory - Forestalled foreign intervention and gave Lincoln the "victory" he needed to issue the Emancipation Proclamation

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990)

- Landmark law signed by President George H. W. Bush that prohibited discrimination against people with physical or mental handicaps - Represented a legislative triumph for champions of equal protections to all

Mikhail Gorbachev

- Last leader of the Soviet Union - Assumed control in 1985 and ushered in a period of reforms known as glasnost and perestroika - On four occasions, he met U.S. president Ronald Reagan to negotiate arms reduction treaties and other measures to thaw the Cold War - In 1991, after surviving a failed military coup against him, he dissolved the Soviet Union and Party

Jones Act (1916)

- Law according territorial status to the Philippines and promising independence as soon as a "stable government" could be established - However, Wilson's racial prejudices made it difficult for him to anticipate anything other than a long political tutelage for the Filipinos, and it wasn't until 30 years later, on July 4th, 1946, that the Philippines was granted independence

Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914)

- Law extending the anti-trust protections of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act and exempting labor unions and agricultural organizations from antimonopoly constraints - Deemed price discrimination and interlocking directorates objectionable, which weakened monopolies - Conferred long-overdue benefits on labor, which had been withheld by Conservative courts

War Powers Act (1973)

- Law passed by Congress limiting the president's ability to wage war without congressional approval - Required the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of committing troops to a foreign conflict - Was an important consequence of the Vietnam War that sought to reduce the president's unilateral authority in

Elkins Act (1903)

- Law passed by Congress to impose penalties on railroads that offered rebates and customers who accepted them - Strengthened the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, which had not been working well - Hepburn Act of 1906 added free passes to the list of railroad no-no's

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)

- Law passed by Congress to inspect and regulate the labeling of all foods and pharmaceuticals intended for human consumption - This legislation, and additional provisions passed in 1911 to strengthen it, aimed particularly at the patent medicine industry - The more comprehensive Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 largely replaced this legislation

Norris-LaGuardia Act Anti-Injunction Act (1932)

- Law that banned "yellow-dog," or antiunion, work contracts and forbade federal courts from issuing injunctions to quash strikes and boycotts - An early piece of labor-friendly legislation, proving that Herbert Hoover wasn't entirely "heartless"

Black Codes (1865-1866)

- Laws passed throughout the South to restrict the rights of emancipated blacks, particularly with respect to negotiating labor contracts - Increased Northerners' criticisms of President Andrew Johnson's lenient Reconstruction policies - Harshest in Mississippi and most lenient in Georgia - Aimed to ensure a stable labor force by restoring the pre-emancipation system of race relations

Daniel Webster

- Lawyer, congresman and secretary of state - Teamed up with Clay in the Bank War against Jackson in 1832 - Hoping to avoid sectional conflict, Webster opposed the annexation of Texas but later urged the North to support the Compromise of 1850

Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek)

- Leader of the Chinese Nationalists, also known as Chang Kai-shek - Was defeated by Mao Zedong's communist revolutionaries in 1949 and was forced to flee to the island of Taiwan, where, with the support of the US, he became president of the Republic of China - Collapse of Nationalist China was a depressing defeat for America and its allies during the Cold War, because China was massive and was now communist

Peter Stuyvesant

- Led a Dutch expedition on the Swedish intrusion on the Delaware and ended the Swede's rule in a bloodless siege - Forced to surrender to English forces b/c he was out of ammunition

irreconcilables

- Led by Senators William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson of California - Hard-core group of militant isolationists who opposed the Wilsonian dream of international cooperation in the League of Nations after WWI - Their efforts played an important part in preventing American participation in the international organization - Adhered to the revered advice of Washington and Jefferson in avoiding foreign entanglements

Sandinistas (1979)

- Leftwing anti-American revolutionaries in Nicaragua - Launched a civil war in 1979 - Carter had tried to make good relations with them but Reagan accused them of turning their country into a base for Soviet and Cuban military penetration of all Central America

loose construction

- Legal doctrine that the federal government can use powers not specifically granted or prohibited in the Constitution to carry out its constitutionality mandated responsibilities - Since the Constitution was derived from the consent of the people the government is permitted to act for their benefit

limited liability

- Legal principle that facilitates capital investment by offering protection for individual investors, who, in cases of legal claims or bankruptcy, cannot be held responsible for more than the value of their individual shares - Led to early investment capital companies

Employment Act of 1946

- Legislation declaring that the government's economic policy should aim to promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power, as well as to keep inflation low - This general commitment was much shorter on specific targets and rules than its liberal creators had wished - Created the Council of Economic Advisers to provide the president with data and recommendations to make economic policy

Welfare Reform Bill (1996)

- Legislation that made deep cuts in welfare grants and required able-bodied welfare recipients to find employment - Part of Bill Clinton's campaign platform in 1992, the reforms were widely seen by liberals as an abandonment of key New Deal/ Great Society provisions to care for the impoverished - Example of Clinton's shrewd political strategy of accommodating the electorate's conservative mood by moving towards the right

Eugene McCarthy

- Liberal anti-war senator from Minnesota who rallied a large youth movement behind his presidential campaign in 1968 - Challenged sitting president Johnson in the New Hampshire primary - Captured 41% of the Democratic vote and helped ensure that Johnson would quit the 1968 race

George McGovern

- Liberal senator from North Dakota who lost a landslide election to Richard Nixon in 1972 - He eventually lost his senate seat in the conservative revolution that swept Ronald Reagan into the White House in 1980 - Was the first politician to make effective use of the new, more populist system by appealing to the anti-war Democrats

Townshend Acts

- Light import duty on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea - Indirect customs duty payable at American ports - Americans still hated it b/c it was still taxation without representation - The tax on tea was especially annoying to colonists - Colonists tried nonimportation again but it was less effective, so they just turned to smuggled tea which was cheaper

Armed Neutrality

- Lineup of almost all the remaining European neutrals led by Catherine the Great of Russia in an attitude of passive hostility towards Britain

Transcendentalism (1836-1860)

- Literary and intellectual movement that emphasized individualism and self-reliance - Predicated upon a belief that each person posses an "inner light" that can point the way to truth and direct contact with God - Bred hostility to authority and formal institutions

settlement houses

- Located in immigrant neighborhood, these houses provided housing, food, education, child care, cultural activities, and social connections for new arrivals to the US - Mostly run by middle class native-born women - Many women, native-born and immigrant, developed lifelong passions for social activism in the settlement houses - Jane Addams's Hull House in Chicago and Lillian Wald's Henry Street Settlement in NYC were two of the most prominent - Became centers of women's activism and social reform

Royal African Company

- Lost its 1672 charter in 1698, as well as its royally-backed monopoly on slave transportation to the colonies - Americans rushed to fill the gap in the industry and there was a large increase in the supply of slaves

Huey P. ("Kingfish") Long

- Louisiana Governor, later Senator, whose anti-New Deal "Share Our Wealth" program promised to make "Every Man a King" - Fear of Long becoming a fascist dictator ended when he was shot in 1935

Tariff of 1857

- Lowered duties on imports in response to a higher Treasury surplus and pressure from southern farmers - Reduced duties on dutiable goods to the lowest point since the War of 1812 - Financial misery ensued and industrialists in the North called for higher duties as well as increased protection

Iran-Contra Affair (1986-1987)

- Major political scandal of Ronald Reagan's second term that was revealed in 1986 - An illicit arrangement of selling "arms for hostages" with Iran and using the money to support the contras in Nicaragua - Deeply damaged Reagan's credibility, but Reagan remained popular

How did the Federalists ensure the ratification of the Constitution by promising the addition of a Bill of Rights that enumerated individual rights and explicitly restricted the powers of the federal government? (3.2)

- Many states had ratified the federal Constitution on the understanding that it would soon be amended to guarantee individual rights and restrict the powers of the federal government

Awful Disclosures (1836)

- Maria Monk's sensational exposé of alleged horrors in Catholic convents - Popularity reflected nativist fears of Catholic influence

John Wilkes Booth

- Maryland-born actor and Confederate sympathizer who assassinated Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theater on April 14, 1865 - Booth died of a gunshot wound a week later after refusing to surrender to federal troops, though it is unclear if the fatal bullet came from one of the soldiers or his own revolver - Assassination hurt the South because Lincoln's moderation would have been the most effective shield between them and the vindictive treatment of the North

Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842)

- Massachusetts Supreme Court decision that strengthened the labor movement by upholding the legality of unions - Step forward for trade unions

Thomas Hutchinson

- Massachusetts governor, still salty from his house being destroyed in 1765 in protest of the Stamp Act, refused to be moved by the mob regarding tea - He didn't like the tea tax, but was more annoyed by the fact that colonists were flouting the law - insisted that East India Company ships unload in Boston Harbor, thereby prompting the Boston Tea Party - got exposed when a private letter calling for the abridgment of English liberties for the colonies was published

Charles Sumner

- Massachusetts senator and abolitionist who opposed the extension of slavery, speaking out passionately on the civil war in Kansas - Best known for the caning he received at the hands of Preston Brooks on the Senate floor in 1856 - After his recovery he returned to the Senate, leading the Radical Republican coalition in the Senate against Andrew Johnson during reconstruction

Caleb Cushing

- Massachusetts-born Congressman and diplomat who "opened" China to US trade, negotiated the Treaty of Wanghia in 1844 - Sent by President Tyler to secure concessions from China

Elias Howe

- Massachusetts-born inventor of the sewing machine - Unable to convince American manufacturers to adopt his invention, he briefly moved to England before returning to the US to find his sewing machine popularized by Isaac Singer - Won a patent infringement suit against Singer in 1854 and continued to produce sewing machines until his death

Emily Dickinson

- Massachusetts-born poet - Despite spending her life as a recluse, she created a vivid inner world through her poetry, exploring themes of nature, love, death, and immortality - Refusing to publish during her lifetime, she left behind nearly 2,000 poems, which were published after her death

March on Washington (1963)

- Massive civil rights demonstration in August 1963 in support of Kennedy-backed legislation to secure legal protections for American blacks - One of the most visually impressive manifestations of the civil rights movement - Was the occasion of MLK's famous "I Have a Dream" speech

Marshall Plan (1948)

- Massive transfer of aid money to help rebuild postwar Western Europe, which was very successful - Intended to bolster capitalist and democratic governments and prevent domestic communist groups from riding poverty and misery to power - Was first announced by Secretary of State George Marshall at Harvard's commencement in June 1947

Glasnost (1985-1990)

- Means "openness" - Cornerstone of Soviet president Mikail Gorbachev's reform movement in the USSR in the 1980s, along with perestroika - Aimed to undo the repressive environment of Soviet society by introducing free speech and a measure of political liberty - Resulted in greater market liberalization, military reduction, access to the West, and ultimately the end of communist rule

Perestroika (1985-1990)

- Means "restructuring" - Cornerstone of Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev's reform movement in the USSR in the 1980s, along with glasnost - Intended to revive the dying Soviet economy by adopting free market practices - Resulted in greater market liberalization, military reduction, access to the West, and ultimately the end of communist rule

Great Compromise

- Measure that reconciled the Virginia and New Jersey Plans by giving states proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate - Broke the stalemate at the convention and paved the way for future compromises over slavery and the electoral college - Every tax bill or revenue measure must originate in the House, where population counted more heavily

Spot Resolutions (1846)

- Measures introduced by Illinois congressman Abraham Lincoln, questioning President Polk's justification for war with Mexico - Lincoln requested the Polk clarify precisely where Mexican forces had attacked American troops

McCormick reaper (1831)

- Mechanized the harvest of grains, such as wheat, allowing farmers to cultivate larger plots - Introduction in the 1830s fueled the establishment of a large-scale commercial agriculture in the Midwest

Yalta Conference (1945)

- Meeting of Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin in February 1945 at an old tsarist resort on the Black Sea - The Big Three leaders laid the foundations for the postwar division of power in Europe, including a divided Germany and territorial concessions to the Soviet Union - Made plans to set up the United Nations and ensure Russia's support in winning the war in the Far East, though they didn't end up being needed

Bretton Woods Conference (1944)

- Meeting of Western allies to establish a postwar international economic order to avoid crises like the one that spawned WWII - Led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Banks, designed to regulate currency levels and provide aid to underdeveloped countries - Unlike after WWI, the US took the lead in creating these important international bodies and supplied most of their funding

Atlantic Charter (1941)

- Meeting on a warship off the coast of Newfoundland in August 1941, FDR and British prime minister Winston Churchill signed this covenant outlining the future path toward disarmament, self-determination, peace, and a permanent system of general security - Its spirit would animate the founding of the United Nations and raise awareness of the human rights of individuals after WWII

liberal Protestants

- Members of a branch of Protestantism that flourished from 1875 to 1925 and encouraged followers to use the Bible as a moral compass rather than than to believe that the Bible represented scientific or historical truth - Many liberal protestants became active in the "social gospel" and other reform movements of the era - Helped Protestant Americans reconcile the religious faith with modern, cosmopolitan ways of thinking

Elvis Presley

- Memphis-born singer whose youth, voice, and sex appeal helped popularize rock 'n' role in the mid-1950s - Commonly known using only his first name, Elvis was an icon of popular culture, in both music and film

Evaluate the system of mercantilism. What were the benefits for Britain and for the colonies? What were the costs to Britain and to the colonies? (See boxed quote on page 119.) Is the system of mercantilism sustainable or will colonies inevitably revolt?

- Mercantilism stated that exports had to be greater than imports and that wealth was power - Colonies will most likely revolt because of the exploitation of the colonies that mercantilism encourages

King Philip's War

- Metacom's attacks on New England that slowed the westward migration of the New England settlers for several decades - Severely reduced threat of Indians to English

Peter Cartwright

- Methodist revivalist who traversed the frontier from Tennessee to Illinois in the first decades of the 19th c, preaching against slavery and alcohol, and calling on sinners to repent

Santa Anna

- Mexican general, president, and dictator - Opposed Texas' independence and later led the Mexican army in the war against the US

Little Turtle

- Miami Native American chief whose warriors handed the US its biggest frontier defeat in 1790 and 1791 along the Ohio frontier - Defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers and forced to cede vast tracts of the Old Northwest under the Treaty of Greenville

Treaty of Greenville (1795)

- Miami confederacy gave up land in the Old Northwest (present-day Indian and Ohio) - Indians received $20,000 and annual payment of $9,000, the right to hunt the lands they had ceded, and some recognition of sovereignty (though still unequal)

The Liberator (1831)

- Militant antislavery newspaper published by William Lloyd Garrison, who called for the immediate emancipation of all slaves

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (est. 1949)

- Military alliance of Western European powers and the United States and Canada established in 1949 to defend against the common threat from the Soviet Union - Marked a giant stride forward for European unity and American internationalism

Six-Day War (1967)

- Military conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors, including Syria, Egypt, and Jordan - The war ended with an Israeli victory and territorial expansion into the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank - Brought resentful Palestinian Arabs under Israeli control - Was a humiliation for several Arab states, and the territorial disputes it created formed the basis for continued conflict in the region

Battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954)

- Military engagement in French colonial Vietnam in which French forces were defeated by Viet Minh nationalists loyal to Ho Chi Minh - The loss lead to the French ending the colonial involvement in Indochina, which paved the way for America's entry

Zachary Taylor

- Military general and 12th POTUS - Emerged as a popular war hero after defeated Santa Anna's forces at Buena Vista in the war with Mexico - As president, Taylor, a Louisiana slave owner, sought to avoid a sectional confrontation over slavery, though he opposed the Compromise of 1850

Winfield Scott

- Military officer and presidential candidate - First made a name for himself as a hero of the War of 1812 - During the war with Mexico, he led the American campaign against Mexico City, overcoming various handicaps to lead his men to victory - Later man an unsuccessful bid for the presidency in 1852 as the Whig candidate

Vietnamization (1969)

- Military strategy launched by Richard Nixon in 1969 - The plan reduced the number of American combat troops in Vietnam and left more of the fighting to the South Vietnamese, who were supplied with American armor, tanks, and weaponry

F. Scott Fitzgerald

- Minnesota-born and Princeton-educated novelist who captured the glamour and spiritual emptiness of the 1920s jazz age in novels such as "This Side of Paradise" and "The Great Gatsby"

William Faulkner

- Mississippi novelist who explored the South's collective memory of racism and conservatism in his fictional chronicle of "Yoknapatawpha" County - His many modernist novels inspired a 20th c. southern literary renaissance - Experimented with multiple narrators, complex structure, and "stream of consciousness"

Fundamental Orders (1639)

- Modern constitution that established a regime democratically controlled by "substantial" citizens - Connecticut used elements for its colonial charter and later its state constitution

Acadians

- Modern descendants called "Cajuns" - French deportees from Nova Scotia who were uprooted in 1755 by the British and were scattered as far south as Louisiana

Joseph Brant

- Mohawk chief who converted to Anglicanism - Believed that helping Britain would restrict American expansion into the west

South Carolina slave revolt

- More than 50 resentful blacks along the Stono River tried to march to Spanish Florida but were stopped by the local militia

West Virginia (admitted to the Union in 1863)

- Mountainous region that broke away from Virginia in 1861 to form its own state after Virginia seceded from the Union - Most of the residents of WV were independent farmers and miners who did not own slaves and thus opposed the Confederate cause

realism (mid 19th c.)

- Movement in European and American literature and the arts that sough to depict contemporary life and society as it actually was, in all its unvarnished detail - Followers rejected the idealism and nostalgia of the earlier romantic sensibility

Rosa Parks

- NAACP leader in Montgomery, Alabama, who inaugurated that city's famous bus boycott in 1955 by refusing to give up her seat on a public bus to a white passenger - Became a living symbol of the spirit of the Civil Rights Movement and the cause of racial equality throughout her long life

dollar diplomacy

- Name applied by President Taft's critics to the policy of supporting US investments and political interest abroad - First applied to the financing of railways in China after 1909, the policy then spread to Haiti, Honduras, and Nicaragua - President Woodrow Wilson disavowed the practice, but his administration undertook comparable acts of intervention in support of US business interests, especially in Latin America

John Hay

- Named US ambassador to England in 1897, when William McKinley became President - Later served as McKinley's Secretary of State - Author of the Open Door Notes, which called for free economic competition in China

Jay's Treaty (1794)

- Negotiated by John Jay in an effort to avoid war with Britain - Included British promise to evacuate posts on US soil and pay damages for seized American vessels - In exchange, Jay bound the US to pay for pre-Revolutionary War debts and to abide by Britain's restrictive trading policies with France - Was very unpopular among Jeffersonians and they were super mad because they saw it as a betrayal of the South and a surrender to GB (South planters would foot the bill for paying the debts and rich Federalist shippers would cash in on the $$ from British seized ships)

Napoleon III

- Nephew of Napoleon I and president of the 2nd Republic of France - Declared himself emperor of the French in 1852 - Hoping to capitalize on America's preoccupation with the Civil War, he sent a French army to occupy Mexico in 1863, installing Austrian archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico - Though that America would be too weak to enforce the Monroe Doctrine - Under threat from a newly-unified US, he withdrew his support for his puppet in 1867

silent majority (1969)

- Nixon administration's term to describe generally content, law-abiding, middle-class Americans who supported both the Vietnam War and America's institutions - As a political tool, the concept attempted to make a subtle distinction between believers in "traditional" values and the vocal minority of civil rights agitators, student protestors, counterculturalists, and other seeming disruptors of the social fabric

southern strategy (1972)

- Nixon reelection campaign strategy designed to appeal to conservative whites in the historically Democratic South - The president stressed law and order issues and remained noncommittal on civil rights - This typified the regional split between the two parties as white southerners became increasingly attracted to the Republic party in the aftermath of the civil rights movement

Democratic Leadership Council (DLC) (est. 1985)

- Nonprofit organization of centrist Democrats founded in the mid-1980s - Attempted to push the Democratic party toward pro-growth, strong defense, and anti-crime policies - Example of market-oriented thinking that was becoming popular in American politics - Among its most influential early members was Bill Clinton, whom it held up as an example of "third way" politics

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) (est. 1942)

- Nonviolent civil rights organization founded in 1942 and committed to the "Double V"—victory over fascism abroad and racism at home - After WWII, CORE would become a major force in the civil rights movement

King George's War (1744-1748)

- North American theater of Europe's War of Austrian Succession - British colonists vs French in the North - Peace settlement didn't involve territorial realignment ==> Conflict between NE settlers and the British gov - NE colonists took over French fortress Louisbourg and were really mad when GB gave it back to the French (allowed them to remain powerful in NA)

Copperheads (1860's)

- Northern Democrats who obstructed the war effort by attacking Abraham Lincoln, the draft, and, after 1863, emancipation - Commanded considerable political strength in the southern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois

Conscience Whigs (1840s and 1850s)

- Northern Whigs who opposed slavery on moral grounds - Sought to prevent the annexation of Texas as a slave state, fearing that the new slave territory would only serve to buttress the southern "slave power" - Had the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo not have been negotiated, they might have revoked support of the war and caused America to lose

How democratic was colonial American society? Why was it apparently becoming less equal?

- Not too democratic, only white, wealthy, Protestant, land-owning males could vote - Class separation was the main reason American society was becoming less equal - Upper class ran the government and the lower classes were denied many basic rights

John Muir

- Noted naturalist who split with conservationists like Gifford Pinchot by trying to protect natural "temples" like the Hetch Hetchy Valley from development - In 1892 he founded the Sierra Club, which is now one of the most influential conservation organization in the US - His writings and philosophy shaped the formation of the modern environmental movement

popular sovereignty

- Notion advanced before the Civil War that the sovereign people of a given territory should decide whether to allow slavery - Appealed to the public because it accorded with the democratic tradition of self-determination - Seemingly a compromise, it was largely opposed by northern abolitionists, who feared it would promote the spread of slavery to the territories

Al Capone

- Notorious Chicago bootlegger and gangster during Prohibition - Evaded conviction for murder but served most of a 11 year sentence for tax evasion

Nathaniel Hawthorne

- Novelist and author of "The Scarlet Letter," a tale exploring the psychological effects of sin in 17th c. Puritan Boston == Explores the concepts of the omnipresence of evil and the dead hand of the past weighing upon the present

Populists (1890s)

- Officially known as the People's party - Represented Westerners and Southerners who believed that U.S. economic policy inappropriately favored Eastern businessmen instead of the nation's farmers - Proposals included nationalization of the railroads, a graduated income tax, and, most significantly, the unlimited coinage of silver

Quakers

- Officially known as the Religious Society of Friends who were simple, devoted, and democratic while contending for religious and civic freedom - Refused to pay taxes to the Church of England, join the army, or swear by oaths

naturalism (late 19th c.)

- Offshoot of mainstream realism - Literary movement that emphasized the determinative influence of heredity and social environments - Authors sought to apply detached scientific objectivity to the study of human beings - Authors often placed lower-class, marginal characters in extreme or sordid environments

Ulysses S. Grant

- Ohio-born Union general and 18th POTUS - During the war, Grant won Lincoln's confidence for his boldness and his ability to stomach the steep casualties that victory required - First assigned to the West, Grant attained Union victories at Fort Donelson, Shiloh, an Vicksburg, seizing control of the Mississippi River and splitting the South in two - After taking command of the Union Army, he fought Lee in a series of bloody battles in Virginia, culminating in Lee's surrender at Appomattox - As President, he took a hard line against the South, but economic turmoil and waning support for Reconstruction undermined his efforts

Ralph Ellison

- Oklahoma-born and Tuskegee-educated novelist best known for writing "Invisible Man," one of the great novels of the 20th century African-American experience

What was radical and new in the Declaration of Independence and what was old and traditional? What did statements like "all men are created equal" mean in their historical context and what did they come to mean later?

- Old: Colonists had rights to be free/independent, power of the government came from the people, fair representation - New: Natural rights of human kind, not just the British rights, people were able to change the government, *appeal for foreign aid,* create a new form of political society - In historical context: White landowning free men (excluded a lot of people) - Later: Applied to more and more people, now included both genders and all races

Sally Hemings

- One of Thomas Jefferson's plantation slaves in Monticello - DNA testing confirmed rumors at the time that Jefferson was the father of her children

Oneida Community (1848)

- One of the more radical utopian communities established in the 19th c - Advocated "free love," birth control, and eugenics - Utopian communities reflected the reformist spirit of the age

Antifederalists

- Opposed the 1787 Constitution b/c they thought it was undemocratic (b/c of the aristocratic elements involved) - Objected to the subordination of the states to the central government, and feared encroachment on individuals' liberties w/o a bill of rights Ex: Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee

Executive Order 9981 (1948)

- Order issued by President Truman to desegregate the armed forces - The president's action resulted from a combination of pressure from civil rights advocates, election-year political calculations, and the new geopolitical context of the Cold War

New England Emigrant Aid Company (est. 1854)

- Organization created to facilitate the migration of free laborers to Kansas in order to prevent the establishment of slavery in the territory - Southern spokesmen were enraged that Kansas appeared to be on the road to being admitted as a free state and not a slave state as they had hoped (however no one really took their slaves to Kansas)

National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) (est. 1890)

- Organization founded in 1890 to demand the vote for women - Argued that women should be allowed to vote because their responsibilities in the home and family made them indispensable in the public decision-making process - During WWI, NAWSA supported the war effort and lauded women's role in the Allied victory, which helped to finally achieve nationwide woman suffrage in the 19th amendment (1920)

Blank Panther party (1966)

- Organization of armed black militants formed in Oakland, California, in 1966 to protect black rights - Represented a growing dissatisfaction with the nonviolent wing of the civil rights movement and signaled a new direction to that movement after the legislative victories of 1964 and 1965

Rough Riders (1898)

- Organized by Theodore Roosevelt, this was a colorful, motley regiment of Cuban war volunteers consisting of western cowboys, ex-convicts, and effete Ivy League dropouts - Roosevelt emphasized his experience with the regiment in subsequent campaigns for governor of New York and vice president under William McKinley

Pontiac

- Ottowa chief who in 1763 led multiple tribes and a few French traders to drive the British out of the Ohio Country violently

Common Sense

- Pamphlet that argued that Britain, a tiny island across the sea, should not be able to control the colonies and that the whole situation was contrary to "common sense" - Argued that all government officials should derive their authority from popular consent (a republican society)

Greenbacks (1860s)

- Paper currency issued by the Union Treasury during the Civil War - Inadequately supported by gold, so its value was determined by the nation's credit - Fluctuated in value throughout the war, reaching a low of 39 cents on the dollar

Molasses Act (1733)

- Parliament policy aimed at preventing North American trade with the French West Indes - If it had worked, it would have reduced American quality of life - But Americans just smuggled and bribed around it

Lord Sheffield

- Parliamentarian who persuaded GB to take a hard line in negotiations with the newly independent US, closing off American trade with the West Indies, and continuing to enforce navigation laws - His approach caused many Americans to call for a stronger central government ==> 1787 Philadelphia convention

Battle of the Little Big Horn (1876)

- Particularly violent example of the warfare between whites and Native Americans in the late 19th c., also known as "Custer's Last Stand" - In 2 days, June 25 and 26, 1876, the combined forces of 2,500 Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indians defeated and killed more than 250 U.S. soldiers, including Colonel George Custer - The battle came as the U.S. government tried to compel Native Americans to remain on the reservations and Native Americans tried to defend territory from white gold-seekers - This Indian advantage did not last long, however, as the union of these Indian fighters proved tenuous and the U.S. Army soon exacted retribution

Compromise Tariff of 1833

- Passed as a measure to resolve the Nullification Crisis - Provided that tariffs be lowered gradually, over a period of 10 years, to 1816 levels - NE and the middle states opposed it, while Calhoun and the South supported it

Fugitive Slave Law (1850)

- Passed as part of the Compromise of 1850 - Set high penalties for anyone who aided escaped slaves and compelled all law enforcement officers to participate in retrieving runaways - Fleeing slaves couldn't testify in their own behalf and were denied a jury trial - Strengthened the antislavery cause in the North

Force Bill (1833)

- Passed by Congress alongside the compromise Tariff of 1833 - Authorized the president to use the military to collect federal tariff duties - Was later nullified after nullification was repealed by the Columbia convention

Force Acts (1870-1871)

- Passed by Congress following a wave of Ku Klux Klan violence -Banned clan membership, prohibited the use of intimidation to prevent blacks from voting, and gave the US military the authority to enforce the acts

Wade-Davis Bill (1864)

- Passed by congressional Republicans in response to Abraham Lincoln's "10 percent" Reconstruction plan - Required that 50% of a state's voters pledge allegiance to the Union and set stronger safeguards for emancipation - Reflected divisions between Congress and the president, and between radical and moderate Republicans, over the treatment of the defeated South == Moderates agreed with Lincoln that seceded states should be restored to the Union simply and swiftly, but a minority group of radicals thought the South should be punished before being allowed back in - Lincoln vetoed it, outraging Republicans

criminal syndicalism laws (1919-1920)

- Passed by many states during the red scare - Outlawed the mere advocacy of violence to secure social change - Stump speakers for the International Workers of the World were special targets

Judiciary Act of 1789

- Passed by the departing Federalist Congress - Created 16 new federal judgeships, ensuring a Federalist hold on the judiciary - Organized the Supreme Court, w/ a chief justice and 5 associates, + federal district and circuit courts and attorney general

Reconstruction Act (1867)

- Passed by the newly elected Republican Congress - Divided the South into 5 military districts, disenfranchised former Confederates, and required that Southern states both ratify the 14th Amendment and write state constitutions guaranteeing freedmen the franchise before gaining readmission to the Union - Reflected moderate sentiment because it stopped short of federally funded land or education for freedmen

Civil Rights Bill (1866)

- Passed over Andrew Johnson's veto, the bill aimed to counteract the Black Codes by conferring citizenship on African Americans and making it a crime to deprive blacks of their rights to sue, testify in court, or hold property - Johnson first vetoed it but was overruled by Congress, and since this began to become common, Johnson became "Sir Veto" and Congress increasingly assumed the dominant role in running the government

Workingmen's Compensation Act (1916)

- Passed under Woodrow Wilson - Granted assistance to federal civil-service employees during period of disability - Was a precursor to labor-friendly legislation passed during the New Deal

Sons of Liberty & Daughters of Liberty

- Patriotic groups that protested the Stamp Acts and enforced nonimportation agreements

Benjamin Spock

- Pediatrician and author of "The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care," which instructed parents on modern child-rearing, replacing traditional means of passing along such knowedge - Is often said to have been the bible of the baby boomer generation

David Wilmot

- Pennsylvania congressman best known for his "Wilmot Proviso," a failed amendment that would have prohibited slavery from any of the territories acquired from Mexico - He later went on to help organize the Free Soil and Republican parties, supporting Abraham Lincoln in 1860

Thaddeus Stevens

- Pennsylvania congressman who led the Radical Republican faction in the House of Representatives during and after the Civil War - Advocated for abolition and later, the extension of civil rights to freed blacks - Also called for land redistribution as a means to break the power of the planter elite and provide African Americans with the Economic means to sustain their newfound independence

Robert Fulton

- Pennsylvania-born painter-engineer who constructed the Clermont, the first operating steam boat, in 1807 - Pretty much changed all of America's streams into two-way arteries, thereby doubling their carrying capacity

racketeers

- People who obtain money illegally by fraud, bootlegging, or threats of violence - Invaded the ranks of labor during the 1920s, a decade when gambling and gangsterism were prevalent in American life - Organized crime became one of the nation's biggest businesses

Salutary neglect

- Period of time in which the new monarchs relaxed the royal grip on colonial trade and only weakly enforced the Navigation Laws

Cult of domesticity

- Pervasive 19th c. cultural creed that glorified the domestic role of women - Gave married women greater authority to shape home life but limited opportunities outside the domestic sphere

writ of habeas corpus

- Petition requiring law enforcement officers to present detained individuals before the court to examine the legality of the arrest - Protects individuals from arbitrary state action - Suspended by Lincoln during the Civli War to arrest anti-Unionists, defying the rule that the safeguards of habeas corpus could only be set aside by the authorization of Congress

Frances E. Willard

- Pious leader of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union who wished to eliminate the sale of alcohol and thereby "make the world more homelike" - Her Christian "do everything" reform sensibility encouraged some women to take the leap toward more radical causes like woman suffrage, while allowing more conservative women to stick comfortably with temperance work

New Freedom (1912)

- Platform of reforms advocated by Woodrow Wilson in his first presidential campaign, including stronger antitrust legislation to protect small business enterprises from monopolies, banking reform, and tariff reductions - Wilson's strategy involved taking action to increase opportunities for capitalist competition rather than increasing government regulation of large trusts

Northwest Ordinance (1787)

- Policy for administering the NW Territories - Included path to statehood and forbade the expansion of slavery into the territories

Spoils System (1828-1883)

- Policy of rewarding political supporters with public office, first widely employed at the federal level by Jackson - Partially about bringing new blood into the government but was also about rewarding old cronies - Practice was widely abused by unscrupulous office seekers, but it also helped cement party loyalty in the emerging two party system

Moral Majority (est. 1979)

- Political action committee founded by evangelical Reverend Jerry Falwell in 1979 to promote traditional Christian values and oppose feminism, abortion, and gay rights - Was a major linchpin in the resurgent religious right of the 1980s - Used radio, direct-mail marketing, and cable TV to reach a huge audience

Mississippi Freedom Democratic party (1964)

- Political party organized by civil rights activists to challenge Mississippi's delegation to the Democratic National Convention, who opposed the civil rights planks in the party's platform - Claiming a mandate to represent the true voice of Mississippi, where almost no black citizens could vote - MFDP demanded to be seated at the convention but were denied by party bosses - Effort was both a serious setback to civil rights activism in the South and a motivation to continue to struggle for black voting rights

Lewinsky affair (1998-1999)

- Political sex scandal that resulted in Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial by Congress - In 1998, Clinton gave sworn testimony in a sexual harassment case that he had never engaged in sexual activity with a White House intern named Monica Lewinsky - When prosecutors discovered evidence that the president had lied under oath about the affair, to which Clinton admitted, Republicans in Congress began impeachment proceedings - Although Clinton was ultimately not convicted by the Senate, the scandal put a lasting blemish on his presidential legacy

Herbert Croly

- Political thinker and journalist whose book, "The Promise of American Life" (1910) influenced the New Nationalist reform platform of Theodore Roosevelt - Croly and TR both favored continued consolidation of trusts and labor unions

Was military strategy or politics the key to American victory in the war? How did the two coincide?

- Politics was first and foremost because the Americans were trying to sever themselves from British influence - Politics were key in maintaining positive feelings in the American colonists - Politics fed into military, which was important because the Hessians gave the British an advantage and Americans had to get creative - Military strategy was a result of the politics going on at the time

Pontiac's uprising (1763)

- Pontiac and his French and Indian allies laid siege to Detroit and killed over 2000 soldiers and settlers while overrunning all but 3 British posts west of the Appalachians - ==> British using early biological warfare (smallpox) ==> uneasy peace ==> British realizing need for more stable relationships with the western Indians

Shays's Rebellion (1786)

- Poor backcountry farmers who demanded that the state issue paper money, lighten taxes, and suspend property takeovers - Quickly put down by Massachusetts authorities, but inspired fear of "mob rule"

Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

- Popular uprising of whiskey distillers in southwestern Pennsylvania in opposition to an excise tax on whiskey - In a show of strength and resolve by the new central government, Washington put down the rebellion with militia drawn from several states - Small in numbers but led to increased respect of Washington's government (however was also condemned for brutal and unnecessary display of force)

Tammany Hall (est. 1789)

- Powerful New York political machine that primarily drew support from the city's immigrants, who depended on Tammany Hall patronage, particularly social services

Henry Ward Beecher

- Preacher, reformer, and abolitionist - Son of famed evangelist Lyman Beecher and brother of author Harriet Beecher Stowe - In the 1850s, he helped raise money to support the New England Emigrant Aid Company in its efforts to keep slavery out of Kansas territory - After the War, Beecher emerged as perhaps the best known Protestant minister, in part because of his ability to adapt Christianity to fit the times - Emphasized the compatibility of religion, science, and modernity

Nikita Khrushchev

- Premier of the Soviet Union from 1958 to 1964 - Was a Communist Party official who emerged from the power struggle after Stalin's death in 1953 to lead the USSR - As Soviet premier, he notably renounced Stalin's brutality in 1956, the same year that he crushed a pro-Western uprising in Hungary - In 1958, he issued an ultimatum for Western evacuation of Berlin, from which he backed down a year later - Defended Soviet-style economic planning in the Kitchen Debate with American Vice President Richard Nixon in 1959, and attempted to send missiles to Cuba in 1962 but backed down when confronted by John F. Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis

New Frontier (1961-1963)

- President Kennedy's nickname for his domestic policy agenda - Buoyed by youthful optimism - Program included proposals for the Peace Corps and efforts to improve education and health care

Great Society (1965)

- President LBJ's term for his domestic policy agenda - Billed as a successor to the New Deal, the Great Society aimed to extend the post-war prosperity to all people in American society by promoting civil rights and fighting poverty - Great Society programs included the War on Poverty, which expanded the Social Security system by creating Medicare and Medicaid to provide health care for the aged and the poor - Johnson also signed laws protecting consumers and empower community organizations to combat poverty at grassroots levels - Epitomized the era's confidence

Nixon Doctrine (1969)

- President Nixon's plan for "peace with honor" in Vietnam - Stated that the US would honor its existing defense commitments but in the future, countries would have to fight their own wars without the support of large bodies of American ground troops

Fair Deal (est. 1949)

- President Truman's extensive social program introduced in his 1949 message to Congress - Republicans and southern Democrats kept much of his vision form being enacted, except for raising the minimum wage, providing for more public housing, and extending old-age insurance to many more beneficiaries under the Social Security Act

Grover Cleveland

- President from 1885-1889 and again from 1893-1897, Cleveland's first term was dominated by the issues of military pensions and tariff reforms - Lost the election of 1888, but ran again and won in 1892 - During his 2nd term he faced one of the most serious economic depressions in the nation's history but failed to enact policies to ease the crisis

Gamal Abdel Nasser

- President of Egypt from 1956 to 1970 - Known for his pan-Arab nationalism and opposition to colonialism, specifically in his decision to nationalize the Suez Canal in 1956 - Although his reputation was tarnished somewhat by his country's military failure against Israel in the 6 Days War of 1967, he remained a popular leader in Egypt and throughout the Arab world

Sam Houston

- President of the Republic of Texas and US senator who led Texas to independence in 1836 as commander in chief of the Texas army - As President of the Republic, Houston unsuccessfully sought annexation into the US - Once Texas officially joined the US in 1845, Houston was elected to the US senate and later returned to serve as Governor of Texas until 1861, when he was removed from office for refusing to take an oath of loyalty to the Confederacy

Lord North

- Prime minister and "yes-man" to King George III - Contributed to the revolution because of his insistence on colonial subordination - Caving to pressure, he convinced Parliament to repeal the Townshend revenue duties but kept the taxes on tea, which the colonists were most angered by

George Grenville

- Prime minister of GB who angered the colonists in 1763 when he ordered the British navy to enforce the Navigation Laws - Got Parliament to pass the Sugar Act - Imposed Stamp Tax as well - Thought all these were fair because the British paid them at home, but colonists got mad

James Madison

- Principle author of the Constitution, co-author of The Federalist, and fourth president of the US - Leading advocate of a strong nat'l gov in 1780s, but later joined TJeff and the D-R's in advocating for a more limited role for the federal state - As president, Madison inherited the conflict over trade with GB and France, which eventually pushed him to declare war on Britain in 1812

Privateers

- Privately owned ships authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping during the Revolutionary War - More numerous than the tiny American navy, they inflicted heavy damage on British shippers ==> British shippers putting pressure on GB to end the war

Franklin Pierce

- Pro-Southern Democrat from New Hampshire who became the 14th POTUS on a platform of territorial expansion - As president, he tried to provoke war with Spain and seize Cuba, a plan he quickly abandoned once it was made public - Emphatically support eh Compromise of 1850, vigorously enforced the Fugitive Slave Law, and threw his support behind the Kansas-Nebraska Bill

Neutrality Proclamation (1793)

- Proclaimed US government's neutrality in the widening conflict between France and Britain - Warned American citizens to be impartial toward both sides - Pro-French Jeffersonians were enraged while pro-British Federalists liked it - Didn't consult Congress - Washington reasoned that US should stay out of wars for a while to gain strength, otherwise catastrophe could occur - America was more useful to France as a reliable neutral provider than as a blockaded partner-in-arms

From Britain's perspective, were stationing soldiers in the New World permanently and issuing the Proclamation of 1763 good colonial policies? What problems were these policies trying to address? How else might have Britain solved those problems while limiting colonial contempt?

- Proclamation of 1763 and stationing soldiers was to incorporate lands ceded by the French and establish a boundary between Native Americans' land and GB colonies as well as protecting colonies from NA attacks - Probably could have solved problems better by incorporating colonies' ideas and demands

affirmative action

- Program designed to federally enforce racial and gender equality in jobs and education - Term grew from an executive order issued by LBJ in 1965 mandating that projects paid for with federal funds take concerted action against discrimination based on race in their hiring practices - In the late 1960s, President Nixon's Philadelphia Plan changed the meaning of affirmative action to require attention to certain groups, rather than protect individuals against discrimination

Philadelphia Plan (1969)

- Program established by Richard Nixon to require construction trade unions to work toward hiring more black apprentices - Altered LBJ's concept of "affirmative action" to focus on groups rather than individuals - Opened broad employment and educational opportunities for minorities and women

Bracero Program (1942-1964)

- Program established by agreement with the Mexican government to recruit temporary Mexican agricultural workers to the US to make up for wartime labor shortages in the Far West - The program persisted until 1964, buy which time it had sponsored 4.5 million border crossings - Became a fixed feature of the agricultural economy in many western states

Apollo (1961-1975)

- Program of manned space flights run by America's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) - The project's highest achievement was the landing of Apollo 11 on the moon on July 20, 1969

recall

- Progressive ballot procedure allowing voters to remove elected officials from office - Intended to be used on those who had been bribed by bosses or lobbyists

social gospel

- Progressive reform movement led by Protestant ministers who used religious doctrine to demand better housing and living conditions for the urban poor - Popular at the turn of the 20th c., it was closely linked to the settlement house movement, which brought middle-class, Anglo-American service volunteers into contact with immigrants and working people

referendum

- Progressive reform procedure allowing voters to place a bill on the ballot for final approval, even after being passed by the legislature - Meant to block laws passed by a compliant legislature who had been swayed by free-spending agents of big business

Louis D. Brandeis

- Progressive-minded confidant of Woodrow Wilson - Attorney behind Muller v. Oregon - In 1916, Wilson made him the first Jewish American to be appointed to the US Supreme Court

Gag Resolution (1836-1844)

- Prohibited debate or action on anti-slavery appeals as a result of the flood of anti-slavery petitions that poured into Congress - Driven through the House by proslavery southerners - Passed every year for 8 years but was eventually overturned with the help of the aging John Quincy Adams, who viewed it as an attack on the right of petition

Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom

- Prohibited state support for religious institutions and recognized freedom of worship - Model for the religion clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution

Fifteenth Amendment (ratified 1870)

- Prohibited states from denying citizens the franchise on account of race - Disappointed feminists, who wanted the amendment to include guarantees for women's suffrage

Maine Law of 1851

- Prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol in the state ==> a dozen other states following Maine's lead, though most statues proved ineffective and were repealed or declared unconstitutional within a decade

Lucretia Mott

- Prominent Quaker and abolitionist - Became a champion for women's rights after she and her fellow female delegates were note seated at the London antislavery convention of 1840 - Held the first Woman's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls in 1848 with Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Frederick Douglass

- Prominent black abolitionist, whose autobiography, "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass," detailed his experience in bondage and his daring escape to the North - More practical than many of his fellow abolitionists - Looked to politics to put an end to slavery - Lectured widely for abolition, enduring frequent beatings and death threats - After the Civil War, he continued to write and speak on behalf of blacks, calling on the federal government to help ensure economic independence for newly freed slaves

Cyrus Field

- Promoter of the first transatlantic cable which linked Ireland and Newfoundland in 1854 - After the first cable went dead, Field lobbied for a heavier cable, which was finally laid in 1866, linking the American and European continents

Lecompton Constitution (1857)

- Proposed Kansas constitution, whose ratification was unfairly rigged so as to guarantee slavery in the territory - Didn't allow voters to vote on the whole constitution but only on the issue of slavery, which was protected by other parts of the constitution - Initially ratified by proslavery forces, it was later voted down by the popular vote when Congress required that the entire constitution be put up for a vote

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

- Proposed that the issue of slavery be decided by popular sovereignty in the Kansas and Nebraska Territories, thus revoking the 1820 Missouri Compromise - Free-soil members of Congress fought back against the repeal of the Missouri Compromise - Introduced by Stephen Douglas in an effort to bring Nebraska into the Union and pave the way for a northern transcontinental railroad - Greased the slippery slope to the Civil War - Shattered the Democratic Party but gave birth to a new Republican Party, with a mighty moral protest against the gains of slavery

Tariff of 1842

- Protective measure passed by Congressional Whigs - Raised tariffs to pre-compromise tariff of 1833 rates - Helped bring the economy out of economic depression

Montgomery bus boycott (1955)

- Protest by black Alabamians against segregated seating on city buses, sparked by Rosa park's defiant refusal to move to the back of the bus - Lasted from December 1st, 1955, until December 26, 1956, and became one of the foundational moments of the civil rights movement - Led to the rise of MLK, and ultimately to a Supreme Court decision opposing segregated busing

Josiah Strong

- Protestant clergyman and author of "Our Country: Its Present Crisis" (1885) - Touted the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization and helped summon Americans to spread their religion abroad

Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act (1921)

- Provided federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care and expanded the role of government in family welfare - Designed to appeal to new women voters

Underwood Tariff (1913)

- Provided for a substantial reduction of rates as well as import fees and enacted an unprecedented, graduated federal income tax - By 1917, revenue from the income tax surpassed receipts from the tariff, a gap that has since been vastly widened

Land Ordinance of 1785

- Provided for the sale of land in the old NW and earmarked the proceeds toward repaying the national debt - Surveyed before sale and settlement which cleared up confusion

Social Security Act (1935)

- Provided for unemployment and old-age insurance financed by a payroll tax on employers and employees - Flagship accomplishment of the New Deal that has long remained a pillar of the "New Deal Order" - Largely inspired by the example of some of the more highly industrialized nations of Europe

Joseph Pulitzer

- Publisher whose newspapers, including the New York World, became a symbol of the sensationalist journalism of the late 19th c

Congregational Church

- Puritan church in which adult males met together and each man voted to elect officials, appoint schoolmasters, and discuss local matters - Led to democracy

William Penn

- Quaker who founded Pennsylvania as a safe haven for Quakers and to experiment with liberal ideas in government while making a profit - "America's first advertising man" - Liberal land policy ==> heavy influx of immigrants - Freedom of worship, but required by London to deny suffrage to Catholics and Jews - Too friendly with James II and was arrested 3 times for treason, put into a debtor's prison, and suffered a stroke

John Brown

- Radical abolitionist who launched an attack on a federal armory at Harper's Ferry, Virginia in an effort to lead slaves in a violent uprising against their owners - First took up arms against slavery during the Kansas civil War - Captured shortly after he launched his ill-conceived raid on the armory and sentenced to hang - Became a sort of martyr for the abolitionist cause

Cornelius Vanderbilt

- Railroad baron who made millions in steam-boating before beginning a business consolidating railroads and eliminating competition in the industry - Helped popularize the steel rail by replacing the old iron tracks of the New York Central

Jay Gould

- Railroad magnate who was involved in the Black Friday scandal in 1869 and later gained control of many of the nation's largest railroads, including the Union Pacific - In the Black Friday scandal, he and "Jubilee Jim" Fisk worked on Grant and with Grant's brother-in-law to bid the price of gold higher and higher so they could later profit from its heightened value, but these high prices crashed on Black Friday - Became revered and hated for his ability to manipulate railroad stocks for his personal profit and his ardent resistance to organized labor

Freeport question (1858)

- Raised during one of the Lincoln-Douglas debates by Lincoln, who asked whether the Court or the people should decide the future of slavery in the territories

"The American Scholar" (1837)

- Ralph Waldo Emerson's address at Harvard College, in which he declared an intellectual independence from Europe, urging American scholars to develop their own traditions

"Self-Reliance" (1841)

- Ralph Waldo Emerson's popular lecture-essay that reflected the spirit of individualism pervasive in American popular culture during the 1830s and 1840s

Bacon's Rebellion

- Rebellion led by Bacon in which Bacon and his followers attacked friendly and hostile Indians, chased Berkeley from Jamestown, and burned the capital - Ended soon after Bacon died from disease and Berkeley crushed the rebellion by hanging 20 rebels - ==> Lordly planters looking elsewhere for less troublesome laborers

Union League

- Reconstruction-era African American organization that worked to educated Southern blacks about civic life, built black schools and churches, and represented African American interests before government and employers - Also campaigned on behalf of Republican candidates and recruited local militias to protect blacks from white intimidation

"smoking gun" tape (1972)

- Recording made in the Oval Office in June 1972 that proved conclusively that Nixon knew about the Watergate break-in and endeavored to cover it up - Led to a complete breakdown in congressional support for Nixon after the Supreme Court ordered he hand the tape to investigators

regionalism (late 19th c.)

- Recurring artistic movement that, in the context of the late 19th c., aspired to capture the peculiarities, or "local color," of America's various regions in the face of modernization and national standardization - Authors both accentuated the differences among distant American locales and attempted to demystify (to some extent) regional differences for audiences who wanted postwar reunification

American Colonization Society (est. 1817)

- Reflected the focus of early abolitionists on transporting freed blacks back to Africa - Established Liberia, a West African settlement intended as a haven for emancipated slaves

Susan B. Anthony

- Reformer and woman suffragist - Long time friend of Elizabeth Cody Stanton - Advocated for temperance and women's rights in New York State, established the abolitionist Women's Loyal League during the Civil War, and founded the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1869 to lobby for a constitutional amendment giving women the vote

Amelia Bloomer

- Reformer and women's rights activist, who championed dress reform for women, wearing short skirts with Turkish trousers or "bloomers," as a healthier and more comfortable alternative to the tight corsets and voluminous skirts popular with women of her day

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (1983)

- Regan administration plan announced in 1983 to create a missile-defense system over American territory to block a nuclear attack - Derided as "Star Wars" by critics, the plan typified Reagan's commitment to vigorous defense spending even as he sought to limit the size of government in domestic matters

black belt

- Region of the Deep South with the highest concentration of slaves - Emerged in the 19th c. as cotton production became more profitable and slavery expanded south and west - Slave life here was the harder than in the more settled areas of the Old South

Grandfather clause (1890s)

- Regulation established in many southern states in the 1890s that exempted from voting requirements (such as literacy tests and poll taxes) anyone who could prove that his ancestors ("grandfathers") had been able to vote in 1860 - Because slaves could not vote before the Civil War, these clauses guaranteed the right to vote to many whites while denying it to blacks

Mormons (est. 1830)

- Religious followers of Joseph Smith, who founded a communal, oligarchic religious order in the 1830s, officially known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints - Faced deep hostility from non-Mormon neighbors and eventually migrated west and established a flourishing settlement in the Utah desert (thru smart irrigation) - Set up a flourishing missionary movement in Europe - Unique marital customs (polygamy) delayed statehood for Utah until 1896

Second Great Awakening (1790s)

- Religious revival characterize by mass "camp meetings" and a widespread conversion - Brought about a democratization of religion as a multiplicity of denominations vied for members - Evangelicalism starting popping up everywhere from prison reform to the woman's suffrage movement - Methodists and Baptists gained the most conversions because they stressed personal conversion (vs predestination), somewhat democratic church affairs, and rousing emotionalism

Great Awakening

- Religious revival that exploded during the 1730s and 1740s started by Jonathan Edwards - Emphasis placed on direct, emotive spirituality - Created many schisms that increased the number and competitiveness of American churches - Renewed missionary work of Black and Indian populations - First spontaneous American movementq

What shaped how ordinary colonists thought? What were important sources of influence on an ordinary colonist? Did England control these sources or did the colonists? What implications did this have for the future England and the colonies?

- Religious world view, British control - Colonists developed a more independent view of the world and eventually came to turns with its attachment to England

Non-Intercourse Act (1809)

- Replaced the Embargo Act and formally reopened trade with all the nations of the world, except for the two most important, GB and Britain - Act continued Jefferson's policy of economic coercion, with little effect

Newt Gingrich

- Republican Congressman from Georgia who served as Speaker of the House from 1995 to 1999 - As the author of the "Contract with America," Gingrich led the Republican "revolution" of 1994 - Seized the opportunity that Clinton's failed initiatives and widespread anti-government sentiment afforded Republicans

Thomas B. Reed

- Republican Congressman from Maine who became Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1889, then led the Billion-dollar Congress like a "Czar," making sure his agenda dictated the business of the legislature

Robert Dole

- Republican Senator from Kansas who ran unsuccessfully against Bill Clinton in 1996 - Was previously the Republican Vice Presidential nominee in 1976 and served as Senate Minority Leader during the 1980s and 1990s - His support from the South solidified the shift from the South voting Democrat to voting Republican

Taft-Hartley Act (1947)

- Republican-promoted, anti-union legislation passed over President Truman's vigorous veto that weakened many of labor's New Deal gains by banning the closed shop and other strategies that helped unions organize - Also required union leaders to take a noncommunist oath, which purged the union movement of many of its most committed and active organizers

Quartering Act (1765)

- Required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops

Tenure of Office Act (1867)

- Required the president to seek approval from the Senate before removing appointees - Passed over Johnson's veto - When Johnson removed his secretary of war in violation of the act, he was impeached by the House but remained in office when the Senate fell one vote short of removing him - Intended to freeze Edwin M. Stanton as secretary of war who was outwardly loyal to Johnson but secretly serving as an informer for the radicals

Battle of New Orleans (1815)

- Resounding victory of American forces against the British, restoring American confidence and fueling an outpour of nationalism - Final battle of the War of 1812, was Britain's biggest defeat of the entire war

First Continental Congress

- Response to the "Intolerable Acts" - Delegates from every colony except Georgia met to consult with one another - Created the Declaration of Rights, appeals to other British American colonies, to the king, and to the British people - Sought to repeal offensive legislation, but rejected by Parliament

Battle of San Jacinto (1836)

- Resulted in the capture of Mexican dictator Santa Anna, who was forced to withdraw his troops from Texas and recognize the Rio Grande as Texas's southwestern border - Won win Houston and his forces took advantage of the Mexican siesta to attack their pursuers

Battle of Teppecanoe (1811)

- Resulted in the defeat of Shawnee chief Tenskatawa, "the Prophet," at the hands of William Henry Harrison in the Indiana wilderness - After the battle, the Prophet's brother, Tecumseh, forged an alliance with the British against the US - Discredited the Prophet and lost him his following`

Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (1934)

- Reversed traditional high-protective-tariff policies by allowing the president to negotiate lower tariffs with trade partners (given that both side would reduce equally), without Senate approval - Amended existing tariff policies rather than creating a new one - Its chief architect was Secretary of State Cordell Hull, who believed that tariff barriers choked off foreign trade - Landmark piece of legislation because it paved the way for the American-led free-trade international economic system that took shape after WWII

Alexander Hamilton

- Revolutionary War soldier & first treasury secretary of the US - Fierce Federalist - Attended the Philadelphia convention and convincingly argued for the Constitution's ratification in The Federalist - As treasury secretary, he argued for the assumption of state debts to bolster the nation's credit and the est. of a national bank to print sound currency and boost commerce - Favored the wealthier groups in the hopes that they would gratefully lend the government monetary and political support - Archnemesis with Thomas Jefferson, Hamilton believed that what the Const did not forbid it permitted, but Jefferson thought what it did not permit it forbade - Died in a duel with Vice President Aaron Burr

Aaron Burr

- Revolutionary War soldier and Vice President under Jefferson - Fatally wounded Hamilton in 1804 duel - In 1806 led a failed plot to separate the trans-Mississippi West from the US - Narrowly acquitted of treason, Burr fled to France where we tried to convince Napoleon to ally with GB against the US - Not convicted because John Marshall thought that treasonous intentions weren't enough for conviction

James Monroe

- Revolutionary War soldier, statesman, and the 5th president of the US - Supported protective tariffs and a national bank, but maintained a Jeffersonian opposition to federally funded internal improvements - Sought to transcend partisanship, even taking a goodwill tour of the states in 1817 (supposedly to inspect military defenses), but his presidency was rocked by bitter partisan and sectional conflicts

George Washington

- Revolutionary war general and 1st president of the US - Virginia planter who became a military hero in the French and Indian War - Commander in Chief of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War and secured crucial victories at Saratoga and Yorktown - Unanimously voted president in 1788, served 2 terms - Focused on strengthening the national gov't (thru cabinets), est. a sound financial system, and maintaining American neutrality amidst the escalating European conflict

Benedict Arnold

- Revolutionary war general turned traitor, who valiantly held off a British invasion of upstate New York at Lake Champlain, but later switched sides, plotting to sell out the Continental stronghold at West Point to the redcoats - His scheme was discovered and the disgraced general fled to British lines

Ethan Allen

- Revolutionary war officer - along with Benedict Arnold, fought British and Indian forces in frontier New York and Vermont - Captured British garrisons at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, acquiring precious gunpowder and artillery

Daniel Shays

- Revolutionary war veteran who led a group of debtors and poor backcountry farmers in Shay's Rebellion

Declaratory Act

- Right after Parliament repealed the Stamp Act they established that it would not yield absolute sovereignty over its NA colonies which the colonies refused to accept

Stono River

- River along which the South Carolina slave revolt occurred

Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt

- Rough Rider and cowboy-hero of the Cuban campaign who rode his popularity into the governorship of New York and then into the Vice President's office - Became president when McKinley was assassinated in 1901 - Won reelection as a Republican in 1904 and then lost to Democrat Woodrow Wilson in 1912, when he tried for another term as the Progressive Party candidate

Model Treaty

- Sample treaty drafted by the Continental Congress as a guide for American diplomats - Reflected Americans' desire to foster commercial partnerships rather than political or military entanglements

Gilded Age (1865-1896)

- Sarcastic name given by Mark Twain in 1873 to the three-decade-long post—Civil War era - Indicates both the fabulous wealth and the widespread corruption of the era - Political parties mostly saw eye-to-eye, but were ferociously competitive with one another, leading to unprecedentedly high voter turnout

Mark Twain

- Satirist and writer, best known for his books "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" (1876) and "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" (1884) - His work critiqued American politics and society, especially the racial and economic injustice that he saw in the South and West - Twain traveled abroad extensively and his work was read and loved around the world

Black Hawk

- Sauk war chief who led the Sauk and Fox resistance against eviction under the Indian Removal Act in Illinois and Wisconsin - Brutally crushed by American forces, he surrendered in 1832 and lived on a reservation in Iowa

Captain John Smith

- Saved Virginia from collapse - 1608: "He who shall not work shall not eat!"

yellow journalism

- Scandal-mongering practice of journalism that emerged in NY during the Gilded Age out of the circulation battles between Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal - Expression has remained a disapproving term referring to sensationalist journalism practiced with unethical, unprofessional standards

Kent State University (1970)

- Scene of massacre of four college students by National Guardsmen on May 4, 1970, in Ohio - In response to Nixon's announcement that he had expanded the Vietnam War into Cambodia, college campuses across the country exploded into violence - On May 14 and 15, students at historically black Jackson State College in Mississippi were protesting the war as well as the Kent State shooting when highway patrolmen fired into a student dormitory, killing 2 students

Albert B. Fall

- Scheming conservationist who served as Secretary of the Interior under Warren G. Harding - One of the key players in the notorious Teapot Dome scandal - Found guilty of taking a bribe in 1929 and sentenced to one year in jail

Regulator movement

- Scot-Irish insurrection against eastern domination of the colony's affairs - Included Andrew Jackson and other future American revolutionaries

How, as migrants from North America, and other parts of the world continued to move westward, frontier cultures in the colonial period continued to grow, fueling social, political, and ethnic tensions (3.3)

- Scots-Irish migration to frontier (Culture/Ethnic) - Whiskey Rebellion- tax rebellion (Social/political) - Regulator movement (Political)

Robert Owen

- Scottish-born textile manufacturer and founder of New Harmony, a short-lived communal society of about a thousand people in Indiana

Ostend Manifesto (1854)

- Secret Franklin Pierce administration proposal to purchase or, that failing, to wrest militarily Cuba from Spain - Once leaked, it was quickly abandoned due to vehement opposition from the North - Ex. of how the slavery issue checked territorial expansion in the 1850s

Pentagon Papers (1971)

- Secret U.S. government report detailing early planning and policy decisions regarding the Vietnam War under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson - Leaked to the New York Times in 1971, it revealed instances of governmental secrecy, lies, and incompetence in the prosecution of the war

Molly Maguires (1860s-1860s)

- Secret organization of Irish miners who campaigned, sometimes violently, against poor working conditions in the Pennsylvania mines

Cordell Hull

- Secretary of State under President Roosevelt and chief architect of the low-tariff reciprocal trade policy of the New Dealers - Foreign trade increased appreciably under all the trade pacts that he negotiated - One of the chief architects behind the United Nations - Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945 for "co-initiating the United Nations"

Edwin M. Stanton

- Secretary of War under Presidents Lincoln and Johnson - Advocated for stronger measures against the South during Reconstruction, particularly after widespread violence against African Americans erupted in the region - Was outwardly loyal to Johnson but secretly served as a spy and informer for the radicals - In 1868, Johnson removed Stanton in violation of the 1867 Tenure of Office Act, giving pretense for Radical Republicans in the House to impeach him

Henry Clay

- Secretary of state and US senator from Kentucky, known as the "Great Compromiser" - Helped to negotiate the Missouri Compromise in 1820, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, and the Compromise of 1850 - As a National Republican, later Whig, Clay advocated a strong national agenda of internal improvements and protective tariffs, known as the American System

Horace Mann

- Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education and champion of public education - Advocated for more and better school houses, longer terms, better pay for teachers, and an expanded curriculum

Albert Gallatin

- Secretary of treasury under Jeff who agreed that a national debt was bad and sought to balance the federal budget and decrease the national debt

Joseph McCarthy

- Senator from Wisconsin who rose to infamy by accusing the State Department of employing communists - Conducted high-profile red-baiting hearings that damaged countless careers before he finally over-reaching in 1954 when he went after the US army - Following the Army-McCarthy hearings, he was censured by the senate and died of alcoholism shortly after

Duke of York

- Sent a squadron to New Amsterdam, where they took out the Dutch in a bloodless raid and the land was renamed New York in honor of Charles II's brother - English now owned all the land between Maine and the Carolinas

Transportation Revolution

- Series of 19th c. transportation innovations == Turnpikes, steamboats, canals, railroads - Linked local and regional markets, creating a national economy

Aroostook War (1839-1842)

- Series of clashes between American and Canadian lumberjacks in the disputed territory of northern Maine - Resolved when a permanent boundary was agreed upon in 1842

Black Hawk War (1832)

- Series of clashes in Illinois and Wisconsin between American forces and Indian chief Black Hawk of the Sauk and Fox tribes, who unsuccessfully tried to reclaim territory lost under the 1830 Indian Removal Act

Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858)

- Series of debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas during the US senate race in Illinois - Douglas won the election, but Lincoln gained national prominence and emerged as the leading candidate for the 1860 Republican nomination

Hungarian Uprising (1956)

- Series of demonstrations in Hungary against the Soviet Union - Soviet Premier Nikita Krushchev violently suppressed this pro-Western uprising, highlighting the limitations of America's power in Eastern Europe - Hungarians felt betrayed when the US ignored their desperate appeals for aid - The Soviet's use of brute force against a grassroots democratic movement turned many communist sympathizers in the West definitively against the Soviet Union

Navigation Laws

- Series of laws passed to regulate colonial shipping - Only English ships would be allowed to trade in English and colonial ports and that all goods on their way to the colonies would pass thru England - Signified the intense colonial rivalries that were happening and throttled American trade with non-English countries - Led to increase in smuggling

Watergate (1972-1974)

- Series of scandals that resulted in President Richard Nixon's resignation in August 1974 amid calls for his impeachment - The episode sprang from a failed burglary attempt at Democratic party headquarters in Washington's Watergate Hotel during the 1972 election

Salem witch trials

- Series of witchcraft trials launched after a group of adolescent girls in Salem, Massachusetts, claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women of the town. Twenty individuals were put to death before the trials were put to an end by the Governor of Massachusetts. - Mostly from farming families accusing families from Salem's burgeoning market economy - Reflected the widening social stratification of New England

Hernán Cortés

- Set sail from Cuba and caught wind of the legends of riches in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán - Gathered Indian allies who didn't like the Aztecs to attack the capital - Sieged the capital and won the land for the Spanish

Panic of 1819

- Severe financial crisis brought on primarily by the efforts of the Bank of the United States to curb over-speculation on Western lands - Disproportionally affected the poorer classes, especially in the West, sowing the seeds of Jacksonian democracy

Tenskwatawa ("the Prophet")

- Shawnee religious leader, also known as "the Prophet," who led a spiritual revival, emphasizing Indian unity and cultural renewal and urging Indians to limit contact with Americans - Lost his following in 1811, after he and a small army of followers were defeated by William Henry Harrison at the Battle of Tippecanoe

McKinley Tariff (1890)

- Shepherded through Congress by President William McKinley, this tariff raised duties on Hawaiian sugar and set off renewed efforts to secure the annexation of Hawaii to the United States

Industrial Revolution (1790s to mid 1800s)

- Shift toward mass production and mechanization that included the creation of the modern factory system

California Bear Flag Republic (1846)

- Short lived California republic, established by local American settlers who revolted against Mexico - Once new of the war with Mexico reached the Americans, they abandoned the Republic in favor of joining the United States

Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937

- Short sighted acts passed to prevent American participation in a European war - Among other restrictions, they prevented Americans from selling munitions to foreign belligerents - Were specifically tailored to keep the US out of a conflict like WWI, so Congress was one war too late with its legislation

Pony Express (1860-1861)

- Short-lived, speedy mail service between Missouri and California that relied on lightweight riders galloping between closely placed outposts - Lost money heavily and folded after only 18 months

Sacajawea

- Shoshone guide who led Lewis and Clark on their exploration of the American west by serving as a translator

Nullification crisis (1832-1833)

- Showdown between President Jackson and the South Carolina legislature - Declared the 1832tariff null and void in the state and threatened secession if the federal government tried to collect duties - Resolved by a compromise negotiated by Henry Clay in 1833

Executive Order No. 9066 (1942)

- Signed by FDR on February 19, 1924 - Authorized secretary of war to designate military zones from which certain categories of people could be excluded - Fueled by historic anti-Japanese sentiment as well as panic following the December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor - Led to the forced removal of some 120,000 persons of Japanese ancestry (about 2/3 of them U.S. citizens) from the Western Military Zone (the coastal sections of Washington, Oregon, and California) - Most but not all of those removed were interned in relocation camps in the Interior West - Was rescinded in December 1944, and legislation passed in 1988 offered an official government apology and modest financial compensation to surviving citizen internees

Rush-Bagot agreement (1817)

- Signed by GB and the US, established strict limits on naval armaments on the Great Lakes, a first step toward the full demilitarization of the US-Canadian border, completed in the 1870s (worlds largest unfortified boundary)

Anglo-American Convention (1818)

- Signed by GB and the US, the pact allowed NE fishermen access to Newfoundland territories, and provided for the joint occupation of the Oregon Country for 10 years - Negotiated without a surrender of rights or claims of either America or Britain

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850)

- Signed by Great Britain and the US, provided that the two nations would jointly protect the neutrality of Central American and that neither power would seek to fortify or exclusively control any future isthmian waterway - Later revoked by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901, which gave the US control of the Panama Canal

Treaty of Wanghia (1844)

- Signed by the United States and China - Assured the United States the same trading concessions granted to other powers, greatly expanding America's trade with the Chinese - Provided that Americans accused of crimes in China would be tried in front of American courts, boosted American trade with China, and opened China to American missionaries

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

- Signed in France's famed palace after 6 months of tough negotiations, it established the terms of settlement of WWI between Germany and the Allied and Associated powers (most notably France, Britain, Italy, and the US) - Article 231, soon dubbed the "war guilt clause," blamed the war on Germany as justification for forcing German disarmament and saddling Germany with heavy reparations payments to the Allied victors - Treaty was more intent on vengeance than reconciliation - Germans detested the treaty as too harsh, the French feared it was too weak to prevent future aggression, and the US Senate rejected it, largely because it obliged the United States to join the League of Nations

Battle of Québec

- Significant engagement in British and American history - Historic British victory over French forces on the outskirts of Quebec - Surrender marked the end of French rule in NA, and GB emerged as dominant power

Which of the social changes brought about by the Revolution was the most significant? Could the Revolution have gone further toward the principle that "all men are created equal" by ending slavery or granting women's rights? How does the Copley Family Portrait on page 162 in the section "Examining the Evidence" reflect the concept of "republican motherhood?"

- Significant social change was the establishment of a somewhat republican government which represented the people and their interests - Probably, but it was more practical to start with just landed white men so that it would have more support at the outset - Showed mother having a nurturing role in the lives of her kids

Mayflower Compact

- Simple contract to form a basic government that would obey the will of the majority - Led to adult male settlers discussing laws in open town hall meetings

Appomattox Courthouse (1865)

- Site where Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant in April 1864 after almost a year of brutal fighting throughout Virginia in the "Wilderness Campaign" - Granted the South generous terms of surrender

breakers

- Slave drivers who employed the lash to brutally "break" the souls of strong-willed slaves - Such lashings hurt resale values and made sullen laborers

"Fifty-four forty or fight" (1846)

- Slogan adopted by mid 19th c. expansionists who advocated the occupation of Oregon Territory, jointly held by GB and the US - Though President Polk had pledged to seize all of Oregon, to 54° 40', he settled on the 49th parallel as a compromise with the British - Backed by expansionist Democrats

War of Jenkins' Ear (1739)

- Small scale clash between Britain and Spain in the Caribbean and in the buffer colony, Georgia - Merged with larger War of Austrian Succession in 1742

clipper ships (1840s-1850s)

- Small, swift vessels that gave American shippers an advantage in the carrying trade - Wrested tea-carrying trade from slower-sailing British competitors, and brought adventurers to the goldfields of California and Australia - Clipper ships were made largely obsolete by the advent of sturdier, roomier iron steamers on the eve of the Civil War

Monitor (1862)

- Smaller Union ironclad that fought the Merrimack to a standstill - Successes against wooden ships signaled an end to wooden warships - Fought a historic though inconsequential battle against Confederate ironclad Merrimack in 1862

Samuel de Champlain

- Soldier who began France's empire with a colony in Québec - "The Father of New France" - Helped the Huron Indians repel the Iroquois ==> Iroquois hating the French

James Oglethorpe

- Soldier-statesman who became interested in prison reform, helped found Georgia as a safe haven, without slavery - Military leader, imperialist, and philanthropist

Was the United States in a crisis under the Articles of Confederation, or was the crisis exaggerated by the Federalists to justify their movement? (See first boxed quote on page 169.) Could the United States have survived if the Articles had stayed in effect? What successes did the Articles of Confederation achieve? Was the Constitutional Convention a second American Revolution? Contrast boxed quotes by Hamilton and by Jefferson on pages 169 and 170.

- Somewhat, because the government had little to no power and could not impose taxes to pay for debts - US couldn't demand respect from other countries because it wasn't a threat - Nothing could get done because all 13 states needed to support an issue to ratify it - It was exaggerated by the Federalists who wanted a strong central government - US could not have survived under it because it did not unite the colonies and made the government unorganized - Successes: Land ordinance of 1785, Northwest ordinance of 1787, set up foundation for the constitution - Sort of, in the way that it was scrapped in favor of the new Constitution, but not a violent one - Hamilton says that the classes keep themselves in check but Jefferson says that they all cause a revolution at some point

John Quincy Adams

- Son of second president John Adams - Served as Secretary of State under President Monroe before becoming the 6th POTUS - Strong advocate of national finance and improvement, and as a result faced opposition from states' rights advocated in the South and West - Controversial election (the allegedly "corrupt bargain" of 1824) and his lack of political smarts further hampered his presidential agenda - Won fewer than one third of the votes, making him the first "minority president" - Didn't empty government offices to put his own supporters in, which made them mad - Not as corrupt as everyone thought he was, and actually upheld strict morals - Supported by New England and the North East

Fort Sumter (1861)

- South Carolina location where Confederate forces fired the first shots of the Civil War in April of 1861, after Union forces attempted to provision the fort - Lincoln made sure that the South knew he was provisioning it (providing food and necessities) but no reinforcing it - However, the South still saw it as an act of aggression and attacked, though no one was killed

Redeemers (1870s-1880s)

- Southern Democratic politicians who sought to wrest control from Republican regimes in the South after Reconstruction - Controlled southern state governments after the Union soldiers left

George C. Wallace

- Southern populist and segregationist - As governor of Alabama, he famously defended his state's policies of racial segregation - Ran for president several times as a Democrat, but achieved his greatest influence when he ran as a 3rd party candidate in 1968, winning 5 states

Joseph Stalin

- Soviet dictator from Lenin's death in 1922 until his own death in 1953 - Led the Soviet Union through WWII and shaped Soviet policies in the early years of the Cold War - Secured protective "satellite states" in Eastern Europe at the Yalta Conference and pushed Soviet scientists to develop atomic weapons, escalating an arms race with the US

Sputnik (1957)

- Soviet satellite first launched into earth orbit on October 4, 1957 - This scientific achievement marked the first time human beings had put a man-made object into orbit and pushed the USSR noticeably ahead of the US in the space race - A month later, the Soviet Union sent a larger satellite, Sputnik II, into space, prompting the US to redouble its space exploration efforts and raising American fears of Soviet superiority

Florida Purchase Treaty (Adams-Onís Treaty) (1819)

- Spain ceded Florida to the US, and the two nations agreed the SW boundary of the Louisiana Purchase - Spain retained the territory from Texas to California while abandoning its claims to the Oregon country - Spain had to abandon claims to Texas, soon to become part of independent Mexico

Pinckney's Treaty (1795)

- Spain's deal with the US b/c they were afraid of an Anglo-American alliance - Granted Americans free navigation of the Mississippi and the disputed territory of Florida - Right of deposit (warehouse rights) at New Orleans

Battle of Acoma (1599)

- Spaniards abused the Pueblo people they encountered - Cut off one foot of each surviving Indian and established New Mexico in 1609

Conquistadores

- Spanish conquerers who fanned out across the New World for Gold, God, and Glory

Francisco Coronado

- Spanish conquistador and explorer who led a large expedition from Mexico to present-day Kansas through parts of the southwestern United States between 1540 and 1542 - Discovered the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River and enormous herds of buffalo

Francisco Franco

- Spanish general who became head of state after his fascistic troops prevailed over the republican Loyalists in the Spanish Civil War - Allied with Mussolini and Hitler - He remained head of the Spanish state until his death in 1975

Amistad (1839)

- Spanish slave ship dramatically seized off the coast of Cuba by the enslaved Africans aboard - The ship was driven ashore in Long Island and the slaves were put on trial - Former POTUS John Quincy Adams argued their case before the Supreme Court, and secured their eventual release and return to Africa in 1841

Johnson Debt Default Act (1934)

- Spiteful act prevented debt-ridden nations from borrowing further from the US - Was steeped in ugly memories of WWI

Foraker Act (1900)

- Sponsored by Senator Joseph B. Foraker, a Republican from Ohio - Accorded Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government - The first comprehensive congressional effort to provide for governance of territories acquired after the Spanish-American War, it served as a model for a similar act adopted for the Philippines in 1902

Half-Way Covenant (1662)

- Spurred by decline in church membership - New formula for church membership in which the children of baptized (but not yet converted existing members) were allowed to be baptized - Weakened the distinction between the "elect" and others which further diluted the spiritual purity - ==> Puritan churches welcoming everyone - Strict religious purity sacrificed for wider religious participation

Cuban missile crisis (1962)

- Standoff between JFK and Soviet premier Nikita Krushchev in October 1962 over Soviet plans to install nuclear weapons in Cuba - Although the crisis was ultimately settled in America's favor and represented a foreign-policy triumph for Kennedy, it brought the world's superpowers perilously close to the brink of nuclear confrontation - Led to a pact prohibiting trial nuclear explosions between the US and Russia in 1963

New Nationalism (1912)

- State-interventionist reform program devised by journalist Herbert Croly and advocated by Theodore Roosevelt during his Bull Moose presidential campaign - Roosevelt did not object to continued consolidation of trusts and labor unions, and instead sought to create stronger regulatory agencies to ensure that they operated to serve the public interest, not just private gain

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

- Statement delivered by President Monroe warning European powers to refrain from seeking any new territories in the Americas - US largely lacked the power to back up the pronouncement, which was actually enforced by GB, who sought unfettered access to Latin American markets - Also warned against foreign intervention and said the US would not engage in foreign affairs - Deepened illusion of isolationism and was shaped by later presidents

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798)

- Statements secretly drafted by Jefferson and Madison for the legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia - Argued that states were the final arbiters of whether the federal government overstepped its boundaries and could therefore nullify or refuse national legislature that they determined unconstitutional == Important because was later used by southerners to support secession, but it was originally intended to preserve the Union rather than separate it

Slave codes

- Statues that described the condition of slavery for blacks - Blacks *and their children* were the property for life of their white masters - Blacks were not allowed to learn to read or write and not even Christian conversion could make them free

Neutrality Act of 1939

- Stipulated that European democracies might buy American munitions, but only if they could pay in cash and transport them in their own ships, a policy known as "cash-and-carry" - Represented an effort to avoid war debts and protect American arms-carriers from torpedo attacks - Helped the US improve both its moral position and economic situation, with overseas demand for war goods bringing the US out of the economic recession of 1937-1938

SALT II (1972)

- Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty Agreement between Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and American president Jimmy Carter - Despite an accord to limit weapons between the two leaders, the agreement was ultimately defeated in the U.S. Senate following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979

Levittown

- Suburban communities with mass-produced tract houses built in the New York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas in the 1950s by William Levitt and Sons - Typically inhabited by white middle-class people who fled the cities in search of homes to buy for their growing families - Revolutionized the techniques of home construction

Proposition 13 (1978)

- Successful California state ballot initiative that capped the state's real estate tax at 1% of assessed value - Radically reduced average property tax levels, decreasing revenue for the state government and signaling the political power of the "tax revolt," increasingly aligned with conservative politics

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

- Suit over whether New York State could grant a monopoly to a ferry operating on interstate waters - Ruling reasserted that Congress had the sole power to regulate interstate commerce - Marshall both struck another blow at state rights while at the same time upheld the sovereign powers of the federal government

How important were the diplomatic relations between European nations in determining the success of the American Revolution? How significant a role did the French play in securing American independence? How significant a role did the rest of Europe play? How did the American Revolution change diplomatic relations in Europe?

- Super important - French provided guns and ships as well as troops which tipped the scales in favor of the Americans - Battle of Saratoga convinced the French that the Americans had a chance - Many other European countries got together and formed the Armed Neutrality, which lined up all European neutrals that were against Great Britain ==> War being fought in Asia, the Caribbean, and South America - It beat down the British and ushered in a new era were diplomacy was key

Federalists

- Supporters of the 1787 Constitution - Favored a strong national government, arguing that the checks and balances in the Constitution would safeguard people's liberties - Ex: George Washington & Ben Franklin

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

- Supreme Court case that established the principle of "judicial review," the idea that the Supreme Court had the final authority to determine constitutionality - Jeffersonians tried impeachment of Samuel Chase, a Supreme Court Justice, as revenge

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

- Supreme Court case that strengthened federal authority and upheld the constitutionality of the Bank of the US by establishing that the State of Maryland did not have power to tax the bank - Marshall supported this claim by invoking the Hamiltonian doctrine of implied power

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

- Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of segregation laws, saying that as long as blacks were provided with "separate but equal" facilities, these laws did not violate the 14th Amendment - This decision provided legal justification for the Jim Crow system until the 1950s - In reality, however, the quality of African American life was greatly unequal to that of whites

Dred Scott v. Stanford (1857)

- Supreme Court decision that extended federal protection to slavery by ruling that Congress did not have the power to prohibit slavery in any territory - Also declared that slaves, as property, were not citizens of the United States - Led by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney - Opposed by Republicans who insisted that the ruling was an opinion and not a decision

reservation system (1850s-1887)

- System that allotted land with designated boundaries to Native American tribes in the West, beginning in the 1850s and ending with the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 - Within these reservations, most land was used communally, rather than owned individually - The US government encouraged and sometimes violently coerced Native Americans to stay on the reservations at all times, and federal Indian agents were often corrupt

Australian ballot

- System that allows voters privacy in their ballot choices - Developed in Australia in the 1850s, and was introduced to the US during the progressive era to help counteract boss rule - Discouraged bribery

Teapot Dome Scandal (1923)

- Tawdry affair involving the illegal lease of priceless naval oil reserves in Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills, CA - Implicated President Harding's secretary of the interior Albert B. Fall and secretary of the navy - Was one of several scandals that gave Harding's administration a reputation for corruption

Excise tax (1791)

- Tax on domestic goods - 1791 tax on whiskey was a controversial component of Hamilton's financial program

Tariff (1789)

- Tax on imported goods - Manufacturers usually support them as protective and revenue-raising while agricultural interests, dependent on world markets, oppose high tarriffs - Hamilton used tariffs to not only bring it profit but also shelter infant industries

Corps of Discovery (1804-1806)

- Team of adventurers led by Lewis and Clark sent by Jefferson to explore Louisiana Territory and find a water route to the Pacific - Brought back detailed accounts of the West's flora, fauna, and native populations, and their voyage demonstrated the viability of overland travel to the West

Why frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian resistance led to a sequence of wars (4.3)

- Tecumseh organized resistance with his brother the Prophet, Temskwatawa, but Americans defeated them - Ex: Battle of Tippecanoe

kitchen debate (1959)

- Televised exchange in 1959 between Soviet premier Nikita Kruschev and American Vice President Richard Nixon - Met at the American National Exhibition in Moscow - The two leaders sparred over the relative merits of capitalist consumer culture versus Soviet state planning - Nixon won applause for his staunch defense of American capitalism, helping lead him to the Republican nomination for president in 1960

New Right (1980s)

- Term for a loose network of conservative political activists and organizations that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s - More populist in tone than previous generations of conservatives, the New Right emphasized hot-button cultural issues like abortion, busing, and prayer in school - Also espoused a nationalist foreign policy outlook that rejected détente and international treaties - Propelled Reagan's pursuit of the GOP nomination, and although he failed in 1976, the movement grew more powerful over the next four years

military-industrial complex (1961)

- Term popularized by President Eisenhower in his 1961 Farewell Address, referring to the political and economic ties between arms manufacturers, elected officials, and the U.S. armed forces that created self-sustaining pressure for high military spending during the Cold War - Eisenhower also warned that this powerful combination left unchecked could "endanger our liberties or democratic process," favoring defense concerns over more peaceful goals that balanced security and liberty

stagflation (1970s)

- Term referring to the simultaneous occurrence of low employment growth (stagnation) and high inflation in the national economy - The phenomenon characterized the economic troubles of the 1970s and posed both an intellectual challenge to economists and a policymaking challenge to government officials

fourth party system (1896-1932)

- Term scholars have used to describe national politics from 1896 to 1932, when Republicans had a tight grip on the White House and issues such as industrial regulation and labor concerns became paramount, replacing older concerns such as civil service reform and monetary policy - Break with the previous "third party system," in place since 1860 and characterized by remarkably high voter turnouts and close contests between Democrats and Republicans

H. L. Mencken

- The "Sage of Baltimore" - Established himself as the nation's leading critic and literary stylist in the early 20th c. - Championed liberal, modernist causes and led the assault on William Jennings Bryan's fundamentalist crusade at the Scopes "Monkey Trial"

John Tyler

- The 10th POTUS - Whig in name only - Opposed central tenets of the Whig platform, including tariffs, internal improvements, and a national bank - Promoted more states' rights and was intended to gain the support of southern voters - Was expelled from his party and nearly impeached

Iranian Hostage Crisis (1979-1981)

- The 444 days, from November 1979 to January 1981, in which American embassy workers were held captive by Iranian revolutionaries - The Iranian revolution began in January 1979 when young Muslim fundamentalists overthrew the oppressive regime of the American-backed shah, forcing him into exile - Deeming the US "the Great Satan," these revolutionaries triggered an energy crisis by cutting of Iranian oil - The hostage crisis began when revolutionaries stormed the American embassy, demanding that the US return the shah to Iran for trial - The episode was marked by botched diplomacy and a failed rescue attempt by the Carter administration - After permanently damaging relations between the two countries, the crisis ended with the hostages' release the day Ronal Reagan became president, January 20, 1981

Cold War (1945-1991)

- The 45 year long diplomatic tension between the US and the Soviet Union that divided much of the world into polarized camps, capitalist against communist - Most of the international conflicts during that period, particularly in the developing world, can be traced to the competition between the US and Soviet Union

Industrial Workers of the World (1905)

- The IWW, also known as the "Wobblies," was a radical organization that sought to build "one big union" and advocated industrial sabotage in defense of that goal - At its peak in 1923, it could claim 100,000 members and could gain the support of 300,000 - Particularly appealed to the migratory workers in agriculture and lumbering and to miners, all of whom suffered from horrific working conditions

Was the American Revolution inevitable? Could America have gradually and peacefully developed independence within the British Commonwealth, as Canada later did, rather than engaging in a violent revolt? At what point in time, if any, was a violent revolt inevitable? What could the British have done to stop the Revolution?

- The Revolution was probably not inevitable because if the British had allowed some colonial representation in Parliament and less taxes the colonies would have relented - Violent revolt was inevitable when the British put down American revolts violently rather than conceding certain things

Dupuy de Lôme

- The Spanish minister to the US who found himself at the center of a scandal when his private letter maligning President McKinley was made public in 1898 - This scandal led to his resignation and further infuriation of the American public

American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) (est. 1918)

- The U.S. army force deployed to Europe in WWI commanded by General John J. Pershing and composed mostly of conscripts - Because the US entered the war so late, by the time the AEF was raised, trained, and deployed, the war was in its last year (1918) - Units of the AEF fought at Cantigny in May and at Chateau Theirry and Belleau Wood in June - Major engagements were at Saint Mihiel in September and the Meuse-Argonne in September and November

If France, instead of Britain, had won the "duel for North America," would the thirteen colonies ever have become independent of Britain, or would they have been forced to stay within the empire for protection against France? Would Detroit, St. Louis, and New Orleans now be cities in Canada rather than in the United States?

- The colonies could still have become independent because since the British taxed the colonies heavily to pay for the French and Indian War, no matter who won, the economic effect would stay the same - This could have been possible if the French had been interested in gaining land

William H. Taft

- The corpulent civil governor of the Philippines under William McKinley - Taft went on to become the 27th POUTS in 1909 - Supported "benevolent assimilation" of the Philippines and called the Filipinos his "little brown brothers, but Filipinos hated compulsory Americanization and wanted freedom

Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929)

- The dark, panicky day of October 29th, 1929, when over 16 billion shares of stock were sold on Wall Street - Stock market crash caused by foreign investors dumping their stocks and flooding the market - Was a trigger that helped bring in the Great Depression

Marcus Alonzo Hanna

- The driving force behind McKinley's rise to the presidency, Hanna was a former businessman who raised money and devised strategy for McKinley's winning bid for the White House in 1896 - Believed that a prime function of government was to aid business - Accused by William Jennings Bryan supporters of "buying" the election and floating McKinley into the White House on a tidal wave of mud and money

New Deal (1933-1938)

- The economic and political policies of FDR's administration in the 1930s, which aimed to solve the problems of the Great Depression by providing relief for the unemployed and launching efforts to stimulate economic recovery - Built on reforms of the progressive era to expand greatly and American-style welfare state - Aimed to provide relief, recovery, and reform

ecological imperialism

- The exploitation of western natural resources through excessive hunting, logging, mining, and grazing - Drove beavers, buffalo, and sea-otters to near extinction in the West

Hetch Hetchy Valley (1913)

- The federal government allowed the city of San Francisco to build a dam here in 1913 - This was a blow to preservationists, who wished to protect the Yosemite National Park, where the dam was located

Funding at par (1790)

- The federal government would pay off its debts at face value, plus accumulated interest - Was more than $54 million, a lot at the time

Frances Perkins

- The first woman cabinet member and Secretary of Labor under Roosevelt - Helped draw labor into the New Deal coalition

Douglas MacArthur

- The flamboyant, vain, and brilliants American commander in the Philippines and mastermind of the "leapfrogging" strategy for bypassing strongly defended Japanese islands during WWII - Would go on to command American troops in the Korean War until he was relieved of his duties by President Harry S. Truman for insubordination in 1951

How were the various occupations and activities of colonial America related to the nature of the economy? Why were such occupations as lawyer, printer, and artisan taking on greater importance?

- The geography of the area played a heavy hand in determining the economy of the colonies. NE colonies had rocky terrain, but forested woodlands, which they were able to use in their industries for lumber, shipbuilding, and trade. In the south, there was rich soil, so there was a thriving agriculture economy - As the quality of life increased, colonists desired more luxurious items that an artisan could provide. - As newspapers and other forms of written communication developed, printers were viewed more highly. - As colonists began to feel a sense of independence and self-governance, lawyers became vital to establishing colonial independence.

Alexander Graham Bell

- The inventor of the telephone, patented in 1876 - Led to the development of a giant communications network across America

Civil Rights Act of 1875

- The last piece of federal civil rights legislation until the 1950s - Promised blacks equal access to public accommodations and banned racism in jury selection, but it provided no means of enforcement and was therefore ineffective - In 1883, the Supreme Court declared most of the act unconstitutional (14th amendment only prohibited government violations of civil rights, not denial of civil rights by individuals)

Liliuokalani

- The last reigning queen of Hawaii, whose defense of native Hawaiian self-rule led to a revolt by white settlers and to her dethronement

If the "Model Treaty" that John Adams authored had been the basis for the American alliance with France, would the results of the Revolution have been the same? Do you agree that Benjamin Franklin's French alliance is an example of "practical self-interest trumping idealism," as the authors state? In what other situations during the Revolutionary War does practical self-interest trump idealism?

- The model treaty had 3 factors: no political connections, no military connections, only commercial connections - If the Americans had fostered a commercial only connection with France, GB, etc, revolution might have been avoided - Yes, because the French alliance was critical to winning the revolutionary war - Another ex: Benedict Arnold turned traitor

Great Migration

- The movement of 6 million African Americans from the rural South to the urban North and West in 2 major waves - The first, from WWI until the onset of the Great Depression, brought more than 1.5 million migrants to northern cities - African-American's sudden appearance in previously all-white areas sometimes sparked interracial violence - From 1940 to 1970, another 5 million left the South, pushed off the land by the mechanization of cotton farming and lured north and west by hopes for greater economic opportunity and more equitable political participation - After 1970, increasing numbers of African Americans trekked back to the South in what was called the New Great Migration, as new jobs became more plentiful in the South than in the older industrial cities of the North and racial relations improved in the South

Civic virtue

- The notion that democracy depended on the unselfish commitment of each citizen to the public good - Central to republican ideology and necessary for a successful republic

V-E (Victory in Europe) Day (May 8, 1945)

- The official end to the war in Europe, following the unconditional surrender of what remained of the German government - Was a source of frenzied rejoicing in the Allied countries

"Don't Ask, Don't Tell" (1993-2010)

- The policy affecting homosexuals in the military from 1993-2010 - Emerged as a compromise between the standing prohibition against homosexuals in the armed forces and President Clinton's push to allow all citizens to serve regardless of sexual orientation - Military authorities were forbidden to ask about a service member's orientation, and gay service personnel could be discharged if they publicly revealed their homosexuality - At President Obama's urging, Congress repealed DADT in 2010, permitting gays to serve openly in uniform

Appeasement (1938)

- The policy followed by leaders of GB and France at the 1938 conference in Munich - Their purpose was to avoid war by giving Hitler what he wanted, so they allowed Germany to take the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia - They were stunned when Hitler suddenly conquered the rest of Czechoslovakia, breaking his promise to not try to gain any more land

interlocking directorates

- The practice of having executives or directors from one company serve on the board of directors of another company - J.P. Morgan introduced this practice to eliminate banking competition in the 1890s

vertical integration

- The practice perfected by Andrew Carnegie of controlling every step of the industrial production process to increase efficiency and limit competition - Allowed Carnegie and his company to make supplies more reliable, control the quality of the product at all stages of production, and eliminate middlemen's fees

horizontal integration

- The practice perfected by John D. Rockefeller of dominating a particular phase of the production process in order to monopolize a market, often by forming trusts and alliances with competitors - Less justifiable way of achieving efficiency than Carnegie's vertical integration

Samuel Gompers

- The president of the American Federation of Labor nearly every year from its founding in 1886 until his death in 1924 - Was no foe of capitalism but wanted employers to offer workers a fair deal by paying high wages and providing job security - Sought better wages, hours, and working conditions

Richard Olney

- The pugnacious successor to James. G Blaine as Secretary of State, serving from 1895 to 1897 - Stirred up conflict with Great Britain during the Venezuelan Crisis of 1895-1896 - Also insisted on the protection of American lives and property and on reparations for losses incurred during violent disturbances in Cuba, China, and Turkey

Bible Belt (1920s)

- The region of the American South, extending roughly from North Carolina west to Oklahoma and Texas, where Protestant Fundamentalism and belief in literal interpretation of the Bible were traditionally strongest - 3 states in this region passed laws prohibiting the teaching of evolution

Clarence Thomas

- The second black American to serve on the Supreme Court - Conservative justice who adheres to constitutional interpretation based on doctrine of originalism - Appointed by George H. W. Bush in 1991 to replace Thurgood Marshall, he was the subject of controversial nomination proceedings when he was accused of sexual harassment by a former colleague

Knights of Labor (est. 1869)

- The second national labor organization, organized in 1869 as a secret society and opened for public membership in 1881 - The Knights were known for their efforts to organize all workers, regardless of skill level, gender, or race - After the mid-1880s their membership declined for several reasons, including the Knights' participation in violent strikes and discord between skilled and unskilled members

Bolshevik Revolution (1917)

- The second stage of the Russian Revolution in November 1917 when Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik party seized power and established a communist state - The first stage had occurred the previous February when more moderate revolutionaries overthrew the Russian czar - Spawned a tiny Communist party in America, but also anti-Bolshevik fervor

New England Confederation

- The unification of four colonies to protect themselves from enemies like the Indians, French and Dutch - Also dealt with intercolonial problems - Each member colony got two votes which made Massachussets Bay mad because it had the most people

John W. Davis

- The unsuccessful and unenthusiastically nominated Democratic candidate for President in 1924 - Was wealthy, Wall-Street connected, and just as conservative as his opponent, Calvin Coolidge

"Waving the bloody shirt"

- The use of Civil War imagery by political candidates and parties to draw votes to their side of the ticket - Helped Republicans gain support for Grant, who eventually won the election of 1868

Eleanor Roosevelt

- The wife of FDR - The most active First Lady the US had ever seen - Known for her devotion to the impoverished and oppressed

Abigail Adams

- The wife of President John Adams - had her own opinions about the course of the American Revolution, and urged her husband to take the needs and rights of women into consideration in the construction of the new government.

SPARs (U.S. Coast Guard Women's Reserve) (1942)

- The women's branch of the U.S. Coast Guard established during WWII to employ women in noncombatant jobs - Like the WACs, it allowed women to participate in the armed services in ways that went beyond their traditional roles as nurses

WACs (Women's Army Corps) (1943)

- The women's branch of the US army established during WWII to employ women in noncombatant jobs - Women now participated in the armed services in ways that went beyond their traditional roles as nurses

Horatio Alger

- The writer of dozens of novels for children - Popularized the notion of "rags to riches," that by hard work and a bit of luck, even a poor boy could pull himself up into the middle class

Why did Americans accept the Constitution, with its strong national government and powerful executive, after, only a decade earlier, violently revolting against similar British institutions? Why did the Anti-Federalists not violently oppose the new Constitution?

- They accepted the Constitution because they acknowledged the need for a central authority - They did not want a king, but were happy with the checks and balances put on the president - The Constitution gave power to the states, the federal government, and the individuals - Anti-Federalists did not violently oppose it because they reached a compromise

Should the Founding Fathers' general elitism and indifference to the rights of people, women, African Americans, and Indians be held against them? Or should they be viewed with more understanding in their historical context?

- They should be understood in their historical context because it was still more democratic than other countries

Why did slavery grow to be such an important institution in colonial America?

- They were critical to America's economic output, they were less susceptible to Old World diseases than the Native Americans and thus were used on sugar plantations

Zenger trial

- This 1735 trial of a New York newspaper editor for criticising a British-appointed governor. It resulted in a not guilty verdict, since the articles were based on fact, not slander. - This acquittal was the first important victory for freedom of the press in the colonies. - Andrew Hamilton, a well-known Philadelphia lawyer, represented the defendant at no charge.

National Labor Union (1866-1872)

- This first national labor organization in U.S. history gained 600,000 members from many parts of the work force, although it limited the participation of Chinese, women, and blacks - The organization devoted much of its energy to fighting for an eight-hour workday before it dissolved in 1872 due to the devastating depression of the 1870s

Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) (1941)

- Threatened with a massive "Negro March on Washington" to demand equal opportunities in war jobs and in the military, FDR's administration issued an executive order forbidding racial discrimination in all defense plants operating under contract with the federal government - The FEPC was intended to monitor compliance with the executive order

Florence Kelley

- Tireless crusader for women's and labor rights - Was Illinois's first chief factory inspector and a leader of the National Consumer's league, an organization dedicated to improving working conditions for women and children - Went on to help found the NAACP

Disestablished

- To separate an official state church from its connection with the government - Following the Revolution, all states disestablished the Anglican Church - Some New England states maintained established Congregational Churches well into the 19th century

Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)

- Took a deep interest in colonization - Sent French explorers throughout North America, establishing outposts in Canada and Louisiana ==> France becomes a global powerhouse - Built Versailles

Civil law

- Tradition in which constitutions were elaborate legal codes and often lengthy - Ex: India's 1950 constitution

Regulars

- Trained professional soldiers (not militias) - Used by British generals during the French and Indian War b/c they didn't like ill-trained colonial militiamen

Brook Farm (1841-1846)

- Transcendentalist commune founded by a group of intellectuals, who emphasized living plainly while pursuing the life of the mind - Community fell into debt and dissolved when their communal home burned to the ground in 1846

Assumption

- Transfer of debt from one party to another - In order to strengthen the union, the federal government assumed states' Revolutionary War debts in 1790, thereby tying the interests of wealthy lenders with those of the national government - States with heavy debts like Massachusetts loved it but states with small debts like Virginia didn't as much (It was later appeased with Washington DC being located on the Potomac)

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901)

- Treaty signed between the US and Great Britain giving America a free hand to build and fortify a canal in Central America - Nullified the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, which prohibited Britain or the US from acquiring territory in Central America

Hitler-Stalin Pact (1939)

- Treaty signed on August 23, 1939, in which Germany and the Soviet Union agreed not to fight each other - Paved the way for German aggression against Poland and the Western democracies - It was clear that Stalin hoped that Germany and Western Democracies would weaken each other enough for Russia to become the dominant power in Europe

Oklahoma City Bombing (1995)

- Truck-bomb explosion that killed 168 people in a federal office building on April 19, 1995 - Attack was perpetrated by right-wing and antigovernment militant Timothy McVeigh, who was later executed by the U.S. government for the crime - Brought to light a secretive underground of paramilitary private "militias" composed of alienated citizens who were armed and ultra-suspicious of the government

City Beautiful movement (1890s-1920s)

- Turn of the century movement among progressive architects and city planners, who aimed to promote order, harmony, and virtue while beautifying the nation's new urban spaces with grand boulevards, welcoming parks and monumental public buildings - Copied European styles of beaux arts classicism and planning ideas from the master builder of Paris

Laird Rams (1863)

- Two well-armed ironclad warships constructed for the Confederacy by a British firm (More dangerous than the Alabama) - Seeking to avoid war with the US, the British government purchased the two ships for its Royal Navy instead

Siege of Vicksburg (1863)

- Two-and-a-half-month siege of a Confederate fort on the Mississippi River in Tennessee - Vicksburg finally fell to Ulysses S. Grant in July of 1863, giving the Union army control of the Mississippi River and splitting the South in two - Vicksburg was the South's sentinel protecting the lifeline to the western sources of supply - The Union's reopening of the Mississippi helped to quell the Northern peace agitation in the "Butternut" area of the Ohio River valley - Combined with the victory in Gettysburg to defeat Confederate hopes for foreign help

Andrew Carnegie

- Tycoon who came to dominate the burgeoning steel industry - His company, later named United States Steel, was the biggest corporation in US history in 1901 - After he retired, he donated most of his fortune to public libraries, universities, arts organizations, and other charitable causes

John Jordan Cittenden

- U.S. Senator from Kentucky who introduced a compromise in 1860 in an effort to avoid a civil war - Proposed to amend the constitution, prohibiting slavery in territories north of 36° 30' but expending federal protection to slavery in territories to the south

Specie Circular (1836)

- U.S. treasury decree requiring that all public lands be purchased with "hard," or metallic, currency - Issued after small state banks flooded the market with unreliable paper currency, fueling land speculation in the West - Such a sudden change in direction that there was a financial panic and crash in 1837

Operation Desert Storm (1991)

- U.S.-led multicountry military engagement in January and February of 1991 that drove Saddam Hussein's Iraqi army out of neighboring Kuwait - Foreshadowed the longer and more protracted Iraq War of the 2000s - Helped undo what some called the "Vietnam Syndrome," a feeling of military uncertainty that plagued many Americans

Chester W. Nimitz

- US Navy admiral who was Commander-in-chief of the Pacific Naval Forces for the US and its allies during WWII - Strategized the important victories in the Battles of Midway and the Coral Sea

Stephen A. Douglas

- US Senator and Democratic presidential candidate - Played a key role in passing the Compromise of 1850, though he inadvertently reignited sectional tensions in 1854 by proposing the Kansas-Nebraska Act - In 1858, he famously sparred with Abraham Lincoln in the Lincoln-Douglas debates, defeating Lincoln in the Senate race that year but losing to the Illinois republican in the presidential election of 1860

William Seward

- US Senator and Secretary of State under Abraham Lincoln - An avid opponent of slavery, Seward was a leading candidate for the Republican nomination in both 1856 and 1860 - Later, as one of Lincoln's closest advisers, he helped handle the difficult tasks of keeping European nations out of the Civil War - He is best known, however, for negotiating the purchase of Alaska, dubbed "Seward's Folly" by expansion-weary opponents of the deal

Jefferson Davis

- US Senator from Mississippi and president of the Confederate States of America - A West Point graduate who staunchly defended slavery and Southern rights throughout his career, but initially opposed secession in 1860 - As president of the Confederacy, Davis faced the formidable task of overcoming Southern localism in directing his war effort - Overworked himself with details of civil government and military operations, and was inclined to defy public opinion - After the war Davis was briefly imprisoned, but pardoned by Andrew Johnson in 1868

War Refugee Board (1944-1945)

- US agency formed to help rescue Jews from German-occupied territories and to provide relief to inmates of Nazi concentration camps - The agency performed noble work, but it did not begin operations until very late in the war, after millions had already been murdered

Oliver O. Howard

- Union General put in charge of the Freedmen's Bureau during Reconstruction - Warmly sympathetic friend of blacks - Howard later founded and served as president of Howard University, an institution aimed at educating African American students

Joseph ("Fighting Joe") Hooker

- Union army general, known as "Fighting Joe" for his bold attacks on Confederate lines during McClellan's peninsular campaign - Took command of the Army of the Potomac from A. E. Burnside in 1863, a post he lost just six months later after he led a failed attack on Lee's forces at Chancellorville

Peninsula Campaign (1862)

- Union general George B. McClellan's failed effort to seize Richmond, the Confederate capital - Had McClellan taken Richmond and toppled the Confederacy, slavery would have most likely survived in the South for some time, because Lee had basically ensured that the war would endure until slavery was uprooted and the Old South thoroughly destroyed - Changed Lincoln's free-soil stance on slavery and he started drafting an emancipation proclamation

Sherman's March (1864)

- Union general William Tecumseh Sherman's destructive march through Georgia - An early example of "total war," purposefully targeting infrastructure and civilian property to diminish morale and undercut the Confederate war effort - Led to increased Confederate desertions, which despite his brutal methods, probably shortened the struggle and hence saved lives

George B. McClellan

- Union general in command of the Army of the Potomac from 1861 to 1862 - Led the failed Peninsula Campaign in 1861 and later fought Lee to a virtual stalemate a Antietam - Boosted the moral and confidence of his troops, but tested Lincoln's patience by routinely hesitating to send men into battle - In 1864, McClellan ran against Lincoln as the Democratic nominee, campaigning against emancipation and the harsh treatment of the South while repudiating the antiwar stance of the Copperheads

William Tecumseh Sherman

- Union general who led the destructive march through Georgia in 1864 - A pioneer practitioner of "total war" who advocated bringing war to the civilian population to undercut morale and destroy supplies destined for Confederate troops

A. E. Burnside

- Union general who replaced George B. McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac in 1862 - Lost his command after a foolhardy attack on Lee's forces at Fredericksburg, where more than ten thousand union soldiers were killed or wounded

closed shop

- Union-organizing term that refers to the practice of allowing only unionized employees to work for a particular company - The AFL became known for negotiating closed-shop agreements with employers, in which the employer would agree not to hire nonunion members

Tariff of Abominations (1828)

- Unprecedented high duties on imports - Southerners vehemently opposed the tariff, arguing that it hurt souther farmers, who didn't enjoy the protection of the tariffs but were forced to pay higher prices for manufactures

Stonewall Rebellion (1969)

- Uprising in support of equal rights for gay people sparked by an assault by off-duty police officers at a gay bar in New York - Led to a rise in activism and militancy within the gay community and furthered the sexual revolution of the late 1960s

New York slave revolt (1712)

- Uprising of approximately two dozen slaves that resulted in the deaths of nine whites and the brutal execution of 21 participating blacks

New York Draft Riots (1863)

- Uprising of mostly working class Irish Americans, in protest of the draft for the Civil War - Rioters were particularly enraged by the ability of the rich to hire substitutes or purchase exemptions - Killed many people, including many lynched blacks

Robin Morgan

- Used her knowledge of participating in the 1960s civil rights organizations to crusade against social injustice and sexism - thought that the new Sexual Revolution furthered increased oppression (men could take advantage of women)

Indentured servants

- Usually tenants who had been kicked off their land in England who offered work for 5-7 years in exchange for passage to the New World and some basic food and supplies, sometimes even a small chunk of land - 75% of immigrants to Virginia and Maryland in the 17th c - Punished with added sentences and many had to return to work for super low wages b/c of unemployment elsewhere

John C. Calhoun

- VP under Jackson, became the SC senator after a public break with the administration - Fierce supporter of states' rights, Calhoun advocated SC's position during the nullification crisis - In the 1840s and 1850s, he staunchly defended slavery, accusing free-state Northerners of conspiring to free the slaves - Denounced the tariff as unjust and unconstitutional, and called for its nullification

Calvin Coolidge

- Vice President "Silent Cal" Coolidge became 20th POTUS after Warren G. Harding died in office in 1923 - Friend of business over labor - Staunch advocate of the status quo and practiced a rigid economy - Served during the boom years from 1923 to 1929 - Prosperity during his term dulled America's moral sensibility that had been aroused during the Teapot Dome Scandal

Harry S. Truman

- Vice President under FDR in 1945 - Assumed the office of the presidency in April 1945, when Roosevelt died from a brain hemorrhage while vacationing in Warm Springs, Georgia - Won another term in his own right in a historically close election in 1945 against Republican Thomas Dewey - As president, he chose to use nuclear weapons against Japan at Hiroshima and Nagasaki

John C. Breckinridge

- Vice President under James Buchanan - Ran as the candidate of the Southern wing of the Democratic party in 1860, losing to Abraham Lincoln - Was a Kentucky slave owner, and acknowledged the South's right to secede but worked tirelessly to hammer out a compromise in the weeks before Lincoln's inauguration - Once the Civil War began, he served as a Confederate General, briefly serving as Jefferson Davis's Secretary of War in 1865

Ho Chi Minh

- Vietnamese revolutionary nationalist leader - Beginning in 1941, Ho organized Vietnamese opposition to foreign occupation, first against the Japanese and then, after WWII, against the French - His Viet Minh (nationalist guerrilla) forces were victorious against French colonists in 1954, after which Ho became the leader of North Vietnam - Led the war to unify the country in the face of increased military opposition form the US

My Lai Massacre (1968)

- Vietnamese village that was the scene of a military assault on March 16, 1968, in which American soldiers under the command of 2nd Lieutenant William Calley murdered hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians, mostly women and children - The atrocity produced outrage and reduced support for the war in America and around the world when details of the massacre and an attempted cover-up were revealed in November 1969

Headright system

- Virginia and Maryland had policies that encouraged the importation of servant workers by rewarding people for paying the passage of servant workers with 50 acres of land - Modest land-owners quickly became merchant-planters and powerful landlords

Lord Dunmore

- Virginia governor who promised freedom for enslaved blacks who joined the British Army - 300 slaves joined "Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment"

Richard Henry Lee

- Virginia planter and revolutionary served as a member of the Continental Congress. - first introduced the motion asserting America's independence from Britain, later supplanted by Thomas Jefferson's more formal and rhetorically-moving declaration - Went on to become the first U.S. Senator from Virginia under the new constitution

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845)

- Vivid autobiography of the escaped slave and renowned abolitionist Frederick Douglass - Depicted his origins as the son of a black slave woman and a white father, his struggle to learn to read and write, and his eventual escape to the North

Opium War (1839-1842)

- War between Britain and China over trading rights, particularly Britain's desire to continue selling opium to Chinese traders - After the war ended, China gave GB 5 "treaty ports" and Hong Kong - Resulting trade agreement prompted Americans to seek similar concessions from the Chinese

Seven Year's War

- War fought not only in America but also in Europe, the West Indies, the Phillippines, Africa, and the 7 seas - Europe: Britain & Prussia vs France, Spain, Austria, Russia - Bloodiest theater = Germany, where Frederick the Great repelled French, Austrian and Russian armies - ==> French being too tired to throw force into the New World

Andrew Jackson

- War hero, congressman, and 6th POTUS - Democrat, ushered in a new era in American politics, advocating white manhood suffrage and cementing party loyalties thru the spoils system - As president, he dismantled the Bank of the US, asserted federal supremacy in the nullification crisis, and oversaw the harsh policy of Indian removal in the South - Supported by the West and South, and was the 1st president from the West - The "inaugural brawl" that his presidency began with made many afraid of a mobocracy

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

- War incited by a slave uprising in French-controlled Saint Domingue - Resulted in the creation of the first independent black republic in the Americas and also was a reason that Napoleon sold Louisiana to the US

Lewis Cass

- War veteran, diplomat, and US senator - Ran as the Democratic candidate in the 1848 election, losing to Zachary Taylor - Best known as the father of "popular sovereignty," the notion that the sovereign people of a territory should themselves decide the issue of slavery

How important was William Pitt's leadership in winning the Seven Years' War? Is strong political leadership essential to military victory? Is strong political leadership or strong military leadership more important to winning a war? What about during revolutions?

- Was crucial to winning the Seven Year's War because he was a strong political leader (declared France the enemy and paid colonial governments for soldiers) - Strong political leadership is essential to military victory because the general population makes up the military, so if they are happy then the military has a high morale and a better chance of winning - Strong political leadership is also crucial to revolutions for organizational purposes

Battle of Trenton (1776)

- Washington's military best - Ambushed a group of a thousand Hessians and defeated a British detachment at Princeton

Jacob S. Coxey

- Wealthy Ohio populist who led a 500-strong "army" to Washington, D.C. in 1894 to demand a public works program to create jobs for the unemployed in the midst of a devastating four-year depression

Emilio Aguinaldo

- Well educated Filipino leader who first fought against Spain and later led the Philippine insurgency against United States colonial rule

Edward Braddock

- Went with an army of British regulars and assistant George Washington to capture Fort Duquesne - Encountered a small French and Indian army which routed the British and forced them to retreat - ==> Indians attacked the whole frontier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina

Liberia (est. 1822)

- West African nation founded in 1822 as a haven for free blacks, 15,000 of whom made their way back across the Atlantic by the 1860s - Capital was Monrovia, named after President Monroe - Most blacks didn't want to be transplanted into a strange civilization after having been partially Americanized, but colonization appealed to some antislaveryites until the Civil War

What were the effects of slavery on Africans who were brought to the New World? What were the effects of Africans on the New World?

- West African populations were vastly reduced to the point where slave traders kept going farther into Africa to get slaves - African traditions poured into the new world, including rice-planting techniques - African cultures were suppressed but they found ways to sneak African elements into the Christianity that was forced on them

Protestant Reformation

- When Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s - Catholics battled Protestants for decades and power seesawed - When Protestant Elizabeth ascended rivalry with Catholic Spain intensified

peculiar institution

- Widely used term for the institution of slavery in the South - Its use in the first half of the 19th century reflected a growing division between the North, where slavery was gradually abolished, and the South, where slavery became increasingly entrenched

Camp Followers

- Women and children who followed the Continental Army during the American Revolution, providing vital services such as cooking and sewing in return for rations.

Woman's Loyal League (1863-1865)

- Women's organization formed to help bring about an end to the Civil War and encourage Congress to pass a constitutional amendment prohibiting slavery

Fourteen Points (1918)

- Woodrow Wilson's proposal to ensure peace after WWI, calling for an end to secret treaties, widespread arms reduction, national self-determination, and a new league of nations - Although one of his primary purposes was to keep reeling Russia in the war, Wilson's vision inspired all the drooping Allies to make mightier efforts and demoralized the enemy governments by holding out alluring promises to their dissatisfied minorities

Panic of 1873

- Worldwide depression that began in the United States when one of the nation's largest banks abruptly declared bankruptcy, leading to the collapse of thousands of banks and businesses - Crisis intensified debtor's calls for inflationary measures such as the printing of more paper money and the unlimited coinage of silver - Conflicts over monetary policy greatly influenced politics in the last quarter of the 19th c. - Heavily affected black Americans and debtors

Berlin airlift (1948-1949)

- Year-long mission of flying food and supplies to blockaded West Berliners, whom the Soviet Union had cut off from access to the West in the first major crisis of the Cold War - Led to the Soviets eventually lifting their blockade

Should the French and Indian War be considered one of the major causes of the American Revolution? Why or why not?

- Yes, because it led to GB doing several things that the colonies did not like, like heavily taxing them, regulating territory won from the war (Proclamation of 1763) and stationing troops in North America - Lack of a firm European power in the area allowed colonists to develop the mindset of independence and freedom when they were still part of GB empire

Considering the extreme differences that developed during the seventeenth century between New England and the southern colonies, was the Civil War inevitable?

- Yes, because they both had their beliefs and ways of life and no one appeased both sides which led to war

Factory girls

- Young women employed in the growing factories of the early 19th c - Labored long hours in difficult conditions, living in socially new conditions away from farms and families

George Creel

- Young, outspoken, and tactless journalist who was tapped to head the Committee on Public Information, also known as the Creel Committee, during WWI - Typified American war mobilization, which relied more on passion and voluntary compliance than on formal laws, but oversold Wilson's ideas and set the world's expectations too high

Robert F. Kennedy

- Younger brother of John F. Kennedy who entered public life as U.S. Attorney General during the Kennedy administration - Later elected senator from New York - Became an anti-war, pro-civil rights presidential candidate in 1968, launching a popular challenge to incumbent President Johnson - Amid that campaign, he was assassinated in California on June 6, 1968

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) (1960)

- Youth organization founded by southern black students in 1960 to promote civil rights - Drew on its members' youthful energies to compel equal treatments in restaurants, transportation, employment, housing, and voter registration - In its early years, it coordinate demonstrations, sit-ins, and voter registration drives - Members would eventually lose patience with the more stately tactics of the SCLC and the deliberate legalisms of the NAACP

Joint-stock company

- a company whose stock is owned jointly by the shareholders - Short-term, would be later be liquidated for profit by shareholders

John Singleton Copley

- a famous Revolutionary era painter, Copley had to travel to England to finish his study of the arts. Only in the Old World could Copley find subjects with the leisure time required to be painted, and the money needed to pay him for it. Although he was an American citizen, he was loyal to England during The Revolution.

Nathaniel Bacon

- a planter who led a rebellion with one thousand other Virginians in 1676 - Resented Berkeley's friendly relationship with the Indians, who had monopolized the fur trade

Act of Toleration

- an act passed in Maryland 1649 that granted freedom of worship to all Christians - although it was enacted to protect the Catholic minority in Maryland, it was a benchmark of religious freedom in all the colonies - It did not extend to non-Christians, death penalty to those who denied divinity of Jesus

How legislation and judicial systems supported the development of roads, canals, and railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional interdependence (4.2)

- protective tariffs passed in 1816, 1824, and 1828 helped emerging American businesses to compete more effectively with British - New York building the Erie Canal (merchants and Governor De Witt Clinton agreed to use tax revenue to pay for it, with Irish immigrants doing the grunt work) - other states also financed canal building, especially in the North, which emerged as a political, cultural, and economic juggernaut as a result, replacing the South as the richest, most politically powerful area of the country [one could argue this is, along with slavery, the cause of the Civil War] - federal government established Post Office, facilitating spread of information - *Gibbons v. Ogden* saw the Supreme Court expanding the definition of commerce, and securing control of interstate trade for Supreme Court - states issued charters for railroads, helping to get them built, and further tying the Northern states together

"Mad Anthony" Wayne

- secured the Treaty of Greenville after soundly defeating the Miami Confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers

How does the "Franklin chest" reflect both economic prosperity in the middle colonies as well as the complex history of religious persecution in the Old World and the New World?

- showed that they could make and do things on their own without the help of anyone. It showed that people were capable of living there and surviving - In the new world people were religiously persecuted because of the Salem witch trials, just as they had been persecuted in the Old World

Why regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders' positions on economic policy as Americans debated the scope of government's role in the economy (4.1)

- western War Hawks went to war over national interests in War of 1812 - Hartford Convention placed their interests over the national government, by demanding changes in the Constitution (particularly on economic issues of foreign trade) - Unrest from the poorer classes during the Panic of 1819 sowed the seeds of a Jacksonian democracy

Boston Tea Party (1773)

- ~100 Bostonians boarded docked ships disguised as Indians and smashed open chests of tea and dumped them into the Atlantic - Tea was the perfect symbol to rally around because every colonist consumed it - Some sympathetic colonists applauded the effort and burned tea in solidarity, but conservatives complained that this action threatened anarchy

Thomas Macdonough

-American naval officer who secured an important victory over a British fleet at the Battle of Plattsburg, halting the British invasion of New York - Ultimately saved New England and the Union as a whole - Had a major effect on the negotiations of the Anglo-American peace treaty in Europe

How war between Britain and France resulted form the French Revolution presented challenges to the United States over issues of free trade and foreign policy and fostered political disagreement (3.3)

-Neutrality Proclamation by Washington designed to allow American commerce to continue with both sides; American economy recovering from Revolution and being locked out of British trading system due to high price of farming produce - French were officially US allies, and tried to enact the alliance, but Hamilton and Washington insisted that was with the king whose head they had chopped off (which upset Jefferson who was pro-French) - British and French both stopping American shipping, but British had the larger navy and were also impressing American sailors - Federalists hated atheism of French Revolution, as well as the Reign of Terror, and the fear that the poor would rise up against them in America - Jeffersonians hated British, because of the Revolution - Jay's Treaty infuriated Jeffersonians, who saw it as a de facto alliance with British - XYZ Affair drove Federalists and Republicans further apart

middlemen

- In trading systems, those dealers who operate between the original producers of goods and the retail merchants who sell to consumers - After the eleventh century, European exploration was driven in large part by a desire to acquire alluring Asian goods without paying heavy tolls to Muslim middlemen

Incas & Aztecs

- Incas: Peru - Aztecs: Mexico - Advanced agricultural cultivation of maize (corn), built elaborate cities, astronomical observations, Aztecs did human sacrifices

Massasoit

- Wampanoag chieftain who signed a treaty with the Plymouth Pilgrims in 1621 - Celebrated the first Thanksgiving with them

First Anglo-Powhatan War

(1614) series of clashes between the Powhatan Confederacy and English settlers in Virginia. English colonists torched and pillaged Indian villages, applying tactics used in England's campaigns against the Irish

Sir Francis Drake

- "swashbuckled and looted" Spanish treasure, much of which went to Queen Elizabeth

Great English Migration

- 70 thousand refugees left England - Not all were Puritans, and not all went to Massachusetts, most went to the West Indies and Barbados

How did Spanish success in the New World influence the English colonial efforts? How did England's earlier experience in Ireland influence its colonial efforts in the New World? How did different events in England (and Europe) affect England's southern colonies in the New World?

- Britain and Spanish were rivals so Spanish success resulted in Britain looking to gain some territory and wealth as well - English were able to use tactics of suppressing the Irish on the Native Americans - English Civil War forced colonists to operate without the mainland's help - Later wars fought across Europe like the Seven Year's War were also fought in the colonies

Puritans

- Calvinists who were super religious and wanted to see the Church of England completely de-catholicized (purified of Catholic rituals and creeds)

Separatists

- Dedicated Puritans who vowed to break away from the Church of England because of they believed that only "visible saints" should be allowed in the Church and not have to share with the "damned"

What role did disease and forced labor (including slavery) play in the early settlement of America? Is the view of the Spanish and Portuguese as especially harsh conquerors and exploiters valid—or is this image just another version of the English Black Legend concerning the Spanish role in the Americas?

- Disease decimated and weakened Native Americans so they had a harder time resisting the Europeans - Although the Spanish did a lot of bad things like the Black Legend accuses them of, the Spanish also made a giant empire which set the foundation for a bunch of Spanish-speaking nations - Spanish allowed marriage and incorporating indigenous culture while the English shunned them

Calvinism

- Dominant religious ideals followed by the New England Puritans based on the teachings of John Calvin - Believed in predestination

John Winthrop

- First governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony - Thought that this was his "calling from God" to lead the religious experiment - Served for 19 years and helped Massachusetts prosper in fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding - Hated democracy

How did the reliance on plantation agriculture affect the southern colonies? Were their societies relatively loose because they were primarily rural or because they tended to rely on forced labor systems?

- Immense acreage in the hands of a wealthy few ==> strong aristocratic atmosphere - Wide scattering of land made growth of cities and establishment of churches and school difficult ==> religious toleration - Relatively loose society because they were primarily rural

Powhatan

- Indian chieftain who captured John Smith in 1607 and fake executed him in order to impress Smith with his strength and communicate his desire for a peaceful relationship with the Virginians - Led a bunch of native tribes and tried to be nice to the settlers but got mad when starving colonists raided Indian food supplies

Malinche (Doña Marina)

- Indian slave who interpreted for Cortés and later learned Spanish and was baptised

Second Anglo-Powhatan War

- Indians' last effort to dislodge Virginians, they were defeated. Peace treaty of 1646 stopped any hope of integrating native peoples into Virginia society - Set the foundation for the reservation system

In what ways were the middle colonies more open and diverse than New England? In what ways were they less democratic?

- Middle colonies were more ethnically mixed and were given an unusual amount of religious toleration and democratic control - Since desirable land was more easily acquired in the middle colonies than in NE or the South, a considerable amount of economic and social democracy prevailed - Less democratic because the mixing of ethnicities made it difficult to be as cohesive as New England

How does the founding of the New England colonies compare with the origin of the middle colonies? In what ways were New England and the middle colonies each like the South, and in what ways were they different?

- NE Colonies founded on basis of religious freedom, whereas the Middle Colonies were stablished for financial reasons - Middle colonies were more ethnically and religiously diverse which made them more tolerant - NE and Middle colonies had less slaves than the south but were both more democratic than the Old World - Middle colonies and south had rich soil to grow cash crops, but the middle colonies focused more on the growth of government, while the south focused on growth of plantations - Middle colonies had fewer industries than in New England but more than the South

Dutch colonization efforts in New Amsterdam most closely resembled English colonization efforts in which region: New England, the middle colonies, or the southern colonies? The Dutch had a powerful presence in the East Indies, so why were the Dutch less successful in the West Indies and North America? What is the lasting influence of the Dutch in English North America?

- New England colonies - Both did not have many civil rights and thus did not accept dissenters well - Both did not have good relationships with the local Indians - West India Company was more of a side project so not full attention was given to it and they had stiff competition with the Spanish and English who were already there in the sugarcane industry - Dutch influence continues through patroonships which give NYC a aristocratic feel and created a mixing pot of different ethnicities that continue to the present - Also infused some culture and language like Santa Claus, Easter eggs, etc

What did England and the English settlers really want from colonization? Did they want national glory, wealth, adventure, a solution to social tensions, and/or new sources of goods and trade? Did they get what they wanted?

- Originally wanted wealth and to find a passage through America to the Indies - Some also escaped religious persecution - Didn't find gold or a passage to the Indies, but were able to set up colonies with some religious toleration

William Bradford

- Pilgrim leader elected as governor 30 times - Major concern was that non-Puritan settlers would corrupt his pure settlement

Are the differences between Latin America and North America due primarily to the differences between the respective Indian societies that existed in the two places, or to the disparity between Spanish and English culture? What would have happened if the English had conquered densely settled Mexico and Peru, and the Spanish had settled more thinly populated North America?

- Probably the differences between Spanish and English culture, the Spanish were interested in God, Glory, and Gold, while the English were more interested in establishing trade and colonies - The Spanish would probably be successful in North America but the strong empires in Latin America probably would have bested the English

Elizabeth I

- Protestant, gained the throne in 1558, intensified rivalry with Spain - Troops crushed Irish uprising under her rule - Encouraged spread of Protestantism and plundering of Spanish ships

Pope's Rebellion (1680)

- Pueblo rebels destroyed every Catholic church in the province as well as hundreds of Spanish settlers and priests

Oliver Cromwell

- Puritan-soldier who beheaded Charles I in 1649 but was kicked out in 1660 by Charles II

Robert de La Salle

- Sent by the French to explore the Mississippi River in the 1680s

How did different events in England affect the New England and middle colonies in the New World? Which was the most affected and least affected by events in the Old World: New England, middle colonies, or southern colonies?

- The English Civil War distracted England and the colonies were forced to be self-reliant - Boston mob picked up on the Glorious Revolution spirit and overthrew the Dominion - The southern colonies were least affected while the middle colonies were most affected

Was an American Revolution, separating the colonies from England, inevitable after the Glorious Revolution had encouraged colonists to end the Dominion of New England, England's serious attempt at enforcing royal authority? Did England's "salutary neglect" contribute to future problems in its empire? How might have England been able to successfully enforce its rule on the colonies without causing rebellion?

- The Revolution was NOT inevitable because the Americans originally did not want independence but instead wanted GB to heed their demands of more freedoms - England's neglect contributed to future problems because it gave the colonies too much freedom and they didn't want to give it back to GB later - Could have avoided rebellion by giving colonists representation in the British Parliament and limited taxation

Anne Hutchinson

- Took the Puritan doctrine of predestination to the extreme - Insisted that holy life was no sure sign of salvation and that the truly saved didn't need to obey God's or man's laws - Banished so her heresy wouldn't spread to the rest of the colony and was killed by Indians in New York

Treaty of Tordesillas

- Treaty that divided the New World between Spain and Portugal - Most of it went to Spain but Portugal received compensating territory in Africa and Asia, as well as modern day Brazil

Did the Puritans really come to America seeking religious freedom? How did they reconcile their own religious dissent from the Church of England with their persecution of dissenters like Hutchinson and Williams? Does their outlook make them hypocrites?

- Yes and no. They sought to simplify the Church of England because they thought it had too many ties with the Catholic Church. They were thus viewed as Separatists and migrated in search of freedom from religious persecution but also to spread their Puritan religion - Dissenters of the Puritan society like Hutchinson and Williams were banished from the colony, which made the Puritans hypocritical because they were now restricting religious freedom after they had left England to find it

Was the development of enslaved Africans in the North American colonies inevitable? (Consider that it never developed in some other colonial areas, for example, Mexico and New France.) How would the North American colonies have been different without slavery? What role did the Spanish encomienda system and British sugar colonies play in introducing slavery to the southern colonies?

- Yes, because English settlers needed a large labor force to sustain the developing industries and since Native Americans' could not keep up with their demands, the English turned to African slaves - Without slaves, their would be no plantations or large farms, and the colonies would not have grown in size or financial stability to break away from England - Encomienda system introduced idea of slaves being sub-human and completely under the control of their masters, and British sugar colonies needed large numbers of hardy slaves to be successful

House of Burgesses

- the first elected legislative assembly in the New World established in the Colony of Virginia in 1619, representative colony set up by England to make laws and levy taxes but England could veto its legislative acts