AS level Biology

Pulmonary circulation

The circulation to the lungs in vertebrates having a double circulation

Biological Significance of Mitosis: Immune Response

The cloning of B- and T-lymphocytes during the immune response is dependent on mitosis.

Treating Malaria

Anti-malaria drugs such as: Quinine and chloroquine are used to treat infected people and as preventative drugs. Chloroquine inhibits protein synthesis and prevents the parasite from spreading in the body.

Antigen processing

Antigenic proteins -> broken down into peptide fragments that associate with MHC molecules.

Agglutinogens

Antigens within the surface of RBC Occur in characteristic combinations

Non-infectious diseases

Any disease not caused by a pathogen.

RNA

Are RNA or DNA viruses typically worse?

Yes

Are the sugar and phosphate bonds the same in every structure?

If it is the limiting factor, increasing concentration will increase the rate of reaction up to a point, after which any increase will not affect the rate of reaction. This is because it will no longer be the limiting factor and another factor will be limiting the maximum rate of reaction

As a reaction proceeds, the rate of reaction will decrease, since the Substrate will get used up. The highest rate of reaction, known as the Initial Reaction Rate is the maximum reaction rate for an enzyme in an experimental situation

However, increasing temperature also increases the Vibrational Energy that molecules have, specifically in this case enzyme molecules, which puts strain on the bonds that hold them together.

As temperature increases, more bonds, especially the weaker Hydrogen and Ionic bonds, will break as a result of this strain. Breaking bonds within the enzyme will cause the Active Site to change shape.

How is the gradient constituted?

As you lose water through evapotranspiration, you get higher osmolarity. This can exist as a gradient. "Water potential gradient"

Which statement does not describe the effect on an enzyme's activity of changing the pH. A A pH that is very different from the enzyme's optimum pH can denature the enzyme. B At low pH there are fewer hydrogen ions to interact with the R groups of the amino acids that make up the enzyme. C Changing the pH alters the interactions of the amino acids that make up the enzyme. D Changing the pH alters the enzyme's three-dimensional shape.

At low pH there are fewer hydrogen ions to interact with the R groups of the amino acids that make up the enzyme.

Which of the following describes the effects of temperature on an enzyme-controlled reaction? A At low temperatures, substrate molecules only rarely collide with an enzyme's active site. B At low temperatures, the enzyme loses its shape and activity. C At low temperatures, the enzyme becomes denatured. D As the temperature increases, the number of collisions between enzyme and substrate decrease.

At low temperatures, substrate molecules only rarely collide with an enzyme's active site.

S-Phase

At some point during interphase, a signal may be received that the cell should divide again. If this happens, the DNA in the nucleus replicated so that each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids (S stands for synthesis of DNA).

a pH of 9

At what pH does trypsin work best?

a pH of 5.5

At what pH is there some enzyme activity for both pepsin and trypsin?

Bound ribosomes

Attached to rough ER; make proteins for export from the cell

Opsonization promotes ________of a phagocyte to a microbe.

Attachment

Which tests, carried out on samples taken at intervals during the course of the reaction below, would enable the progress of the reaction to be followed? 1 Benedict's test 2 biuret test 3 emulsion test 4 iodine in potassium iodide solution test A 1 or 2 B 1 or 4 C 2 or 3 D 3 or 4

B 1 or 4

These statements are about enzyme inhibitors. 1 binds reversibly to an enzyme 2 binds to a site on the enzyme different from the active site 3 has a structural similarity to the enzyme's normal substrate 4 can be displaced from the enzyme by a high concentration of the enzyme's normal substrate Which statements describe a competitive inhibitor? A 1, 2, 3 and 4 B 1, 3 and 4 only C 2 and 3 only D 3 and 4 only

B 1, 3 and 4 only

Cell

Basic functional unit of all living things

Why can fermentation not be used to make drinks with high alcohol concentrations? What process is used instead?

Because you have to take it away and add more because the yeast dies. Distillation.

Where is IgM found?

Blood and lymph

Venules

Blood leaves the capillaries and the capillaries join with on another to form " "

Agglutinins

Blood plasma antibodies that react with A or B antigens if the two are mixed.

What is the difference between blood plasma, tissue fluid, and lymph?

Blood plasma- Water, nutrients, proteins, amino acids, urea (waste) Tissue Fluid- No large plasma proteins and red blood cells Lymph- 90% of fluid that leaks from capillaries

Pleural cavity

Body cavity that surrounds the lungs.

Peptide Bond

Bond formed when two amino acids react. Water is produced so the reaction is a condensation reaction.

Nucleotides

Both DNA and RNA are polymers composed of repeating subunits (monomers) called what?

Peroxisomes

Break down various toxic substances like hydrogen peroxide, fatty acids, and amino acids

Arterioles

Break off from the aorta

What is the source of energy used to power the sodium potassium pump?

Breakdown of ATP

Hydrolysis

Breaking apart a larger molecule into two smaller molecules. Requires a water molecule.

hydrolysis

Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water

hydrolysis

Breaking down molecules by the chemical addition of water

What happens when you breathe in?

Breathing in begins when the diaphragm, which is a muscle, contracts. When it contracts it lowers and increases the volume of the thorax. At the same time the intercostal muscles between the ribs contract and pull the ribs upwards and outwards. This further increases the volume of the thorax. The increase in volume forces the lungs to expand to fill the space, and thus the air sacs fill with air.

What happens when you breathe out?

Breathing out starts when the diaphragm relaxes. The intercostal muscles also relax, which allows the ribs to move down and in. Reducing the volume of the chest means that air is pushed out and the lungs return to their lower volume.

What color is blood when rich in Oxygen?

Bright red

Edema

Build up of tissue fluid

amino acid

Building blocks of protein (monomer)

Bundle of His

Bundles of long muscle fibres that transmit myogenic excitation throughout the ventricle walls

2d) Of what elements are these subunits made?

C,H,O,N,P (deoxyribose and bases contain C, H and O; bases also contain N; phosphate contains P and O)

The molecular formula for glucose is C6H1206. What would be the molecular formula for a molecule made by linking three glucose molecules together by dehydration reactions? A) C18 H32 016 B) C18 H10 O15 C) C18 H36 018 D)C3 H6 O3 E) C6 H10 O5

C18 H32 016

What is the balanced chemical equation for the fermentation of glucose?

C6 H12 O6 ----> 2C2 H5 OH + 2CO2 + energy

What is the equation for aerobic respiration in plants?

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

Name the specialized types of photosynthesis, what is the point of these?>

CAM and C4

What are the four macromolecules?

Carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins

For photosynthesis, what happens to CO2 and oxygen?

Carbon dioxide- In Oxygen- Out

For respiration, what happens to CO2 and oxygen?

Carbon dioxide- Out Oxygen- In

What does Carbon monoxide do?

Carbon monoxide, CO, combines with the haemoglobin in red blood cells. This reduces the ability of the blood to carry oxygen, putting strain on the circulatory system and increasing the risk of coronary heart disease and strokes.

What enzyme is involved in converting Carbon Dioxide to Carbonic Acid in red blood cells?

Carbonic Anyhdrase

What is the function of arteries?

Carries blood away from the heart

What is the function of veins?

Carries blood to the heart

What causes polio?

Caused by poliovirus (an enterovirus)

The compliment system functions

Causes cytolysis of microbes. Promotes phagocytosis Contributes to inflammation.

Chromosome

Cell structures that carry the genetic material (DNA) that is copied and passed from generation to generation of cells. This is a cell going through mitosis.

Organelles only in plants

Cell wall, chloroplast, central vacuole

Secondary Growths

Cells can break off and spread through the blood and lymphatic system to other parts of the body to form secondary growths.

Sinoatrial mode

Cells in the wall of the right atrium in which the heart beat is initiated, also known as the pacemaker

Summarize the way that cells reproduce.

Cells reproduce by dividing and passing on their genes to daughter cells.

Organelles only in animals

Centrioles, lysosomes, cholesterol in the plasma membrane

Centrosome

Centrosomes are organelles (membrane bound) that are found inside of eukaryotic cells. Centrosomes are comprised of two centrioles that are essentially just rings of microtubules. They help organize microtubules to be utilized during cell division.

Prophase

Centrosomes move to the opposite ends of the nucleus, where they form the poles of the spindles. The nuclear envelope 'disappears' (it breaks up into small vesicles which are not visible with a light microscope). The nucleolus 'disappears' (forms part of several chromosomes). Chromosomes are seen to consist of two identical chromatids; each chromatid contains one DNA molecule.

Changing the Enzyme and Substrate concentrations affect the rate of reaction of an enzyme-catalysed reaction. Controlling these factors in a cell is one way that an organism regulates its enzyme activity and so its Metabolism.

Changing the concentration of a substance only affects the rate of reaction if it is the limiting factor: that is, it the factor that is stopping a reaction from preceding at a higher rate.

Non-competitive Inhibitors

Chemical does not have to resemble the substrate Binds to enzyme other than at active site This changes the enzyme's active site and prevents access to it

Irreversible Inhibition

Chemical permanently binds to the enzyme or massively denatures the enzyme Nerve gas permanently blocks pathways involved in nerve message transmission, resulting in death Penicillin, the first of "wonder drug" antibiotics, permanently blocks pathways certain bacteria use to assemble their cell wall component (peptidoglycan)

Which of the following polymers contain nitrogen? A) glycogen B) starch C) chitin D) cellulose E) amylopectin

Chitin

Which features of eukaryotic cells have a double membrane?

Chloroplast, mitochondrion, and nucleus.

What cell components contain ribosomes?

Chloroplast, mitochondrion, nucleus, and cytoplasm.

Anaphase

Chromatids move to opposite poles, centromeres first, pulled by the microtubules. The chromosomes split apart at the centromere, and the chromatids are pulled apart.

Sex chromosomes

Chromosomes in the side which determine the sex.

Early Prophase

Chromosomes start to appear as the chromatin coils up, becoming shorter and thicker; they are thick enough to become visible when stained. Centrosomes replicate just before prophase, there is an intact nuclear envelope.

How many chemicals do cigarettes contain? Give 2 examples.

Cigarettes contain about 4,000 different chemicals, most of which are harmful to the body. These include: nicotine - the addictive substance in tobacco smoke carbon monoxide.

What features enable an organism to be identified as a prokaryote?

Circular DNA.

Golgi apparatus/body/complex

Collect and modify proteins and lipids made in other areas of the cell and package them into vesicles; as proteins exit, they are packaged in a vesicle that goes through exocytosis

Contractile vacuoles

Collect and pump excess water out of the cell

Gap junctions

Communicating junctions in animals that transfer chemical/electrical signals

Plasmodesmata

Communicating junctions in plants that transfer chemical/electrical signals

characteristics of globular proteins

Compact rounded( knotted sphere) Water soluble Functional(mainly) and structural role

Competitive Inhibitors

Compete with substrate for active site Shape similar to substrates / prevents access when bonded Can slow down a metabolic pathway

Enzyme Inhibitors reduce the rate of an enzyme catalysed reaction by interfering with the enzyme in some way. This effect may be permanent or temporary.

Competitive Enzyme Inhibitors work by preventing the formation of Enzyme-Substrate Complexes because they have a similar shape to the substrate molecule.

This means that they fit into the Active Site, but remain unreacted since they have a different structure to the substrate. Therefore less substrate molecules can bind to the enzymes so the reaction rate is decreased.

Competitive Inhibition is usually temporary, and the Inhibitor eventually leaves the enzyme. This means that the level of inhibition depends on the relative concentrations of substrate and Inhibitor, since they are competing for places in enzyme Active Sites

Eukaryotic cell

Complex cell with a nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles

Inflammation

Confines and destroys microbes; initiates tissue repair

Lysosomes

Contain hydrolytic enzymes that break down food, cellular debris, and foreign invaders like bacteria

Lysosome

Contain powerful digestive enzymes that digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles and engulfed bacteria or viruses.

Nucleus

Contains DNA and acts as the control center of the cell

Lysosome

Contains digestive enzymes necessary for breaking down materials within a cell. ONLY in animal cells.

Glycosidic bond

Covalent bond formed when carbohydrate molecules are joined together in a condensation reaction

What feature is found in both prokaryotic and plant cells?

DNA bound to protein.

Chromatin

DNA double helix and histones associated together

2

DNA has how many strands?

S phase

DNA replication occurs in what part of interphase?

Nucleic acid polymer

DNA/RNA

What color is blood when low in Oxygen?

Dark red

As the partial pressure of Carbon Dioxide increases (in respiring tissues) the percent saturation of Hemoglobin with Oxygen ______

Decreases

The compliment system

Defensive system that uses either INNATE or ADAPTIVE response-> activate chain of events involving over 30 proteins.

Which of the following best summarizes the relationship between dehydration reactions and hydrolysis? A) Dehydration reactions can occur only after hydrolysis. B) Dehydration reactions assemble polymers, and hydrolysis reactions break down polymers. C) Dehydration reactions eliminate water from lipid membranes, and hydrolysis makes lipid membranes water permeable. D) Dehydration reactions ionize water molecules and add hydroxyl groups to polymers; hydrolysis reactions release hydroxyl groups from polymers. E) Hydrolysis creates monomers, and dehydration reactions break down polymers.

Dehydration reactions assemble polymers, and hydrolysis reactions break down polymers.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid - this is the material that transmits genetic information from generation to generation. It is divided into chromosomes in cells. Humans have 46 chromosomes (2 sets of 23 different chromosomes).

Isotonic

Describes a solution whose solute concentration is equal to the solute concentration inside a cell

Cytolytic T Cells

Destroy host cells (infected cells) (cytolysis or apoptosis)

Fluid mosaic model

Developed in 1972 by Singer and Nicolson. Described as fluid because the phospholipids and proteins can move by diffusion. Phospholipid bilayer has a fluidity of Olive Oil. Mosaic refers to the pattern created by the scattered protein molecules when the membrane is viewed from above.

Concentration Gradient

Difference in the concentration of the substances on the two sides of the surface.

What is the function of capillaries?

Diffusion of all materials occurs between cells and blood

Osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

5 basic mechanisms by which exchange is achieved

Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, and bulk transport.

Mumps is usually seen in what patient population? how do they present?

Disease usually seen in young adults presenting with bilateral parotitis

Cell Membrane

Double layer of phospholipids (lipid bilayer) the exposed heads of the lipid bilayer are hydrophilic (water-loving) and they are compatible with water inside and outside the cell. The hidden tails are the opposite (hydrophobic). This acts as a protective barrier around the cell.

Cell Membrane

Double layer of phospholipids (lipid bilayer) the exposed heads of the lipid bilayer are hydrophilic (water-loving) they are compatible with water inside and outside the cell. The hidden tails are the opposite (hydrophobic). The membrane acts as a protective barrier to the uncontrolled flow of water. Membrane is made complex by the numerous proteins crucial to its activity.

During interphase

During interphase the cell grows to its normal size after cell division and carries out its normal functions, synthesizing many substances, especially proteins, in the process. At some point during interphase, a signal may be received that the cell should divide again. The DNA in the nucleus replicates so that each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids, each containing one copy of that chromosome's DNA.

Interphase

During interphase, the cell grows to its normal size after cell division and carries out its normal functions, synthesizing many substances, especially proteins, in the process. At some point during interphase, a signal may be received that the cell should divide again. If this happens, the DNA in the nucleus replicated so that each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids. G1, S, and G2 are all parts of Interphase.

Metaphase

Each chromosome reaches a pole; centrosomes help to organize production of the spindle microtubules. The spindle is made and visible. Chromosomes line up across the equator of the spindle (Metaphase plate); they are attached by their centromeres to the spindle.

How can pairs of chromosomes be distinguished?

Each pair has a distinctive banding pattern when stained.

Polypeptide bonds?

Each protein is made up of man polymers called what?

Codon

Each three-nucleotide sequence in mRNA that encodes an amino acid or signifies a start or stop signal

Bond to one specific amino acid

Each variety has the ability to do what?

Water potential is on the ______. Cohesion and adhesion is in the ________.

Ends, middle.

Lipid

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Helper T Cells

Enhance other immune responses

Compliment proteins C3B

Enhances PHAGOCYTOSIS by Opsonization= coating a microbe.

Many Non-competitive Inhibitors are irreversible and permanent, and effectively denature the enzymes which they inhibit. However, there are a lot of non-permanent and reversible Non-competitive Inhibitors which are vital in controlling Metabolic functions in organisms.

Enzyme Inhibitors by organisms are used in controlling metabolic reactions. This allows product to be produced in very specific amounts.

Carbonic anhydrase

Enzyme of red blood cells that catalyzes the formation of hydrogencarbonate ions from carbon dioxide and water

Induced fit theory

Enzyme's shape changes when substrate binds to active site Amino acids are moulded into a precise form to perform catalytic reaction effectively Enzyme wraps around substrate to distort it Forms an enzyme-substrate complex → fast reaction E + S → ES → P + E

Enzymes - active site, activation energy, enzyme specificity

Enzymes are globular proteins that serve as biological catalysts. They speed up or slow down metabolic reaction, but remain unchanged. They may facilitate the breaking of an existing bond or the formation of a new bond.

Decreased Temperature

Enzymes become less and less active, due to reductions in speed of molecular movement Below freezing point Inactivated, not denatured Regain their function when returning to normal temperature Thermophilic: heat-loving Hyperthermophilic: organisms are not able to grow below +70°C Psychrophiles: cold-loving

Small changes in pH above or below the Optimum do not cause a permanent change to the enzyme, since the bonds can be reformed. However, extreme changes in pH can cause enzymes to Denature and permanently lose their function.

Enzymes in different locations have different Optimum pH values since their environmental conditions may be different. For example, the enzyme Pepsin functions best at around pH2 and is found in the stomach, which contains Hydrochloric Acid (pH2).

Red blood cell

Erythrocyte

RNA

Essentially, Transcription creates what that is a complementary strand to DNA

This change in shape means that the Active Site is less Complementary to the shape of the Substrate, so that it is less likely to catalyse the reaction.

Eventually, the enzyme will become Denatured and will no longer function.

What is the function of tissue fluid?

Exchanges materials between cells and blood (allows watery environment)

Why does breathing/heart rate increase with exercise?

Exercise makes the muscles contract more. This needed energy release from respiration, which requires O2. More exercise means that more O2 is needed for more energy release from respiration and therefore the breathing rate increases in order to get more O2 into the lungs. The heart rate consequently increases to pump the extra O2 faster around the body to the muscle cells that need it.

Cilia

Extension of the cytoskeleton that allow the cell to move; oar-like movement that moves the cell perpendicular to the cilium; many and short

Flagella

Extension of the cytoskeleton that allow the cell to move; whip-like movement; cell moves in same direction as flagellum; few and long

The sodium potassium exchange pump moves three potassium ions out of the cell and two sodium ions into the cell with each cycle

False

unsaturated

Fat with less than the maximum number of hydrogens in one or more of its fatty acid chains

saturated

Fats with the maximum number of hydrogens.

A molecule with the formula C18 H36 O2 is probably a A) carbohydrate. B) nucleic acid. C) protein. D) hydrocarbon. E) fatty acid.

Fatty Acid

lipid monomer

Fatty acid red: glycerol black: fatty acids curved: unsaturated

Purkyne tissue

Fibres of the bundle of His that conduct impulses between the atria and ventricles of the heart

What is the function of white blood cells?

Fights diseases by phagocytes which carries out phagocytosis or lymphocytes which secretes antibodies.

Cilia

Fine hair-like projections that line the respiratory tract. They beat rhythmically to sweep mucus and trapped dust and pathogens towards the mouth and away from the lungs preventing infection.

Free ribosomes

Float in the cytosol; produce proteins used within the cell

Many poisons work by inhibiting the action of enzymes involved in Metabolic processes, which disturbs an organism.

For example, Potassium Cyanide is an irreversible Inhibitor of the enzyme Cytochrome C Oxidase, which takes part in respiration reactions in cells. If this enzyme is inhibited, ATP cannot be made since Oxygen use is decreased. This means that cells can only respire Anaerobically, leading to a build up of Lactic Acid in the blood. This is potentially fatal.The poison Malonate binds to the Active Site of the enzyme Succinate Dehydrogenase competing with Succinate, which is important in respiration.

Enzymes vastly increase the rate of a metabolic reaction, often by a factor of 10 million. This fact is essential to all life on earth, but it means that Enzyme activity must be very tightly controlled, since uncontrolled reactions can be fatal.

For example, in the disease 'multiple sclerosis', the immune system starts destroying nerves by allowing destructive Enzymes to attack nerve cells, often resulting in paralysis.

Some Enzyme Inhibitors can be used as Medicines in the treatment of conditions.

For example, infection by viruses can be treated by Inhibitors to the viral enzyme Protease, often competitive Inhibitors. This means that viruses cannot build new protein coats and therefore cannot replicate.Penicillin works by Inhibiting a bacterial enzyme that is responsible for forming cross-links in bacteria cell walls. This therefore halts reproduction.

What is the function of nucleoli?

Formation of ribosomes.

Embryonic Stem Cells

Forms all the cells that will lead to the development of the embryo and later the adult.

Compliment system Membrane Attack Complex

Forms by a cascade effect of compliment proteins(C5-C9) Cylinder shaped, inserts into plasma membrane Results in CYTOLYSIS

Intrinsic Protein

Found either in the inner or outer layer of the membrane or even spanning the whole membrane.

Nucleus

Found in Eukaryotic cell. Nuclei have two membrances and communicates with the cytosol with their numerous nuclear pores. DNA is found in the nucleus.

Nucleolus

Found within nucleus; makes ribosomes

concentration gradient

The gradient in molecular concentration (the difference in concentrations) that allows diffusion to occur

What is yeast?

Fungus

What are the four phases of interphase?

G1, S, G2

enzyme concentration

The graph shows the effect of ______ on the rate of enzyme action.

substrate concentration

The graph shows the effect of ______ on the rate of enzyme action.

Where does gas exchange happen in the lungs?

Gas exchange in the lungs happens in the alveoli.

Explain the effect of exercise on heart rate.

The heart rate increases during exercise. The rate and depth of breathing increases - this makes sure that more oxygen is absorbed into the blood, and more carbon dioxide is removed from it.

Clones

Genetically identical cells.

Which monosaccharide is a major nutrient, central to cellular metobolism. It is broken down for energy in the process of cellular respiration. The carbon skeleton of this sugar can also be used to build many other organic molecules, including amino acids and fatty acids.

Glucose

Mechanics behind the treatment of Cholera

Glucose is effective because it is absorbed into the blood and takes ions (Na+ and K+) with it. To maintain the osmotic balance between the blood and tissue fluids the fluid intake must equal fluid loses.

Why is much less energy released during anaerobic respiration?

Glucose is not completely broken down, so much less energy is released than during aerobic respiration.

The enzyme amylase can break glycosidic linkages between glucose monomers only if the monomers are the "a" form. Which of the following could amylase break down? A) chitin B) glycogen and chitin only C) cellulose D) glycogen E) glycogen, cellulose, and chitin

Glycogen

Which features of eukaryotic cells have a single membrane?

Golgi apparatus and lysosome.

Interferons

Group of signalling proteins Produced by lymphocytes, macrophages and fibroblasts infected with viruses. * protect uninfected host cells from viral infection.

How does blue light work? when is it present? at noon what type of light component is greater?

Guard cells have a photoreceptor that is sensitive to blue light. It triggers closing in late evening and opening in early morning? ---In the morning and evening there will be a blue light. ---At noon there is a greater red component.

Acid solutions have pH values below 7, and Basic solutions (alkalis are bases) have pH values above 7. Deionised water is pH7, which is termed 'neutral

H+ and OH- Ions are charged and therefore interfere with Hydrogen and Ionic bonds that hold together an enzyme, since they will be attracted or repelled by the charges created by the bonds. This interference causes a change in shape of the enzyme, and importantly, its Active Site.

CO2 + H2O ------> __________

H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)

H2CO3 (carbonic acid) ------> H + ________

HCO3 (hydrogencarbonate ion)

Hb + H -------> _______

HHb (hemoglobic acid)

Cilia

Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion.

Lymph Nodes

Have lymphocytes which secrete antibodies (lymphocytes are white blood cells)

Hypertonic

Having a higher concentration of solute than the solution.

Hypotonic

Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution

Hb + 4O2 ------> _______

HbO8 (oxyhemoglobin - bright red)

Phospholipids

Heads are hydrophilic, tails are hydrophobic. Basic structure of membranes. Moves sideways in own layers. Acts as a barrier to most water-soluble substances.

Name the two main types of T cells in Cell Mediated Response.

Helper T cells and Cytotoxic T cells

Cytoskeleton

Helps maintain cell shape. Its primary importance is in cell motility. It makes the cell move internally and externally.

Name 7 Subunit/Conjugate vacinations

HepB, Influenza (TIB), Hib, Acellular Pertussis, pneuococcal, Meningococcal, HPV

Who is at greatest risk for developing tetanus

Highest risk among elderly b/c of fall of Ab titers, and in those that haven't received boosters

20

How many common Varieties does it exist? (hence the umber of amino acids)

20

How many common amino acids are found in living organisms?

2

How many hydrogen bonds are there between adenine and thymine?

3

How many hydrogen bonds are there between cytosine and guanine?

80

How many nucleotides is tRNA composed of?

45

How many varieties does it exist?

What is gas exchange?

How oxygen from air passes into blood capillaries of the lungs (when we inhale) and how CO2 from respiring body cells is removed into the air.

Increasing Substrate Concentration increases the rate of reaction. This is because more substrate molecules will be colliding with enzyme molecules, so more product will be formed.

However, after a certain concentration, any increase will have no effect on the rate of reaction, since Substrate Concentration will no longer be the limiting factor. The enzymes will effectively become saturated, and will be working at their maximum possible rate.

Increasing Enzyme Concentration will increase the rate of reaction, as more enzymes will be colliding with substrate molecules

However, this too will only have an effect up to a certain concentration, where the Enzyme Concentration is no longer the limiting factor.

Pathogen of AIDS

Human immunodeficiency virus

Humans can digest starch but not cellulose because A) humans have enzymes that can hydrolyze the a glycosidic linkages of starch but not the glycosidic linkages of cellulose. B) the monomer of starch is glucose, while the monomer of cellulose is glucose with a nitrogen-containing group. C) humans have enzymes that can hydrolyze theglycosidic linkages of starch but not the a glycosidic linkages of cellulose. D) the monomer of starch is glucose, while the monomer of cellulose is galactose. E) humans harbor starch-digesting bacteria in the digestive tract.

Humans have enzymes that can hydrolyze the "a" glycosidic linkages of starch but not the "B" glycosidic linkages of cellulose

Polar

Hydrophillic

Non-polar

Hydrophobic

Carbohydrates

Hydroxyl-hydrogen - glycosidic bond

Mitochondria

IT'S THE RED "BEAN" SHAPE. This is where CELLULAR RESPIRATION takes place and ATP energy is made. Provides energy to cell to move, divide, produce secretory products, and contract. Has a double membrane the outside is smooth; has its own DNA separate from the organism.

Nuclear Membrane

The layer around the nucleus - encloses the DNA. In Mitosis, it disappears during prophase and is reformed during telophase

Thymine

In DNA, adenine pairs with what?

Cytosine

In DNA, guanine pairs with what?

Centromere

In a duplicated chromosome, the region on each sister chromatid where they are most closely attached to each other by proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences; this close attachment causes a constriction in the condensed chromosome.

Centromere

In a duplicated chromosome, the region on each sister chromatid where they are most closely attached to each other by proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences; this close attachment causes a constriction in the condensed chromosome. (An uncondensed, unduplicated chromosome has a single centromere, identified by its DNA sequence.)

Activation energy B

In an enzyme controlled reaction which activation energy is needed to allow the reactants to be converted into products?

Tight junctions

In animals; tightly stitched seams typically found where substances must pass in between cells

Where do red blood cells develop?

In bone marrow (they have a nucleus at this stage)

Messenger

In mRNA, what does the m stand for?

Preventing Cholera & common places for Cholera

In many developing countries where a sewage system is not in place. Common global areas: Africa, Latin America, Asia.

The activity of an Enzyme is affected by its environmental conditions. Changing these alter the rate of reaction caused by the enzyme.

In nature, organisms adjust the conditions of their enzymes to produce an Optimum rate of reaction, where necessary, or they may have enzymes which are adapted to function well in extreme conditions where they live.

Ribosomal

In rRNA, what does the r stand for?

As temperature increases, more enzymes' molecules' Active Sites' shapes will be less Complementary to the shape of their Substrate, and more enzymes will be Denatured. This will decrease the rate of reaction

In summary, as temperature increases, initially the rate of reaction will increase, because of increased Kinetic Energy. However, the effect of bond breaking will become greater and greater, and the rate of reaction will begin to decrease.

Transfer

In tRNA, what does the t stand for

What do guard cells do in the dark?

In the dark, the guard cells lose water, become flaccid and the stoma closes.

What do the guard cells do in the light?

In the light, the guard cells absorb water by osmosis, become turgid and the stoma opens.

Where would cristae be found in a cell?

In the mitochondrion.

As the partial pressure of Oxygen increases, the percent saturation of hemoglobin with Oxygen ____

Increases

Increased Temperature

Increases speed of molecular movement → chances of molecular collisions → more ES complexes At 0-42 °C rate of reaction is proportional to temp Enzymes have optimum temp. for their action (varies between different enzymes) Above ≈42°C, enzyme is denatured due to heavy vibration that break -H bonds Shape is changed / active site can't be used anymore

What determines Tertiary Structure?

Interactions between R Groups rather than interactions between backbone constituents

Artificially acquired passive immunity

Intravenous injection of immunoglobulins. Provides immediate protection, but the body does not develop memory. Poisoning

IgD function

Involved in activation of B Cells

IgE function

Involved in allergic and hypersensitivity reactions Provides protection against parasitic worms.

B- Lactamase

Is able to break down Penicillin enzymes.

The ABO blood group

Is based on two glycolipid antigens called A and B Ex: Antigen A= Type A Antigen B- Type B Antigen AB- Type AB Antigen O- Type O

Blood groups

Is bases on the presence or absence of various antigens. -24 Groups -over 100 antigens

No

Is mRNA coiled?

Transport through sieve tubes (phloem)

Is passive, it is a passive process by which we get sugars. We need to move water locally, and as water moves through phloem, sugar comes along with it.

Why is CO so dangerous?

It can bond with hemoglobin 250 times faster than Oxygen.

What is the function of the lysosome?

It contains the digestive enzyme.

What is the function of the cell surface membrane?

It controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

What is a double, closed circulatory system?

It has 2 systems: Systemic- goes to the body Pulmonary- goes to the lungs The blood remains in the vessels.

Which of the following is true of cellulose? A) It is a polymer composed of enantiomers of glucose, it is a storage polysaccharide for energy in plant cells, it is digestible by bacteria in the human gut, and it is a major component of plant cell walls. B) It is digestible by bacteria in the human gut. C) It is a major structural component of plant cell walls. D) It is a storage polysaccharide for energy in plant cells. E) It is a polymer composed of enantiomers of glucose.

It is a major structural component of plant cell walls

What is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

It is responsible for protein synthesis.

What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

It is responsible for steroid/lipid synthesis.

Spindle fibers

It is the structure that separates the chromosomes into daughter cell during cell division

What is the function of the golgi body?

It modifies and packages proteins.

Name of using biofuels.

It more environmentally friendly because it releases less carbon dioxide.

What is the function of the nucleolus?

It produces ribosomes.

What is the function of the mitochondrion?

It provides energy to the rest of the cell through ATP synthesis.

When the compliment system is activated by the innate immunity...

Its proteins form a MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX: -imbeds itself into invading microorganisms-> creating a hole that causes cytolysis.

Intermediate filaments

Keratin; provide support for maintaining cell shape

Central vacuoles

Large bodies occupying most of the interior of many plant cells; maintain rigidity of cell wall, stores things, allows cell to "grow"

IgE

Less than 0.1% of all antibodies in blood

The double helix

Linus Pauling, Maurice Walking, Rosalind Franklin, Watson, and Crick all helped in the discovery of what?

What are the 4 types of vaccinations

Live, Attenuated Inactivated/Killed Toxoid Subunit/Conjugate

Protoplast

Living part inside cell wall, pushes against cell wall during osmosis

pH measures the Acidity and Basicity of a solution. It is a measure of the Hydrogen Ion (H+) concentration, and therefore a good indicator of the Hydroxide Ion (OH-) concentration. It ranges from pH1 to pH14

Lower pH values mean higher H+ concentrations and lower OH- concentrations.

What are the main organs of the respiratory system?

Lungs, Diaphragm, Trachea, Bronchi

Where is IgG found?

Lymph, blood and intestines

B Cells can recognize and bind to antigens in?

Lymph, interstitial fluid, and blood plasma

Plasma

The liquid part of blood

Tissue fluid

The liquid that bathes cells, similar to blood plasma but containing no cells and few blood proteins

Ribosomes

Make proteins; consist of small and large subunit; composed of rRNA and proteins

Worldwide control of Malaria

Malaria has not been completely eradicated because: Plasmodium became resistant to the drug used to control it, and mosquitos came resistant to DDT and other insecticides that were being used to reduce the mosquito population.

7 Examples of Live, Attenuated Virus vaccines

Measles, Mumps, Rubella, Varicella, Zoster, Influenza (nasal), rotavirus

Water potential

Measure of the tendency of water molecules to move from one place to another

Following the course of an enzyme-catalysed reaction

Measurement of the rate of formation of the product or the rate of disappearance of the substrate.

Why is meiosis essential?

Meiosis is essential to sex, because it enables each parent to contribute one set of chromosomes-- half the total-- to each diploid offspring.

Meiosis

Meiosis is the production of gamete cells (eggs and sperm) Meiosis is essential to sex, because it enables each parent to contribute one set of chromosomes-- half the total-- to each diploid offspring.

Golgi bodies (or apparatus)

Membrane-bound structure with a single membrane. It packages macromolecules for transport in the cell.

Explain the significance of capillaries and red blood cells both being 7 micrometers in diameter.

Membranes of red blood cells and capillaries touch which allows diffusion of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide to be more efficient between cells and blood.

End-product inhibition

Metabolic reactions are multi-stepped, each controlled by a single enzyme End-products accumulate within the cell and stop the reaction when sufficient product is made This is achieved by non-competitive inhibition by the end-product The enzyme early in the reaction pathway is inhibited by the end-product The metabolic pathway contains a series of individual chemical reactions that combine to perform one or more important functions. The product of one reaction in a pathway serves as the substrate for the following reaction.

Control Methods

Methods that attempt to to break transmission cycles by removing the conditions that father the pathogen.

Chromatin

The loosely coiled form of chromosomes during interphase of the cell cycle; chromatin is made of DNA and proteins and is visible as loosely distributed patches of fibers within the nucleus when stained.

Michaelis - Menten Equation and Immobilising an enzyme

Michaelis-Menten equation describes the velocity of enzymatic reactions (v) by relating it to [S] - concentration of a substrate S.

Alveoli

Microscopic air sacs found at the end of bronchioles. They have a large surface area to allow efficient gas exchange with the blood, one cell thick walls for fast diffusion and a good blood supply to maintain the concentration gradient.

Centrioles

Microtubule organizing center; located in centrosome; make up and organize spindle fibers during cell division

Endosymbiotic theory

Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from ancient prokaryotes that invaded other prokaryotic cells, and formed a symbiotic relationship

Evidence for endosymbiotic theory

Mitochondria and chloroplasts possess their own DNA similar to prokaryotes; ribosomes resemble that of prokaryotes; they reproduce independently of the cell; two membranes may have resulted from vesicular endocytosis.

Biological Significance of Mitosis: Asexual Reproduction

Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction, the production of new individuals of a species by a single parent organism. The offspring are genetically identical to the parents.

Polysaccharide

Molecule that is many monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic links

Disaccharide

Molecule that is two monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic links

Concentration gradient

Molecules or ions move down this.

Amino Acid

Monomer that links up to form proteins.

Why don't red blood cells have organelles?

More room for hemoglobin, to maximize the amount of Oxygen

Plasma

Mostly made of water (90%) Has nutrients, proteins, amino acids, urea (waste), etc.

Transport vesicle

Move materials through the cell

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Facilitated diffusion

Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels

Active transport

Movement of substances across a membrane involving a carrier protein and energy from respiration

active transport

Movement of substances across membranes against their concentration gradient, requiring the use of energy in the form of ATP. Active transport usually involves the use of transport proteins

Passive transport

Movement of substances through a cell membrane without the use of cellular energy; includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

Gas Exchange System

The lungs and associated structures make up this system

Multipotent

Multipotency describes progenitor cells which have the gene activation potential to differentiate into multiple, but limited cell types.

What are the 2 common diseases caused by Paramyxovirus?

Mumps and Measles

Why might you be in pain after doing exercise? Why do you breathe heavily?

Muscle cells are actively respiring whilst you're doing exercise. When they can't get enough oxygen the body will switch to respiring anaerobically. However, in muscle cells anaerobic respiration causes production of lactic acid, which is toxic, and this will cause pain. You will breathe heavily because the oxygen you are taking in will break down the lactic acid that had accumulated in the muscle cells to form carbon dioxide and water. The excess CO2 is exhaled.

What is the main function of proteins?

Muscle movement, cellular process (transferring), and they help fight diseases with antibodies, enzymes

Intercostal muscles

Muscles found between each rib. They contract to pull the ribs together, moving the rib cage up an out.

Trachea

The major airway, reinforced by rings of cartilage, that extends from the larynx to the bronchi.

Cytoskeleton

Network of protein fibers extending from the nucleus to the membrane - structural support, motility, and regulation

2f) Thin sections of adult mouse liver were prepared and the cells stained to show up the chromosomes. In a sample of 75000 cells examined, nine were found to be in the process of mitosis. Calculate the length of the cell cycle in days in liver cells, assuming that mitosis lasts 1 hour.

Nine cells out of 75000 were undergoing mitosis. Therefore mitosis occupies 9/75000 of the cell cycle. Mitosis lasts 1 hour. Therefore cell cycle = 75000/9 hours long, =8333 hours = 8333/24 days = 347 days. (Cell cycles vary in length in adult animals from less than 8 hours to more than 1 year)

Treating HIV/AIDS

No cure for AIDS and no vaccine for HIV. Not sure how many people with HIV will progress to developing AIDS. Drug therapy can slow down the onset of AIDS such as: Zidovudine. Zidovudine binds to the viral enzyme reverse transcript phase and blocks its action, thus leading to an increase in lymphocytes.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

No ribosomes; makes lipids and steroid hormones, metabolizes carbs, stores calcium and helps regulate muscle contraction, breakdown of toxins, drugs, and toxic by-products

M Phase/Nuclear Division

Nuclear division follows Interphase. This may be referred to as the M phase (M for mitosis). Growth stops temporarily during mitosis. After the M phase, when the nucleus has divided into two, the whole cell divides to create two genetically identical cells.

Which structures in plant cells have a double membrane?

Nuclei and mitochondria.

What is the order of size of cell structures from largest to smallest?

Nucleoli, lysosomes, centrioles, and ribosomes.

Plant cells are fixed, stained, and viewed through a light microscope. What would be clearly visible at x400 magnification?

Nucleoli.

nucleic acid monomer

Nucleotide

Hydrostatic pressure

The mechanical pressure exerted on or by a liquid (e.g. water), also known as pressure potential

Ventilation

The mechanism that moves air into and out of the lungs, through contractions of muscles

2 4 1 3

Number these next four statements in the correct order of Transcription 1. RNA polymerase moves along the section of DNA establishing sugar-to-phosphate bonds between the RNA nucleotides 2.RNA polymerase binds to a DNA molecule and causes the separation of complementary strands 3.When RNA polymerase reaches a sequence of bases on the DNA that acts a s a termination signal, the enzyme triggers the release of the newly made RNA 4. The enzyme then directs the formation of hydrogen bonds between the bases of a DNA strand and the complementary bases of RNA nucleotides that are floating in the nucleus

IgD is found?

On Surface of B cells as antigen receptors

IgE is found?

On mast cells and basophils

beta-sheet

One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth, or where two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Chromatid

One of the identical rods of a chromosome.

Capillary

One of the minute, thin-walled vessels which forms a network in various parts of the body

Atrium

One of the two upper chambers of the mammalian four-chambered heart

Chromatid

One of two identical parts of a chromosome, held together by a centromere, formed during interphase by the replication of the DNA strand.

Centriole

One of two small, cylindrical structures, made from microtubules, found just outside the nucleus in animal cell, in a region known as the centrosome; they are also found at the bases of cilia and flagella.

Cell Wall:

Only plant cells have this. It is a protective wall make of polysaccharides. It maintains shape of these cells and creates a protective barrier. Fluid collects in plant cell vacuole and pushes against it, this is called turgor pressure.

The temperature at which the maximum rate of reaction occurs is called the enzyme's

Optimum Temperature. This is different for different enzymes. Most enzymes in the human body have an Optimum Temperature of around 37.0 °C.

What is the composition of an amino acid?

Organic molecule w/ amino group + carboxyl group

Myogenic

Originating in heart muscle cells themselves, as in generation of the heartbeat

When you break down Lactic acid, what is the amount of O2 needed called?

Oxygen debt

Ribosome

Packets of RNA. They are responsible for protein synthesis. Free ribosomes make proteins that will stay in the cell. Attached ribosomes (attached to the ER) make proteins that will be transported out of the cell.

Amylopectin

Part of a starch molecule where the glucose chains are branched. (1-6 glycosidic links)

Amylose

Part of a starch molecule, consisting of many thousands of glucose monosaccharides bonded together

Multiple Resistance

Pathogen that resist multiple cures/antibiotics.

Treating Cholera

Patient is given a solution of glucose and salts intravenously to hydrate the body. If the individual can drink they are given oral rehydration therapy.

Treating TB

Patients should be isolated

What makes blood positive or negative

People with a positive Rh factor are-positive People without a Rh agglutinogen on their surface are-negative

Substrates

The molecules that interact with a specific enzyme at the active site and are converted into products.

Mitochondria

Perform cellular respiration to convert glucose into ATP

Chloroplasts

Perform chloroplasts to convert sunlight into glucose

Nucleic Acids

Phosphate-sugar - phosphodiester bond

Radioisotopes

Phosphorous 32 and sulfur 35 are both what?

Explain how hemoglobin acts as a buffer.

Picks up hydrogen ions from solution which prevents large changes in blood PH

What is the difference between animals cells and plant cells?

Plants cells have a defined shape

Pathogen of Malaria

Plasmodium

Name 3 Inactivated/Killed vaccinations

Polio (IPV), HepA, Rabies

Protein

Polymer made of amino acids. Proteins are the "building blocks" of life.

polysaccharide

Polymers of simple sugars covalently linked by glycosidic bonds

Ion importance changes throughout the day. In the morning what is important? Around noon what is important?

Pottasium Sucrose (that serves as the osmoticum) Working together to keep stomata relatively open.

Exocytosis

Process by which materials are removed out of cells

Transcription

Producing RNA from DNA

IgG function

Protects against bacteria and viruses-> enhances phagocytosis. -Neutralizes toxins - Triggers compliment system

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Proteins are made on the endoplasmic reticulum's ribosomes. They are collected inside the endoplasmic reticulum and transported throughout the cell. Transports and modifies organelles, highway for cell.

globular protein

Proteins formed by compacted amino acid chains, which are folded into knotted shapes that often roughly resemble spheres. E.g hemoglobin, hormone insulin

Receptor Molecules

Proteins on the surface of the cell membrane that receive signals from the nervous and endocrine system. These are needed for your cells to communicate and work together.

fibrous protein

Proteins that are composed of many polypeptide chains in a long, narrow shape. E.g keratin, collagen

Histone

Proteins that the DNA is wrapped around

Cell wall

Provide support for the cell on the outside of the plasma membrane; found in plants, fungi, and many protists

Mitochondria

Provides energy to cell. Has a double membrane. The outside is smooth but the inner is highly folded to increase its surface area. Cellular respiration is performed here, making energy (ATP) for the cell. Has its own DNA and ribosomes - Powerhouse of the cell

Active Transport

The movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy.

osmosis

The movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential across a partially permeable membrane.

Dehydration Synthesis

Putting together smaller molecules to make a larger molecule by removing a water molecule.

whats the part of the amino acid that gives off 20 different amino acids its special characteristics?

R Group

1

RNA has how many strands?

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

ROUGH E.R. means there ARE RIBOSOMES attached. Proteins are synthesized on the endoplasmic reticulum's ribosomes where they are collected in the endoplasmic reticulum and transported throughout the cell, highway for cell.

diffusion

The net movement of molecules or ions in a gas or liquid from an area of high concentration to an area where they are less concentrated.

Diffusion

The net movement of particles such as molecules from a region where they are at a higher concentration to a region with a lower concentration, using energy from the random movements of particles

Addition Reaction

Reaction that forms a polymer by chain reactions between molecules with a C=C bond.

Condensation Reaction

Reaction that produces a polymer and water.

Enzymes are catalysts→ speed up chemical reactions

Reduce activation energy required to start a reaction between molecules Substrates (reactants) are converted into products Reaction may not take place in absence of enzymes (each enzyme has a specific catalytic action) Enzymes catalyse a reaction at max. rate at an optimum state

Telophase

The nucleolus and nuclear envelope re-form. Remains of the spindle are found that is breaking down. Centrosomes will replicate during interphase, before the next nuclear division. Chromatids have reached the poles of the spindle; they will now uncoil again (each chromatid contains one DNA molecule which will replicate itself during interphase before the next nuclear division). Cytokinesis occurs, this is the division of the cytoplasm and cell into two by constriction from the edges of the cell.

What process occurs in mitochondria?

Respiration

Aerobic respiration

Respiration requiring oxygen, involving oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide (co2) and water (h2o)

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Responsible for production of hormones and other secretory products. Transports and modifies organelles, processes lipids, fats, etc. - Highway of the cell. No ribosomes on this organelle.

Drug Resistant TB

Result of mutation in the bacterial DNA over time

Antibodies are produced only by people with?

Rh- blood type -with exposure to the antigen -from a blood transfusion or pregnancy

Nucleosome

The nucleosome is cylindrical in shape, about 11nm wide by 6nm long. It is made up of eight histone molecules. The DNA is wrapped around the outside of the cylinder, making 1^2/3 turns before linking to the next nucleosome. The DNA between the nucleosomes is also held in place by a histone molecule. Nucleosomes line up like a string of beads to form a fiber 10nm wide. This string can be further coiled and supercoiled, involving some non-histone proteins.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Ribosomes present; creates glycoproteins, packages proteins for secretion, sends transport vesicles to Golgi, makes replacement membranes

Chromosomes

Rod-like structures of incredibly condensed DNA strands

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

SMOOTH E.R. means there are NO RIBOSOMES attached. (rough e.r. HAS ribosomes). Continuation of the outer nuclear membrane, responsible for production of hormones and other secretory products. Transports and modifies organelles, highway for cell. Processes lipids, fats and such.

Vacuoles

Sacs that digest nutrients and release cell waste products. In plant cells vacuoles also store nutrients, and regulates water pressure in the cell.

Heart rate

The nunber of contractions of the heart per minute

Mucus

Secreted into respiratory airways by goblet cells to trap particles of dirt and bacteria that are breathed into the body.

Explain 2 ways that veins help blood get back to the heart.

Semilunar valves- prevents blood from going backward Skeletal muscle- contracts around veins (legs)

Cell membrane

Separates internal metabolic events from the external environment, controls movement of materials into and out of the cell

What is the function of carbohydrates?

Shorts term energy (main source) and structure to cell walls

Capillaries

Simple squamous epitheliam

Prokaryotic cell

Simple, no nucleus, many have cell wall with peptidoglycan, bacteria

Increasing temperature increases the Kinetic Energy that molecules possess. In a fluid, this means that there are more random collisions between molecules per unit time

Since enzymes catalyse reactions by randomly colliding with Substrate molecules, increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction, forming more product.

Base sequence

The order of nitrogenous bases on a chain of DNA

Inhibitors

Slow down rate of reaction of enzyme when necessary (e.g. when temp is too high) Molecule present in highest conc. is most likely to form an ES-complex

Monomer

Small molecule that can form links with two other molecules.

Plasmid

Small, circular, self-replicating segment of DNA in bacteria

what are the effects of smoking on the alveoli ?

Smoke damages the walls of the alveoli. The alveoli walls break down and join together, forming larger air spaces than normal. This reduces the efficiency of gas exchange, so people with the lung disease emphysema (a type of COPD or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) carry less oxygen in their blood and find even mild exercise difficult.

what are the effects of smoking?

Smoking can cause lung disease, heart disease and certain cancers. Nicotine is the addictive substance in tobacco. It quickly reaches the brain and creates a dependency so that smokers become addicted.

Why is mitosis and important life process

So that the organism can grow, reproduce, and repair

The sodium potassium pump functions to pump?

Sodium ions out if the cell and potassium ions into the cell

What are some features of alveoli?

Some of the features of alveoli include: thin walls (just one cell thick) large surface area moist surface many blood capillaries

Carriers

Someone who is infected with a pathogen but does not show any symptoms of the disease; people like this can be sources of infection that are hard to trace.

Assimilate is moved from _______ to _______/.

Source to Sink translocation.

Rate of diffusion depends upon:

Steepness of concentration gradient, temperature, the surface area, nature of the molecules or ions.

Stem Cell Therapy

Stem cell therapy is the introduction of new adult stem cells into damaged tissue to treat disease or injury.

Totipotent

Stem cells that can produce any type of cell are described as totipotent.

What is a function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

Steroid synthesis.

What lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 rings?

Steroids

what are the effects of smoking on the air passages?

Sticky mucus in the lungs traps pathogens. The mucus is normally swept out of the lungs by the cilia on the epithelial cells lining the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. However, cigarette smoke contains harmful chemicals that damage these cells, leading to a build-up of mucus and a smoker's cough. Smoke irritates the bronchi, causing bronchitis.

Plants need ions, these are absorbed in the roots and stored. For this to happen, what do the stomates have to do? When can the ions be transported to the rest of the plant?

Stomates have to open. Transported even during dark hours. There will be water loss supporting this activity.

Blue light is important, it triggers what ions to rush in?

Stomates opening. Potassium early, sucrose later. Osmolarity increases, turgor increases.

What is the function of lipids?

Store energy (long term) and are the main part of membranes

Vacuoles

Store waste products, nutrients, and water.

What is glycogen?

Stored glucose molecules

What is the function of nucleic acids?

Stores/transmits genetic info and is the blue print for life

Virulent

Strain of the bacterium

Nucleus

The part of a eukaryotic cell that contains the DNA (chromosomes)

Active Site

The part of an enzyme that has a specific shape that fits a specific substrate. The part of an enzyme where the substrate binds to the enzyme forming the enzyme-substrate complex.

Thorax

The part of the human body between the neck and the abdomen, partially enclosed by the ribs and containing the heart and lungs

Preventing TB

Subsequent testing of contacts for the bacterium

Where is IgA found?

Sweat, tears, saliva, mucus, breast milk and gastrointestinal juices.

Food vacuole

Temporary receptacle of nutrients, often merge with lysosomes for digestion

10 nitrogen bases

The "rungs of the ladder" are made up of what?

Sugar and Phosphate molecules

The "sides of the ladder" are made up of what?

Metaphase

The 2nd stage of mitosis. The centrosomes have reached the poles and attach microtubules to the centromeres (kinetochores) of the sister chromatids. these spindle fibres (microtubules) pull the sister chromatids until they are all aligned at the metaphase plate.

Anaphase

The 3rd stage of mitosis, in which the sister chromatids of each chromosome have separated at the centromere (kinetochore) and the daughter chromosomes are pulled to the poles of the cell by the attached microtubules (spindle fibres).

Telophase

The 4th and final stage of mitosis, in which chromosomes uncoil (become diffuse), microtubules disintegrate, daughter nuclei are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun.

Enzyme-Substrate Complex

The complex created when the enzyme and substrate are loosely associated in an induced fit

Chromatin

The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes. When the cell is not dividing, chromatin exists in its dispersed form, as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope

Chromatin

The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes. When the cell is not dividing, it exists in its dispersed form, as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope

Protoplast

The contents of a plant cell exclusive of the cell wall.

Systole

The contraction phase of the cardiac cycle

Activation Energy

The amount of energy required to start a reaction

Solute potential

The amount that the solute molecules lower the water potential

What is the biggest artery?

The aorta (about 1 inch wide)

Late anaphase

The daughter chromosomes are drawn to opposite poles by their attached spindle fibers

Bohr effect

The decrease in the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen which occurs when pH is lowered and carbon dioxide is increased, resulting in the release of oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin

Osmosis

The diffusion of water molecules from a region where water is at a higher water potential through a partially permeable membrane to a region with a lower water potential

Mitosis/Cell Division

The division of a nucleus into two so that the two daughter cells have exactly the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Cytokinesis

The division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis

Cytokinesis

The division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II.

ester bond

The bond formed when fatty acid molecules are joined to glycerol molecules in condensation reactions.

Late prophase

The duplicated chromosome coil and become shorter and thicker in appearance. The nucleolus and nuclear envelope gradually disappear

Excretion

The elimination from the body of waste compounds produced during the metabolism of cells, including, for a human, carbon dioxide (excreted through the lungs), and urea (excreted through the kidneys in urine)

What are the characteristics of a prokaryotic cell?

The endoplasmic reticulum is absent and the genetic material is DNA.

Telomeres

The ends of chromosomes are 'sealed' by structures called telomeres. These are made of DNA with short base sequences that are repeated many times. Their main function is to ensure that when DNA is replicated, the ends of the molecule are included in the replication and not left out.

Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is the regular sequence of events that takes place between one cell devision and the next. It has three phases, namely interphase, nuclear division and cell division. The length of the cell cycle is very variable, depending on environmental condition and cell type.

Describe: Interphase

The cell nucleus is well defined and bounded by the nuclear envelope. The chromosomes already replicated(S phase) but can be distinguished individually.

Which cell components are present in all prokaryotic cells?

The cell surface membrane and endoplasmic reticulum.

Respiration

The cellular process by which sugars and other substances are broken down to release chemical energy for other cellular processes

Centromere

The centromere is the part of a chromosome that links sister chromatids. During mitosis, spindle fibers attach to the centromere via the kinetochore.

Potency

The extent of the power of a stem cell to produce different cell types is variable and is referred to as its potency.

When peptide fragment comes from a self-protein

The T cells ignore the antigen MHC complex.

When peptide fragment comes from a foreign protein

The T cells recognize the antigen MHC complex as an intruder - Immune response takes place

which sex chromosome is smaller and why?

The Y chromosome is smaller because a portion is missing.

Replication fork

The Y-shaped region that results when the two strands separate

What is the key to precise nuclear division?

The fact that the two DNA molecules in sister chromatids, and hence their genes, are identical.

Transmission of Malaria

The female Anopheles mosquito is the inset vector, and it will feed on human blood to obtain protein. If the the mosquito feeds on someone who is infected plasmodium they will take that up and can pass it on to others when continuing to feed. It can also be transmitted through blood transfusions and across the placenta from the mom to the fetus.

Telophase

The fifth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter nuclei are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun.

Cytokinesis

The final stage in the cell cycle, in which the cell's ctyoplasm divides, distributing the organelles into each of the 2 new cells.

G1 Phase

The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.

Cleavage Furrow

The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove around the cell in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.

Prophase

The first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes visible with a light microscope, the mitotic spindle begins to form, and the nucleolus disappears but the nucleus remains intact.

Prophase

The first stage of mitosis. Chromatin condense (supercoil) into discrete chromosomes visible with a light microscope, the centrosomes split and mitotic spindles (microtubules) begins to form, and the nucleolus disappears. The nuclear membrane deteriorates and near the end, the spindle fibres (microtubules) attach at the centromere (kinetochore) of each of the duplicated chromosomes (called sister chromatids)

Organelle

"little organ" - compartmentalized structures that perform specific functions

Water is circulating, moving through phloem and pulling sugar with it.

"pressure flow hypothesis"

MHC molecules

"self antigens" - Unique - Mark surface of each body cell- except RBC -Help T cells recognize ->antigen is foreign.

growth factor

(1) A protein that must be present in the extracellular environment (culture medium or animal body) for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells. (2) A local regulator that acts on nearby cells to stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation.

cleavage

(1) The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane

cleavage

(1) The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane. (2) The succession of rapid cell divisions without significant growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote to a ball of cells.

Fibrous Protein

(Structural proteins) Insoluble in water; chief building materials of the body; usually used to construct connective tissues, tendons, bone matrix and muscle fiber.

Fill the gaps: The trachea branches into two (a) (one to each lung). (b)membranes surround each lung. Cartilage rings in the walls of the trachea help to keep it open. The bronchi split into smaller and smaller tubes called (c). These end in air sacs called (d). There is a muscular diaphragm below the lungs.

(a) Bronchi (b) Pleural (c) bronchioles (d) alveoli

What is the role of ___ in respiration? (a) Mitochondrian (b) Cell Membrane (c) DNA in nucleus (d) Cytoplasm

(a) Contains enzymes for aerobic respiration (b)Allows dissolved gases and water to pass freely in and out (c)Contains the genetic code for enzymes (d) Contains enzymes for anaerobic respiration

(a) How does smoking affect blood pressure? Why does it happen? (b) What other effects does smoking have?

(a) Smoking increases blood pressure by raising the heart rate. It combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells, preventing oxygen combining with the haemoglobin. This causes an increase in heart rate to compensate for the reduced amount of oxygen carried in the blood. (b) Smoking can increase the risk of heart disease Nicotine itself increases the heart rate and carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Diffusion of (a), (b) and (c) into (or out of) the leaf is greatest when the stomata are open.

(a) carbon dioxide, (b) oxygen (c) water vapor

Fill the gaps: Mitochondria breaks the chemical bonds of (a) to release (b) in a cell. glucose is broken down by the process of aerobic respiration (requires (c)) in the mitochondria of the cell. This releases energy for the cell. The more (d) a cell is (such as a muscle cell), the more mitochondria it will have. the mitochondria are tiny! They have their own DNA and a double membrane like the (e) and (f) . The outer membrane is convoluted into folds called (g) in order to (h).

(a) glucose (b) energy (c) oxygen (d) active (e) nucleus (f) Chloroplasts (g) cristae (h) Increase surface area

Fill the gaps: If there is enough light during the day, then: the rate of photosynthesis is (a) than the rate of respiration there is a net release of oxygen and a net uptake of (b)

(a) higher (b) Carbon dioxide

The (a) of the leaf is adapted for gas exchange. The cells in the (b) (lower layer) are loosely packed, and covered by a thin film of water. There are tiny pores, called (c) , in the surface of the leaf. Most of these are in the lower epidermis, away from the (d) sunlight.

(a) structure (b) spongy mesophyll (c) stomata (d) brightest

cell theory

(biology) the theory that states: 1)all living things are made of one or more cells, 2) Cells come from cells, and 3) Cells are the basic unit for all living organisms

haploid

(genetics) an organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes

diploid

(genetics) an organism or cell having two sets of chromosomes or twice the haploid number

humidity, increases or decreases rate of evapotranspiration

(how much water the air is holding) lowers rate of evapotranspiration

First line of defence

*External physical and chemical barriers - skin, mucous membranes, cilia, nasal hairs, earwax, saliva. etc.

Interferons function

*Interfere -Diffuse into neighbouring cells and induce synthesis of anti-viral proteins= which prevent viral replication.

Protein Synthesis

The formation of proteins using information coded on DNA which is carried out by RNA

enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature and pH

The four factors that affect enzyme action.

Anaphase

The fourth stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell.

Fever

- intensifies effects of IFN. -inhibits growth of some microbes - speeds up body reactions that aid repair

An Rh- mom and a Rh+ fetus

- mixing of blood at birth - mom creates Rh antibodies -RhoGam injection removes fetal Rh antigens

The resting potential of the cell is

-70mv (negative inside relative to outside the cell)

Neutralization

-Antibody binds to Antigens -Blocks/neutralizes - Prevents attachment with other cells

What are the effects of Tobacco smoke?

-Cilia are destroyed so dirt and bacteria are not removed. -The walls of alveoli are damaged and break down to form large air spaces which do not exchange gases efficiently. -Lung cancer- tar and other chemicals cause cells to mutate and form cancers in the lungs and throat -carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin, lowering the oxygen levels in the blood. This deprives a pregnant woman's fetus of oxygen and can lead to smaller babies and stillbirths -Smoking also affects the circulatory system and causes an increased risk of heart attacks and strokes.

Compliment system inflammation

-Compliment proteins(C3A +C5A) bind to MAST cells -Cause them to release HISTAMINE -Causes blood vessel permeability.

Compliment system

-Defensive system ->30 proteins from liver - Circulating in blood plasma

Memory cells

-Do not secrete antibodies - Can quickly proliferate and differentiate -> if same antigen reappears in the future.

Intrinsic proteins

-Embedded within the membrane. -Found in inner layer, outer layer, or most commonly spanning the whole membrane in which they are known as transmembrane proteins. -hydrophobic regions are next to the fatty acid tails -hydrophilic regions face into the aqueous environment inside or outside the cell -some float, some fixed.

T Cells only recognize?

-FRAGMENTS of antigenic proteins -> processed/presented in a certain way.

Primary response

-First exposure to the antigens, takes days to weeks to mount a full attack.

Agglutination

-Formation of a clump of chained antibody-antigen complexes - Aiding phagocytes to ingest microbes more readily

Naturally acquired passive immunity

-IgG antibodies are transferred from mother to fetus across placenta -IgA antibodies transferred from mother to baby in breast milk.

Antigen presentation

-Insertion of MHC complex into plasma membrane.

Natural killer cells

-Kill cell with abnormal/ unusual plasma membrane proteins. - bind to targeted cells and release granules containing toxic substances.

Name some diseases caused by smoking.

-Lung Cancer -Bronchitis -Emphysema -Diseases of the heart and blood vessels

Secondary response

-Memory cells produce a much quicker attack

IgG

-Most abundant -80% of all antibodies in blood -Only class of antibody to cross placenta

IgA function

-Provides localized protection of mucous membranes against bacteria and viruses. * decreases during stress->lowers resistance to infection.

Self recognition and self tolerance

-T cells undergo positive and negative selection -Ensure that they can recognize self-MHC=self recognition antigens. -They do not react to other self-proteins (self-tolerance).

Antibody mediated immunity

-Triggered by antigens -B Cells transform into PLASMA CELLS - Synthesize into specific proteins-> Antibodies -EXTRACELLULAR PATHOGEN

Cell mediated immunity

-Triggered by antigens -Cytolytic T-Cells directly attack invading antigens -INTRACELLULAR PATHOGEN

Active transport

-achieved by carrier proteins -specific -requires ATP, because has to move up a concentration gradient -lower concentration to higher concentration

Incompatible blood transfusion can cause?

-activation of complement ->hemolysis(rupture) -this rupture releases hemoglobin into the blood plasma, and may cause KIDNEY DAMAGE by clogging filtration membranes.

Incompatible blood transfusions

-antigen-antibody complexes form between plasma antibodies & "foreign proteins" on donated RBC's (agglutination)

what are the two types of catalytic cycles?

-catabolism: breaking down (sucrose--> fructose and glucose) -anabolism: builds up or adds

G2 Phase

The gap after S phase and before cell division is called the G2 phase. During G2 the cell continues to grow and new DNA is checked and any errors are usually repaired. Preparations are also made to begin the process of division. For example, there is a sharp increase in production of the protein tubulin which is needed to make microtubules for the mitotic spindle.

G1 Phase

The gap after cell division and before S phase is called the G1 phase. During G1, cells make the RNA, enzymes and other proteins needed for growth. At the end of G1, the cell becomes committed to dividing or not dividing.

What are the components that work together to constitute the mechanism by which water moves through plants. (source ==> sink)

-cohension/adhesion -water potential gradient

plant adaptations that minimize water loss

-cuticle -multiple epidermal layers -abaxial placement of stomates -leaf adaptions -leaf orientation -recycling of respiratory CO2 -specialized types of photosynthesis

Osmosis

-diffusion involving water only -region of high water potential to a region of low water potential

Features of fluid mosaic model

-double bilayer of phospholipid molecules -moves about by diffusion -tails point inwards, forming a non polar hydrophobic interior. - heads face aqueous medium that surrounds membrane.

Endocytosis

-engulfing of the material by cell surface membrane to form a sac -two forms: •phagocytosis- cell eating, solid material •pinocytosis- cell drinking, bulk uptake of liquid

What is the mechanism by which water moves from below to above?

-evapotranspiration: loss at the leaves -cohesion-tension theory -adhesion and cohesion, which is going to occur through hydrogen bonding (sticking together or to xylem cells) -

Carrier proteins

-flip between 2 shapes -binding site is open to one side of the membrane -concentration gradient of higher to lower

Extrinsic proteins (peripheral protein)

-found in inner or outer surface of the membrane. -many bound to intrinsic proteins -bind to molecules/phospholipids

Transfusion reaction upon second exposure to the antigen results in?

-hemolysis of the RBCs in the donated blood

Tails

-hydrophobic -some saturated, some unsaturated -more unsaturated they are, the more fluid the membrane because they are bent, and therefore fit together more loosely. -length also affects fluidity, longer= less fluid -temperature affects fluidity, as it decreases=becomes less fluid

Second line of defence

-interferons - the compliment system -phagocytes and NK cells -inflammation -fever

The dominant osmoticum transitions throughout the light period.

-ions involved change throughout a particular interval. -more K in morning is impt. -in the PM sucrose is impt. (sugar serves as osmoticum) Keeping stomata relatively open.

Main things that are going to control guard cell activity- (4)

-light quality -water balance -CO2 -Temperature

Diffusion

-net movement of a substance from a higher concentration to a region of lower concentration -tend to reach equilibrium (spread out evenly in a given volume of space)

Phagocytes

-neutrophils, monocytes or macrophages -perform ingestion of microbes and cellular debris

Transport proteins

-particular for each ion or molecule -carrier and channel

Naturally acquired active immunity

-person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune. -a result of the primary immune response

Turgid cell

-plant cell when placed in pure water -fully inflated w water

Glycolipids and glycoproteins

-short branching carbohydrate chains outside the membrane. -form hydrogen bonds with water molecules to stabilize membrane structure -forms a sugary coating to cells called glycocalyx -acts as receptor molecules -cell markers, antigens. Allows cell to cell recognition.

Cholesterol

-small molecule -hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails -animal cells have just as much of this as phospholipids -absent from prokaryotes, seldom in animal cells -increases fluidity of membrane, prevents from becoming too rigid -mechanical stability

Facilitated diffusion

-to make diffusion easy or possible for larger molecules. -two proteins involved: channel proteins and carrier proteins, highly specific allowing only one type of molecule or ion to pass through.

Bulk transport

-transport of large quantities of materials into cells or out of cells (endo and exocytosis)

Proteins

-transport proteins, hydrophilic channels or passageways for ions and polar molecules to pass through membrane -enzymes -membranes of organelles -cytoskeleton

Channel proteins

-water filled pores -allow charged substances (ions) to diffuse through the membrane -"gated" opens and closes.

List the important forces in the cohesion/tension theory of water transport.

-water potential gradient from roots to xylem, xylem to leaves. -cohesion/adhesion: in conducting elements themselves so there is literally physical chain of water molecules attracting from one point to another. -root water pressure

Plasmolysis

-when the protoplasm shrinks, and cell membrane pulls from cell wall

Ester bond

...

In many cases, the final product of a Metabolic Pathway acts as a Non-competitive Inhibitor to one of the enzymes earlier along the chain. This means that the Metabolic Process controls itself, since the more product gets produced, the more it inhibits the pathway, and so the slower the process proceeds

...

Phosphate Group

...

water potential for pure water

0 (zero)

What temperature range will keep the stomates open, what will close them?

0-30 (open) 30-35 (start to close)

IgD

0.2% of all antibodies in blood

Each chromatid contains ___ DNA molecule.

1

Amplification of innate response can be broken down into 3 components

1) Activating the complement system 2) Enhancing Phagocytosis 3) Stimulating NK cells

Adaptive immunity involves two types of responses

1) Antibody mediated response 2)Cell mediated response

Activation and clonal selection of B Cells

1) Antigen is recognized + bound 2) Helper T-cell signals B Cell 3) B Cell differentiates and proliferate into clone 4) Antibodies produced and memory cells

Two types of nuclear division and explain both.

1) Growth: When a diploid zygote grows into a multicellular diploid adult the daughter cells must keep the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. The type of nuclear division that occurs here is called mitosis. 2) Sexual reproduction: If the life cycle contains sexual reproduction, there must be a point in the life cycle when the number of chromosomes is halved. This means that the gametes contain only one set of chromosomes rather than two sets. If there was no point in the life cycle when the number of chromosomes halved then it would double every generation. The type of nuclear division that halves the chromosome number is called meiosis. Gametes are always haploid as a result of meiosis. *Look at the images on page 80*

List and describe some carcinogens.

1) Ionizing radiation: xrays, gamma rays; damaging ions which break DNA strands; depletion of ozone layer = skin cancer 2) Chemicals: tar of tobacco smoke; dyes 3) Virus infection: papilloma virus; Viruses that cause cancer usually carry oncogenes, or regulatory genes that can become oncogenes. 4) Hereditary predisposition: susceptibility to the factors that cause the disease is inherited

Name the three main antibody reactions

1) Neutralization 2) Agglutination 3) Amplification of Innate response

Stages in the development of cancer

1) Oncogenes transformed by carcinogens. 2) Cancerous cell does not respond to signals from other cells so continues to divide. 3) Mitosis 4) Cancerous cells not removed by immune system. 5) Rapid mitosis. 6) Tumor gets bigger. Cells change their characteristics and look different under the microscope. 7) Tumor supplied with blood and lymph vessels. Tumor cells spread in blood and lymph to other parts of the body. 8) Metastasis. Tumor cells invade other tissues. Secondary cancers form throughout the body.

The compliment system destroys microbes by?

1) Phagocytosis 2) Cytolysis 3) Inflammation

Two properties that distinguish adaptive immunity from innate immunity are?

1) Specificity- particular foreign molecules 2) Memory- previously encountered antigens

Biological significance of mitoses (3)

1) The nuclei of the two daughter cells formed have the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus and are genetically identical. 2) Replacement of cells and repair of tissues is possible using mitosis followed by cell division. 3) Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction, the production of new individuals of a species by one parent organism. Cell division inevitably results in reproduction.

Main goals of the inflammatory response?

1)Isolate, destroy or inactivate invaders 2)Remove debris 3)Prepare for subsequent healing and tissue repair

Preventing Malaria

1. Reduce number of mosquitoes 2. Avoid being bitten by mosquitoes 3. Use drugs to prevent the parasite infecting people

What two molecules compose fats?

1. glycerol 2. fatty acids

4 different classifications of amino acids

1. nonpolar 2. polar 3. charged 4. essential amino acids

Describe what happens when you exhale.

1.the external intercostal muscles relax and the internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribcage downwards and inwards 2.the diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards 3.lung volume decreases and the air pressure inside increases 4.air is pushed out of the lungs

epithelial cells in the human intestine every __ hours

10

Where are stomates located?

10,000s on underside of leaf. -do not behave identically -you cant get anything to move from roots to upper part of plant with out moving some stomates up.

IgA

10-15% of all antibodies in blood

Friedrich Miescher

1869 Germany was studying chemistry of cells (white blood cells) during the depression war and he would go to the barracks and take used bandages, and in the nucleus of a white blood cell he discovered a weakly acidic substance in the nucleus of the WBC and called it nuclein (discovered DNA)

Frederick Griffith

1920's trying to find a cure for pneumonia, a bacteria called streptococcus pnuemoniae there is an r strain (rough),nonlethal and a s strain (smooth), lethal

Hershey and Chase

2 men that proved that DNA is the genetic material for all living things (Just Last Names)

On average, root tip cells of onions divide once every ___ hours

20

How many homologous pairs are there?

23

how many chromosomes come from each parent?

23

paternal chromosomes

23 chromosomes that come from the father

maternal chromosomes

23 chromosomes that come from the mother

During one cycle, the sodium potassium pump binds and moves?

3 Na+ and 2 K+

triose

3 carbon sugar

tertiary structure

3D shape of single polypeptide using hydrogen bonding, ioning bonding and disulphide bridges

Steroids have a carbon skeleton of how many rings?

4

Hemoglobin.

4 heme groups with Fe Fe bonds to O2 4 polypeptide chains

in human cells there are __ chromosomes

46

2aiii) In the mitotic cell cycle of a human cell: how may chromatids are present in the nucleus of each daughter cell after mitosis and cell division?

46 (the diploid number)

telopahse

4th and final phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes begin to disperse into a tangle of dense material

pentose

5 carbon sugar

Which of the following pairs of base sequences could form a short stretch of a normal double helix of DNA? A) 5'-ATGC-3' with 5'-GCAT-3' B) 5'-AGCT-3' with 5'-TCGA-3' C) 5'-purine-pyrimidine-purine-pyrimidine-3' with 3'-purine-pyrimidine-purine-pyrimidine-5' D) 5'-GCGC-3' with 5'-TATA-3' E) All of these pairs are correct.

5'-ATGC-3' with 5'-GCAT-3'

IgM

5-10% of all antibodies in blood - First antibody class to be secreted by plasma cells after initial exposure to any antigen.

Natural killer cells are found?

5-10% of lymphocytes in the blood -spleen, lymph nodes and red bone marrow.

what are the three parts of a nucleotide?

5-carbon sugar, nitrogen base, and phosphate group

Glucose

6 carbon monosaccharide sugar: two forms, alpha and beta

hexose

6 carbon sugar

What is the equation for photo synthesis?

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

What are found in both mitochondria and typical prokaryotic cells?

70S ribosomes and circular DNA.

Give 3 ways Carbon Dioxide is carried back to the lungs.

85% - hydrogencarbonate ions (in plasma) 10% - carbaminohemoglobin (CO2 + Hb) 5% - CO2 in solutions

How many essential amino acids exist?

9

2iv) In the mitotic cell cycle of a human cell: how many chromatids are present in the nucleus of a cell after replication of DNA?

92

2ai) In the mitotic cell cycle of a human cell: how many chromatids are present as the cell enters mitosis?

92 (at this stage the cell is, technically, 4n)

2aii) In the mitotic cell cycle of a human cell: how many DNA molecules are present?

92 (each chromatid contains one)

______ % hemoglobin saturation of Oxygen in lungs.

98

Several different organisms produce lactase enzymes to hydrolyse lactose. The different enzymes have different molecular sizes. Which description of these different lactases is correct? A Their active sites have the same shape. B Their primary structure is the same. C They each contain the same number of amino acids. D They have exactly the same three-dimensional structure.

A Their active sites have the same shape

Tuberculosis

A bacterial disease that damages the lungs, but can attack other parts of the body as well.

Pathogen of Cholera

A bacterium called Vibrio Cholerae.

Venule

A branch of vein

tumor

A cancerous ____ containing cells that have significant genetic and cellular changes and are capable of invading and surviving in new sites. Malignant ____ can impair the functions of one or more organs.

Cellulose

A carbohydrate polymer of beta glucose that forms plant cell walls

haploid cell

A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (n).

haploid cell

A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (n). Like the gamete cells (sperm and eggs)

diploid cell

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent.

diploid cell

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent. Like most cells in an adult

Zygote

A cell in diploid state following fertilization or union of haploid male sex cell (e.g. sperm) and haploid female sex cell (e.g. ovum).

Peroxisome

A cell organelle containing enzymes that catalyze the production and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide

eukaryote

A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

tumor

A cell that has significant genetic and cellular changes. It loses control of its cell cycle and replicates repeatedly. Some become cancerous and are capable of invading and surviving in new sites.

Phagocyte

A cell that ingests bacteria and cell fragments, e.g. certain leucocytes (white blood cells)

Chromosomes

A cellular structure carrying genetic material, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Each _____ consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins

Chromosomes

A cellular structure carrying genetic material, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins

Ventricle

A chamber, either of the heart or of the center of the brain

Mutation

A change in a gene or chromosome.

Mutation

A change in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule

Ion

A charged particle formed by transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another

Catalyst

A chemical which speeds up the rate of a reaction

Glycolipids

A cholesterol attached to a lipid. A type of receptor.

Glycoproteins

A cholesterol attached to a protein. A type of receptor.

DNA

A complex molecule containing GENETIC INFORMATION that makes up the chromosomes. (It is a double helix shape)

Haemoglobin

A conjugated protein, found in red blood cells, effective at carrying oxygen from regions of high partial pressure of oxygen (e.g the lungs) to regions of low partial pressure of oxygen (e.g. respiring tissues)

Checkpoint

A control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle.

glycosidic link

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides

Cell cycle

A cyclically operating set of molecules in the eukaryotic cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.

Infectious diseases

A disease caused by an organism, known as a pathogen, such as a bacterium or virus.

Cancer

A disease in which the body cells grow & divide uncontrollably, damaging the parts of the body around them.

Cancer

A disease, often but not always treatable, that results from a breakdown in the usual control mechanisms that regulate cell division; certain cells divide uncontrollably and form tumors, from which cells may break away and form secondary tumors in other areas of the body (metastasis).

Chromosome

A double rod of condensed chromatin; contains DNA that carries genetic information .

dissaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.

Antibiotics

A drug that kills or stops growth of bacteria without harming cells in the organism.

Unsaturated fat

A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail.

monounsaturated

A fatty acid whose molecular structure includes only one double carbon bond.

polyunsaturated

A fatty acid whose molecular structure includes two or more double carbon bonds.

Phagocytosis

A form of endocytosis with the bulk uptake of solid materials

carboxyl group

A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group -COOH

Oxygen dissociation curve

A graph showing the saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen against the concentration of available oxygen

Semilunar valve

A half-moon shaped valve, preventing back flow in a tube (e.g. a vein)

Gametes

A haploid reproductive cell, such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.

Gametes

A haploid reproductive cell, such as an egg or sperm. They unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.

Lock-and-key model of enzyme action

A key fits a specific lock like an enzyme fits specific substrates. Enzymes catalyze the reaction of specific substrates.

fatty acid

A long carbon skeleton, with usually 16-18 carbons, at the end has a carboxyl group attached to a hydrocarbon

what is required if plant is going to move water?

A loss of water. -there is a trade off between maximizing photosynthetic activity and maintaining water loss. -specialized types of photosynthesis have evolved to adapt to water loss.

Tumor

A mass of abnormal cells that develops when cancerous cells divide & grow uncontrollably.

Atrioventricular node

A mass of tissue in the wall of the right atrium, functionally part of the pacemaker mechanism

Gametes

A mature haploid male or female germ cell that is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.

Extrinsic Protein

A membrane protein that partially spans the membrane; it is attached either to the outer or the inner phospholipid layer

Cell Plate

A membrane-bounded, flattened sac located at the midline of a dividing plant cell, inside which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.

phospholipid

A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.

Catalyst

A molecule that speeds up a chemical reaction but is not changed by the reaction.

Lymphatic system

A network of fine lymph capillaries throughout the body of a vertebrae, draining lymph and returning it to the blood circulation

Noncompetitive inhibitor

A non-substrate inhibitor binds to an allosteric site of an enzyme, causing a conformational change in the enzyme and altering the active site shape, which indirectly inhibits the substrate from accessing the active site

Competitive inhibitor

A non-substrate inhibitor that is a similar shape of the substrate becomes associated with the active site of the enzyme, directly blocking the substrate from accessing the active site.

G0 Phase

A nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly.

Explain how a person could have cystic fibrosis, not have it, or be a carrier.

A person has cystic fibrosis if both of the chromosomes have the cystic fibrosis allele. A person is a carrier if only one of the chromosomes has the cystic fibrosis allele. A person is normal if both the chromosomes have the normal allele.

karyotype

A picture of all the chromosomes in a cell arranged in pairs

Glycogen

A polysaccharide found in animal cells, formed from bonding of many glucose molecules, found in liver cells, used as a glucose/energystorage

Mitosis

A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. It conserves chromosome number by allocating replicated chromosomes equally to each of the daughter nuclei.

Mitosis

A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis conserves chromosome number by separating the duplicated chromosomes equally into each of the daughter nuclei.

The Human Genome Project

A project when many people are trying to identify the DNA sequence of every gene in the genome

Conjugated protein

A protein combined with a non-protein part

Collagen

A protein fiber with a unique triple-helix that gives it great strength. Tissues with a lot of this are typically very strong, e.g. bone, tendons and ligaments

Chromatin

A protein material that combines with DNA to form chromosomes.

Enzyme

A protein molecule that functions as an organic catalyst.

channel proteins

A protein pore that spans a membrane, through which very small ions and water soluble molecules may pass.

Kinetochore

A protein structure found at the centromere of a chromatid to which microtubules attach during cell division.

Enzyme

A protein which can either build up (catabolize) or break down (metabolize) a substrate, while the enzyme itself remains unchanged

aster

A radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome toward the plasma membrane in an animal cell undergoing mitosis.

condensation reaction

A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a water

Erythrocyte

A red blood cell; it is involved in the transport of oxygen

Diaphragm

A shallow dome-shaped, muscular partition separating the thorax from the abdomen. Used in ventilation. It contracts and moves down during inhalation. Relaxes and moves up during exhalation.

monosaccharide

A simple sugar that is the basic subunit of a carbohydrate: one sugar

What is fungus?

A single celled organism

Endothelium

A single layer of cells lining blood vessels and other fluid-filled cavities

Monosaccharide

A single sugar molecule such as glucose or fructose

Stem Cell

A stem cell is a cell that can divide an unlimited number of times (by mitosis). When it divided, each new cell has the potential to remain a stem cell or to develop (differentiate) into a specialized cell such as blood cell or muscle cell.

Pluripotent

A stem cell that has the potential to differentiate into any of the three germ layers: endoderm (interior stomach lining, gastrointestinal tract, the lungs), mesoderm (muscle, bone, blood, urogenital), or ectoderm (epidermal tissues and nervous system).

Large organic molecules are usually assembled by polymerization of a few kinds of simple subunits. Which of the following is an exception to this statement? A) cellulose B) DNA C) a contractile protein D) an enzyme E) a steroid

A steroid

cholesterol

A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes

Chromosome

A structure made of DNA and histones, found in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell; the term bacterial chromosome is now commonly used for the circular strand of DNA present in a prokaryotic cell.

kinetochore

A structure of proteins attached at the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the spindle fibres (microtubules).

kinetochore

A structure of proteins attached to the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.

Centrosome

A structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells that functions as a microtubule-organizing center and is important during cell division. A centrosome has two centrioles.

Centrosome

A structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells that functions as a microtubule-organizing center and is important during cell division. It has two centrioles.

Coenzyme

A substance (usually vitamins or minerals) which are needed to for an enzyme to function

Carcinogen

A substance that can cause cancer.

Hormone

A substance, formed by an endocrine gland and transported by the blood all over the body, but triggering a specific physiological response only in one type of organ tissue

Double circulation

A system in which the blood passes through the heart twice (pulmonary circulation then systemic circulation) in one complete circuit of the body

Golgi Apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell

glycerol

A three-carbon alcohol to which fatty acids are covalently bonded to make fats and oils. A small molecule that forms the head region of a triglyceride fat molecule

Organelle

A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell

Lymph node

A tiny gland in the lymphatic system, part of the body's defence against disease

Enzyme

A type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living thing

sexual reproduction

A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the two parents.

asexual reproduction

A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical offspring by budding or by the division of a single cell or the entire organism into two or more parts.

Lymphocyte

A type of white blood cell

prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Portal vein

A vein beginning and ending in the capillary network (rather than at the heart)

Arteriole

A very small artery

Artery

A vessel that carries blood away from the heart under high pressure

Vein

A vessel that returns blood to the heart

Transmission of HIV/AIDS

A virus spread by intimate human contact (direct exchange of bodily fluids). HIV is spread most easily through sexual intercourse, blood donation, sharing of needles (typically occurs by drug users), through the placenta during birth, and the mixing of blood during birth.

Measles

A virus that enters the body and multiplies inside the cells in the upper respiratory tract. Rash and fever follow after 8-14 days with no symptoms before then

Leucocyte

A white blood cell, it is involved in the defence against disease

Cytosol (Cytoplasm)

ALL CELLS HAVE THIS! It's the fluid inside of every living cell where organelles float.

Uptake by epidermal cells and xylem cells is---- "loading"

ATP dependent

Proteins along the plasma membrane are doing what?

ATP dependent, actively transporting ions into the cytoplasm. Water is following along the gradient.

The following statement is not true about the sodium potassium pump

ATP is broken down into ADP and potassium to supply energy

Adaptive (specific ) immunity

Ability of body to defend itself against SPECIFIC invading agents-> bacteria, toxins, viruses.

What is the function of lymphatics?

Absorb liquids from digested food; transports lymph back to large veins under collar bone

AIDS

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

Microfilaments (actin filaments)

Actin; involved in cell motility, found in muscle cells and amoeba; in plants, they promote cytoplasmic streaming

IgM function

Activates complement Causes agglutination and lysis of microbes Bind A and B antigens during incompatible blood transfusions.

The sodium potassium exchange pump is an example of?

Active transport

Pleural fluid

Acts as lubrication to ensure the surfaces of the lungs don't stick to the inside of the chest wall when we breathe.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate - a molecule used to store energy temporarily in organisms. The molecule is broken down to adenosine diphosphate + phosphate to release energy to drive metabolic processes.

Changes in pH

Affect attraction between substrate and enzyme and therefore efficiency of conversion process Ionic bonds can break and change shape / enzyme is denatured Charges on amino acids can change, ES complex cannot form Optimum pH pH 7 for intracellular enzymes Acidic range (pH 1-6) in the stomach for digestive enzymes (pepsin) Alkaline range (pH 8-14) in oral cavities (amylase) pH measures the conc. of H+ ions - higher conc. will give a lower pH

Blood plasma contains antibodies called?

Agglutinins

Inhalation

Air is drawn into the lungs when external intercostals contract pulling the ribs up and out. The diaphragm muscles contract causing the diaphragm to flatten. This increases chest volume and lowers pressure inside the thorax so air is drawn into the lungs, moving from higher to lower pressure.

Exhalation

Air is forced out of the lungs when internal intercostals contract pulling the ribs down and in. The diaphragm muscles relax and the diaphragm returns to a dome shape. This reduces chest volume and raises pressure inside the thorax so air is forced out of the lungs.

Saturated fat

All carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds

Cell surface membrane

All cells have this surrounding them. Controls exchange of materials such as nutrients and waste products between the cell and its environment. Enable cells to receive horomone messages. made of phospholipid bilayer. Also have proteins in them.

Cell theory

All organisms are made of one or more cells. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things. Cells come from other cells.

Give 2 purposes of elastic fibers in artery walls.

Allows them to 'give' or stretch to reduce the chance of bursting. Walls stretch at high blood pressure and surges in, and the recoils inwards as pressure drops.

Misfolding of polypeptides is a serious problem in cells. Which of the following diseases are associated with an accumulation of misfolded polypeptides? A) diabetes mellitus only B) Alzheimer's and Parkinson's only C) Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and diabetes mellitus D) Parkinson's only E) Alzheimer's only

Alzheimer's and Parkinson's only

Protein monomer

Amino acid

What is the monomer of a protein?

Amino acid

R group

Amino acid side chain- different for each amino acid

Fibrous protein from dead cells is difficult to remove from contact lenses. Some cleaning solutions contain an enzyme to digest this protein to soluble products. What describes the enzyme and its activity? A An active site on a fibrous protein binds to the enzyme and is hydrolysed. B An active site on a soluble product binds to the enzyme and is digested. C An active site on a globular protein binds to a soluble product and digests it. D An active site on a globular protein binds to a fibrous protein and hydrolyses it.

An active site on a globular protein binds to a fibrous protein and hydrolyses it.

Micelles

An aggregate of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid colloid. In digestion these contain lipid droplets.

Antigen

An antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against it.

Coronary artery

An artery supplying the tissues of the heart

Activation Energy

An enzyme speeds up a chemical reaction by lowering the _______.

Urea

An excretory product, NH2CONH2, formed from amino "deaminated" from excess amino acid

Why is an eyepiece graticule calibrated?

An eyepiece graticule can be used to make measurements.

Disease

An illness or disorder of the body or mind that leads to poor health; each disease is associated with a set of signs and symptoms.

Metaphase plate

An imaginary structure located at a plane midway between the two poles of a cell in metaphase on which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located.

Cell Cycle

An ordered sequence of events in the life of a cell (G1, S, G2, M, C)

Cell Cycle

An ordered sequence of events in the life of a cell; consists of interphase (G1, S, G2) and M phase (mitosis or meiosis) in cells.

Mitochondrion

An organelle in eukaryotic cells, site of many steps of aerobic respiration

amino acid

An organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group; serve as monomers of polypeptides

Pathogen

An organism that causes infectious diseases

Mutation

An unpredictable chance in the structure of DNA, or in the structure and number of chromosomes.

Give two examples of when anaerobic respiration is used practically.

Anaerobic respiration in yeast is used during brewing and bread-making:

Desmosomes

Anchoring junctions in animals; provides mechanical stability of tissues

White blood cell

Another word for leucocyte

peptide bond

The chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid

1) Why are chromosomes arranged in a particular order in a karyotype?

The chromosomes are arranged in order of size in the karyotype.

Systemic circulation

The circulation around the body in vertebrates having a double circulation

phospholipid bilayer

double layer of phospholipids where the hydrophobic tails are sandwiched between two rows of hydrophilic heads

Root cells have a high content of ions (75-100X more), this does what? -drives what? uses what energy? where are ions loaded?

drives uptake of water. Which is ATP dependent! Ions are loaded into root hairs, and also loaded into xylem.

The stomata open

during the day (when photosynthesis takes place)

Metaphase

each centriole reaches a pole; the help to organize production of the spindle microtubules spindle (made from protein microtubules) chromosomes line up across the equator of the spindle; they are attached by their centromeres to the spindle each chromosome splits at the centromere the chromatids are pulled apart

Anaphase

each centromere divides, and the two identical daughter chromosomes separate

Semi-conservative replication

each of the new DNA mol ecules has kept (or conserved) one of the two (or semi) original DNA strands.

Molecules with which functional groups may form polymers via dehydration reactions? A) hydroxyl groups B) either hydroxyl or carboxyl groups C) carbonyl groups D) either carbonyl or carboxyl groups E) carboxyl groups

either hydroxyl or carboxyl groups

types of active transport

endocytosis, exocytosis, pumps

glucose function

energy

maltose function

energy source in germinating seeds

what is activation energy?

energy thats required to start a chemical reaction

DNA polymerase

enzyme that makes a polymer called DNA adter the first DNA splits nitrogen bases will pair up with each other making 2 identical pairs of DNA

DNA helicase

enzyme that" unzips "DNA , breaks the hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen bases

what are enzymes and why are the important?

enzymes are chemical catalysts, they're important because they control the rate of reactions within our bodies and cells by causing reactions to occur

isotonic

equal concentrations of water and solute; water will travel in and out of a cell in an isotonic solution at an equal rate, maintaining cell shape and homeostasis

Bonds between lipids are called..

ester linkages

Transpiration is

evaporation of water from the leaves

fluid mosaic model

explains the membrane as fluid and flexible with proteins and carbohydrates embedded or associated with the bilayer

Which of these molecules is not formed by dehydration reactions? A) DNA B) protein C) amylase D) disaccharides E) fatty acids

fatty acids

differences between fibrous and globular

fibrous: regular sequence of amino acids, elongated strands of polypeptide chains, varied length, stable structure, insoluble, structural roles. globular: irregular sequence, spherical shape, identical length, unstable structure, soluble, functional( also structural) roles.

prophase

first phase of mitosis in which chromosomes become visible and nuclear membraine disappears

what happens when ions leave?

flaccid cells, stoma close.

Transmission of Cholera

food-borne and water-borne where people do not have access to proper sanitation. Many carriers pass out cholera in their feces which contaminated the water supply or if an infected person handles food without washing their hands.

cytokinesis in plants

formation of a new cell wall

what are Ionic bonds/where do they occur in proteins

formed between r groups containing amine and carboxyl groups

what are disulfidebonds/where do they occur in proteins

forms between two cysteine molecules, which contain sulfur atoms

Central vacuole:

found in plant cells and stores water, starch and pigments

ribose function

found in rna and atp

how many bonds can carbon make?

four

carbon atoms have ___ valence elections that join w/ an electron from another atom to form _____

four, covalent bond

symplastic movement occurs

from protoplast to protoplast, via plasmodesmata.

One of the primary functions of RNA molecules is to: A) transmit genetic information to offspring B) Form the genes of higher organisms C) Act as a pattern or blueprint to form DNA D) Function in the synthesis of protiens E) make a copy of itself, thus ensureing genetic continuity

function in the synthesis of proteins

The cells in your body are all identical apart from the _______; they are all derived from the _______, which was the cell formed when _________.

gamete, zygote, two gametes from your parents fused.

How does recycling respiratory CO2 assist water challenged plants?

gets CO2 from the environment, then use CO2 generated by internal processes as input to photosynthesis. ??????

recognition proteins

give each cell type a unique identification; distinguishes between self and foreign cells, as well as normal and infected/cancer cells

cellulose function

gives the strength to the cell wall

Which of the following is not a polymer? A) chitin B) cellulose C) starch D) glucose E) DNA

glucose

State the word equation for aerobic respiration. What type of reaction is it?

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy). A combustion reaction.

alpha glucose

glucose where on C1 H on top, OH on bottom

beta glucose

glucose where on C1 OH on top, H on bottom

State the word equation for anaerobic respiration in muscle cells. (2 equations)

glucose → energy (a bit) + lactic acid (toxic) lactic acid + oxygen → water + carbon dioxide

State the word equation for anaerobic respiration. What type of reaction is it?

glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ energy). An incomplete combustion of glucose- less energy released

examples of simple sugar

glucose, fructose, lactose, sucrose

Lipids

glycerol-fatty acids - ester bond

whats the name of the animal storage polysaccharide?

glycogen

in the cell membrane...the function of carbohydrates

glycolipids and glycoproteins are crucial in cell-cell recognition, aiding in proper immune function and stem cell differentiation

RBC surfaces contain a genetically determined assortment of antigens composed of _________ & __________.

glycoproteins and glycolipids

Bond between two monosaccharides is

glycosidic linkage

What causes neonatal tetanus? how can this be prevented?

growth of neurotoxin producing organisms introduced during non-sterile deliveries Preventable w/ maternal immunization and hygienic umbilical cord care post-deliverty

What is GRR?

growth, reproduction, and repair

Which of the following are nitrogenous bases of the purine type? A) adenine and thymine B) cytosine and guanine C) uracil and cytosine D) guanine and adenine E) thymine and uracil

guanine and adenine

Light quality is a key factor that drives ___________.

guard cell activity (Blue light particularly)

Pressure in root cells gets relatively high, esp. in root hair cells, this can lead to----

guttation: exudation of water droplets due to positive water pressure in the roots.

How cellulose microfibers are oriented-

have particular orientation, close together on ventral wall, further apart on dorsal wall. -notice that guard cells are connected at their ends. -as guard cells swell they bow in the center (leaving and opening) -increases in turgor result in stomata opening.

hypertonic

having less water and more solute; water will travel out of a cell in a hypertonic solution, causing the cell to shrink (plasmolysis)

hypotonic

having more water and less solute; water will travel into a cell in a hypotonic solution, causing the cell to swell and possibly burst

transmission of poliovirus

highly contagious and usually transmitted via fecal-oral route or contact with contaminated sewage or water

the chemical messengers in lipids like cholesterol, estrogen, and testosterone are known as what?

hormones

The factors affecting transpiration are

humidity, light intensity, temperature and air movement

A nonpolar amino acid has a..

hydrocarbon side chain

what element are lipids saturated with?

hydrogen

what types of bonds hold Quaternary structures together?

hydrogen bods, disulfide bonds,ionic bonds, and hydrogen interactions

The amino acids of the protein keratin are arranged predominantly in an "a" helix. This secondary structure is stabilized by: A) ionic bonds. B) hydrogen bonds. C) peptide bonds. D) covalent bonds. E) polar bonds.

hydrogen bonds

Which type of interaction stabilizes the a helix and the "B" pleated sheet structures of proteins? A) peptide bonds B) ionic bonds C) disulfide bonds D) hydrogen bonds E) hydrophobic interactions

hydrogen bonds

What maintains the secondary structure of a protein? A) hydrogen bonds between the amino group of one peptide bond and the carboxyl group of another peptide bond B) disulfide bonds C) hydrophobic interactions D) peptide bonds E) hydrogen bonds between the R groups

hydrogen bonds between the amino group of one peptide bond and the carboxyl group of another peptide bond

what are the four types of bods that keep folded proteins in their shape

hydrogen, disulfide, ionic, hydrophobic interactions

Carbohydrates are hydrophil or hydrophob b/c of ________?

hydrophilic, because of hydroxyl and carbonyl groups

turgor pressure

hydrostatic pressure that develops when water enters the cells of plants and microorganisms

A polar amino acid has a..

hydroxyl group

explain why protein structure is critical to function (name 3 reasons)

if a protein doesn't fold into the proper structure, it cannot carry out the intended function; many are activated and deactivated by changing of shape; side chains on the outside of a-helix make protein available to form other types of structures; bonds linking amino acids are strong covalent bonds but bonds holding structure are weak H-bonds that are easily broken by chemicals or heat; the amino acid sequence is crucial in determining a proteins final structure; The formation of one structure determines the formation structure of the next region in tertiary and quarternary structures

why are enzymes specific?

if they're not specific, it could be dangerous for the cell; random things could be broken down

Base pairing rules

in DNA, cytosine on one strand pairs with guanine on the opposite strand, and adenine pairs with thymine (complimentary to each other)

In a normal cellular protein, where would you expect to find a hydrophobic amino acid like valine? A) in the interior of the folded protein, away from water B) on the exterior surface of the protein, interacting with water C) in the interior of the folded protein, away from water, or in a transmembrane portion interacting with lipid fatty acid chains D) anywhere in the protein, with equal probability E) in the transmembrane portion interacting with lipid fatty acid chains

in the interior of the folded protein, away from water, or in a transmembrane portion interacting with lipid fatty acid chains

Transformation

incorporation of a piece of foreign DNA into the genome of a bacterial cell

how does temperature effect rate of evaotranspiration

increase temp, increase rate

A wind increase causes an ______ in the rate of evapotranspiration.

increase.

secondary

interaction in the backbone; stabilized by H-bonding that occurs btw elements of the backbone

tertiary

interactions take place between side chains (not on backbone); H-bonding between side chains

alpha helix

interactions with other proximal amino acids to form a stabilized helix structure , A spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific hydrogen-bonding structure.

List the steps of mitosis in order

interphase early prophase late prophase metaphase anaphase late anaphase telophase late telophase

3 phases of the cell cycle

interphase, nuclear division, cell division

if you have a cell with high ion concentration (hypotonic), water will move?

into the cell! Water will keep moving until pressure gets so high that it stops.

Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum:

involved in lipid synthesis and lacks ribosomes

Rough Endoplasmic reticulum

involved in protein synthesis and has ribosomes attached to its membrane

facilitated diffusion

involves protein channels; high >>> low concentration

Endocytosis

involves the engulfing of material by the cell surface membrane to form a small sac

What is ion concentration like, inside root hair cells?

ion concentration is high inside root hair cells, this creates and osmotic gradient that water follows by osmosis. Ensures we get movement from soil into root hairs and other cells of the roots is by artificially pumping up the osmotic concentration inside. .

tumor

irregular mass of cells

haemoglobin

is nearly spherical. is a water soluble globular protein which is composed of two alpha polypeptide chains two beta polypeptide chain and an inorganic prosthetic heam group. carry's oxygen around the blood, and it facilitates in doing so by the presence of the heam group which contains iron ion onto oxygen molecules can bind each chain each itself

substrate concentration

is proportional to rate of reaction until there are more substrates than enzymes present. Curve becomes constant.

enzyme concentration

is proportional to rate of reaction, provided other conditions are constant. Straight line

The palisade mesophyll

is where photosynthesis takes place

condensation reaction

joining of two molecules with the removal of water

All of the following are polysaccharides except A) cellulose. B) lactose. C) glycogen. D) chitin. E) amylopectin.

lactose

what is polymerization?

large compounds are built by joining smaller ones together

Root hair cells are adapted by having a

large surface area

what has difficulty crossing the cell membrane?

large, polar molecules and all ions

Key light-blue *** drives guard cell activity

late in day and early in morning. (noon is greater red) -plants sense this and respond based on quality of light -photoreceptor in guard cells sensitive to blue light -opening in morning closing in evening

guttation (evolutionary process)

leaf with little droplets and little pores. these are hydrothuds that have evolved to release pressure. -morning only, does not have pressure during the day because so much water is being lost.

secondary structure

level of protein structure consisting of beta pleated sheets and alpha helices

transcellular

like symplastic, but does not cross plasmodesmata! -goes across cell plasma membrane and cell wall. (not much through this pathway)

triglyceride

lipid made of one glycerol with three attached fatty acids

peripheral proteins

loosely bound to the membrane's surface; held in place by the cytoskeleton or drift slowly in the membrane

water moves towards (high/low) water potential

low

characteristics of fibrous proteins

low water solubility (very hydrophobic) Physically tough repetitive secondary structure long (elongated) cylindrical shape structural role have a lot of alpha helix and beta-pleated sheet (like keratin)

as you go from source to sink, you get---

lower osmotic gradients.

What leaves the nucleus through pores in the nuclear envelope?

mRNA and ribosomes.

Cytoskeleton:

maintains cell shape

Quaternary structures

many proteins molecules are made up of two or more polypeptide chains. Hemoglobin, for example, has four polypeptide chains in each molecule

homologous pairs

matching pairs of chromosomes

cytopalsm

material inside the cell membrane-not including the nucleus

where are proteins found

may be found in cells and in other aqueous environments such as blood, tissue fluid and in phloem of plants

Mucous membranes

membrane lining all body passages and having cells and associated glands that secrete mucus containing glycoproteins and lysozyme. Also called mucosa.

Golgi apparatus:

modifies and sorts proteins and packages them into vesicles

ligand

molecule that binds to a receptor protein

as temp increases, what happens to the rate of enzyme action/ why?

molecules are moving slowly and increases as the temp rises, when the temp is too high, enzymes lose effectiveness (denaturation), the active site no longer fits the substrate

what are organic molecules?

molecules containing carbon, except carbon dioxide (CO2)

amphipathic

molecules with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties

ribose

monosaccaride

Carbohydrate monomer

monosaccharide

Monomer of carbohydrate

monosaccharide

glucose

monosaccharide

Plants with a larger leaf lose more/less water.

more

Active Transport

movement of ions against the concentration gradient acheived by carrier proteins.

transport

movement of substances into or out of a cell

Centrioles:

moves genetic material during cell division

water potential inside a cell is always (positive/negative)

negative

Diffusion is

net movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration

Osmosis is

net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from high concentration to low concentration

Mitosis

nuclear division that produces two genetically identical daughter nuclei, each containing the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.

Telophase

nucleolus re-forming remains of spindle which is breaking down nuclear envelope reforming chromatids have reached the poles of the spindle; they will now uncoil again to form chromatin (each chromatid contains one DNA molecule which will replicate itself during interphase before the next division) cytokinesis-this is division of the cytoplasm and cell into two by constriction from the edges of the cell centriole- will replicate during interphase before the next nuclear division

2c) What chemical subunits are used to synthesize new DNA molecules during replication of DNA?

nucleotides

Monomers of nucleic acids are..

nucleotides

______ always divides before a cell divides. Each daughter cell therefore contains _____.

nucleus, its own nucleus

A potometer can be used to

observe the rate of transpiration

what are weak hydrogen interactions /where do they occur in proteins

occur between r groups which are non-polar or hydrophobic

simple diffusion

occurs because of random, constant molecular motion; no protein channels involved; high >>> low concentration

apoplastic movement

occurs via cell walls

How is tetanus transmitted

oil and animal feces Most cases follow acute injury: puncture wound, lacteration, abrasion Can also be acquired with burns, frostbite, body piercing, childbirth, abortions, drug abuse, and chronic skin lesions

Closed during night,

open in the morning -closed in night because there is no sunlight. -10,000s of stomates on underside. DO not all behave the same. -some variation in degree of openness of closeness -sometimes they are open at night

Blue light is key to what function?

opening and closing of stomates.

Chloroplast

organelle found in plant cells; THIS IS WHERE -PHOTOSYNTHESIS- TAKES PLACE

compounds containing carbon found in living things are called what?

organic

stomates are closed----

osmolarity is decreasing, ions are leaving. Flaccid guard cells with closed stomates.

hydrostatic pressure

osmotic pressure

receptor-mediated endocytosis

particles must bind to membrane receptors before they are engulfed by the cell

Inflammation is triggered by?

pathogens, chemical irritations, extreme temperatures, etc.

symplastic loading

pathway followed by sucrose from the mesophyll cells to the sieve tube companion cell complexes of the minor veins. (cell to cell via plasmodesmata)

whats the name of the bond that forms between two amino acids during polymerization?

peptide

What are the bonds of amino acids?

peptide bonds

Which bonds are created during the formation of the primary structure of a protein? A) peptide bonds B) peptide bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bonds C) disulfide bonds D) phosphodiester bonds E) hydrogen bonds

peptide bonds

quarternary

peptides encoded in different genes come together to make a larger protein

cell cycle

period between one cell division and the next

Flow of water from xylem to phloem

phloem cell has a higher osmolarity than the xylem cell it came out of. Then the water moves down a gradient down the phloem cells. Sugar is brought along with the water. The water circulates back to xylem cells. You expect turgor pressure inside to be highest wherever osmolarity is the highest. (lowest at sink)

How do we get from mesophyll cell to phloem cell

phloem loading.

Bonds between nucleic acids are..

phosphodiester bonds

what molecule is responsible for cell membranes?

phospholipid

types of endocytosis

pinocytosis and phagocytosis

What is the polymer of amino acids?

polypeptide

protein polymer

polypeptide

starch

polysaccaride -alpha glucose

carbohydrate polymer

polysaccharide

cellulose

polysaccharide of beta glucose

glycogen

polysacharide- alpha glucose

antifreeze

prevents sap from freezing.

Cavitation

process by which an embolism is formed. Usually caused by freeze thaw.

four stages of mitosis

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

The upper epidermis

protects the leaf

most enzymes are ______

proteins

Clotting factors

proteins in the plasma that serve to activate various parts of the blood clotting process by being transformed from inactive to active forms. Also known as coagulation factors.

what are fibrous proteins and what are their properties

proteins molecules that do not curl up into a ball, but form long strands example keratin and collagin

transmembrane proteins

proteins that span the entire membrane

why do proteins make globular structures

protien chains arrange themselves to maximize the intr and intermolecular bonding

in the cell membrane...the function of phospholipids

provide a hydrophobic barrier that separates the cell from its liquid environment

receptor proteins

provide binding sites for hormones or other trigger molecules

Mitochondria:

provide energy for the cell, using oxygen

channel proteins

provide open passageways for hydrophilic material (polar/charged molecules)

Ribosomes exist as separate subunits that bind together during protein synthesis. What do these subunits consist of?

rRNA and protein.

Ribosomes

rRNA is a major component in what?

Four characteristics/signs of inflammation

redness, pain, heat, swelling.

What type of asexual reproductions is the same as mitosis?

regeneration

loop

region within poorly defined structure, commonly found between regions of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets

globin

related to myglobin and has a similar structure

tonicity

relative term that compares two solutions; includes the following: hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic

The bonding of two amino acid molecules to form a larger molecule requires which of the following? A) removal of a water molecule B) both removal of a water molecule and formation of a hydrogen bond C) formation of a hydrogen bond D) addition of a water molecule E) formation of a glycosidic bond

removal of a water molecule

Nucleotide

repeating subunits

Early prophase

replicated chromosome appear as threadlike structures; each consisting of 2 cromatids attached to each other at the centromere

active transport

requires energy, or ATP, because molecules move from low >>> high concentration

passive transport

requires no energy, or ATP, because molecules move from high >>> low concentration

Excytosis

reverse of endocytosis where materials are removed from the cell

a type of lipid where fatty acid chain has no double bonds and all of the carbon bindings sites are either single bonded to carbon or bonded to hydrogen is ______

saturated

Which level of protein structure do the "a" helix and the "B" pleated sheet represent? A) secondary B) primary C) tertiary D) primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary E) quaternary

secondary

What aspects of protein structure are stabilized or assisted by hydrogen bonds? A) secondary structure B) quaternary structure C) primary structure D) secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures, but not primary structure E) tertiary structure

secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures, but not primary structure

Root hairs

single cell extensions of epidermis. -aid in absorption of water and dissolved minerals - high surface area to volume!

prions

single structures with the same backbone but with different tertiary and/or quarternary structure; modified change to one may cause changes in others which can be lethal; changed shape is stabilized

Chloroplasts:

sites of photosynthesis in plant cells

what crosses the membrane easily?

small, uncharged, polar molecules and hydrophobic molecules

water potential results from...

solute concentration and pressure

selectively permeable

some substances cross more easily than others

High osmolatity in the ________. Low osmolarity in the ______.

source/sink

There are lots of air gaps in the

spongy mesophyll layer to allow gas exchange

in the cell membrane...the function of cholesterol

stabilize the membrane; at higher temperature, it helps maintain firmness while at lower temperatures it helps keep the membrane flexible

starch function

starage of carbohydrate in plants

whats the name of the plant storage polysaccharide?

starch

Cohesion

sticking to one another

adhesion

sticking to walls of conducting elements. -holding water at a particular level in that element. -water molecules are attracted to the walls of xylem cells. -surface is capable of holding water with a force great enough to support a column of water sever km high against gravity

The holes in the lower epidermis are called

stomata

glycogen function

storage of carbs in animals

guard cells are supported by

subsidiary cells, pump ions

the process of the enzyme and it's parts

substrate, enzyme, active site, products

The phloem transport

sucrose and amino acids from leaves to the rest of the plant

what does the suffix "ose" mean?

sugar (simple, short term energy use)

Photosynthetic cell in a leaf

sugar is loaded from mesophyll cell into phloem cell. this is called phloem loading! -by what mechanism?

Assimilate

sugars, FOOD! (sucrose)

Nucleus:

surrounded by a double nuclear membrane which houses DNA

Taurus

swollen area under pressure will close pit on one side or the other. When an embolism forms Taurus is pushed against windows and closes pit off completely. -localizes embolism -load ions/

Once reaching the endodermis ________ transport is forced.

symplastic (regulatory)

endomembrane system

system of membranes that are interconnected organelles

during which phase of mitosis does cytokinesis begin?

telophase

Environmental factors effecting the rate of evapotranspiration

temp humidity wind velocity light intensity CO2 concentration

Fibrin

the activated form of the blood-clotting protein fibrinogen.

Solute Potential

the amount that the solute molecules lower the water potential of a solution

what are Quaternary structures

the association of different polypeptide chains is called the Quaternary structure of the proteins

Genome

the complete genetic content

peptide bond

the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by dehydration reaction

telophase

the daughter chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the spindle

primary structure

the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids

locus

the location where the gene for a particular characteristic is found

Translocation is

the movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem

The transpiration stream is

the movement of water and minerals from roots to leaves through the xylem

AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

the name of the active HIV infection characterized by the reduction of T-cells and the appearance of characteristic secondary infections.

Diffusion

the net movement, as a result of random motion of its molecules or ions, of a substance from a region of its higher concentration to its lower concentration

amine group

the nitrogen-containing portion of an amino acid -NH2

Blood clotting

the process by which blood becomes thick and stops flowing, forming a solid cover over any place where your skin has been cut or broken.

Plasmolysis

the process of the protoplast shrinking and moving away from the cell wall

protein folding

the process whereby a protein molecule assumes its intricate three-dimensional shape

asexual reproduction

the production of new individuals of a species by one parent organism.

Which of the following is an example of hydrolysis? A) the reaction of a fat, forming glycerol and fatty acids with the consumption of water B) the reaction of two monosaccharides, forming a disaccharide with the release of water C) the synthesis of a nucleotide from a phosphate, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base with the production of a molecule of water D) the synthesis of two amino acids, forming a peptide with the release of water E) the reaction of a fat, forming glycerol and fatty acids with the release of water

the reaction of a fat, forming glycerol and fatty acids with the consumption of water

monosaccharide

the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, that are generally some multiple of CH2O

metastasis

the spreading of a disease to another part of the body; secondary growth

Genetic code

the term for the rules that relate how a sequence of nitrogenous bases in nucleotides corresponds to a particular amino acid

anapahse

the third part of mitosis, during which the chromosome paris separate and move towards opposites poles

Metabolism

the totality of all the chemical processes in an organism, consisting of anabolic and catabolic mechanisms.

what is a tertiary structure

the way in which a protein coils up to form a precise three dimensional shape

cohesion tension theory

theory of water movement -depends on the cohesiveness of water. -should be called cohesion-adhesion-tension theory because adhesion of water molecules to the vessels and tracheids of the xylem as well as to the cell walls of the leaf and root cells is just as important to the upward movement of water as are cohesion and tension.

Why are stomates closed at night?

there is no sunlight, no need to worry about gas exchange.

How much does the cuticle protect from water loss?

there is still a 5% loss.

Once they make it to xylem cells---

they are going to be transported out of the plant body.

centrioles

they help the cell when it is time to divide

How do leaf adaptations work? (in terms of reducing/minimizing water loss)

they orient the leaf parallel to incident radiation. Leaflets fold parallel or point on edges to reduce water loss.

what is one important role of globular proteins

they usually have metabolic roles, for example enzymes in all organisms, plasma protein and antibodies in mammals

Anticodon

three nucleotides on the RNA that are complemen tary to the sequence of a codon in mRNA

symplastic movement

through the protoplasm of the cell. -regulatory -enter root hair, through cell to cells plasmodesmata, continues on then goes into xylem.

lateral pits

through which water moves

Enzyme is not used up in the reaction (unlike substrates)

thus is reusable

what is the job of the protein called hemoglobin?

to carry oxygen

What can be found is the human thorax (The part of the human body between the neck and the diaphragm)?

trachea bronchi (left and right bronchus) alveoli ribs intercostal muscles pleural membranes diaphragm

Phloem are used in

translocation

As light intensity increases

transpiration increases because the stomata are open for gas exchange

As temperature increases

transpiration increases due to increased kinetic energy of water molecules

As humidity decreases

transpiration increases due to low water concentration in the air

As air movement increases

transpiration increases due to water near the leaf being blown away

Xylem are part of the

transpiration stream

in the cell membrane...the function of proteins

transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition, cell-cell attachments, attachment to cytoskeleton/extracellular matrix

phloem

transports photosynthate or sugars

Dehydration reactions are used in forming which of the following compounds? A) triacylglycerides and proteins only B) triacylglycerides C) triacylglycerides, polysaccharides, and proteins D) polysaccharides E) proteins

triacylglycerides, polysaccharides, and proteins

lipid polymer

triglyceride

benign tumors

tumors that do not spread from their site of origin; non cancerous; harmless. ex) warts, ovarian cysts, brain tumors

malignant tumors

tumors that spread throughout the body, invade other tissues and eventually destroy them; cancerous; harmless.

what happens when ions enter?

turgid cells, stomates open! -K+, Cl-, Malate 2-

Decreasing sucrose concentrations in sieve tubes from source to sink is primary responsible for the

turgor pressure gradient

what is happening chemically when stomates are open and guard cells are turgid.

turgor pressure is key to controlling size of stomata typically ions like potassium, chlorine, move into cell and water follows. Turgor increase size of stomata increases. (wider)

chromatids

two identical chromosomes that split and contain the same genetic material

beta-sheet

type of structure with always more than one because they interact with each other; H-bonds occur between different " ", but still the elements of backbone form a-helix bonds

cancers are a result of:

uncontrolled mitosis

What is the benefit of abaxial placement of stomates?

underside of leaf receives less incident light. temperature decreases, and water loss decreases.

evapotranspiration

unintentional loss of water through gas exchange -key to movement of water -large amount of water is lost

The tertiary structure of a protein is the: A) Organization of a polypeptide chain into a "A" helix or "B" pleated sheet B) Overall protein structure resulting from the aggregation of two or more polypeptide subunits C) Bonding together of several polypeptide chains by weak bonds D) unique three-dimensional shape of the fully folded polypeptide E) Order in which amino acids are joined in polypeptic chain

unique three-dimensional shape of fully folded polypeptide

The transpiration stream always moves

upwards

transport proteins

use energy (ATP) to transport materials across a membrane in active transport

sodium-potassium pump

uses ATP to maintain higher concentrations of Na+ and K+ on opposite sides of the plasma membrane

symptom of cystic fibrosis

very thick mucus

Bacteriophage

viruses that infect bacteria

The xylem transport

water and mineral from roots to leaves

hydrophobic

water fearing

Hydrophobic

water hating

You cannot get anything to move through transpiration pathway unless,

water loss is taking place. -so if plant needs ions to be moved (they're being absorbed even at night) Stomates will have to open during dark hours.

Hydrophilic

water loving

hydrophillic

water loving

what is hydrolysis reaction?

water used to break down a polymer, a water molecules is gained

Cytosol:

watery substances that surrounds the nucleus and organelles

Pressure Flow hypothesis

what is the driving mechanism for movment of food through phloem, what ever the direction might be, what is the driving force?

what is dehydration synthesis?

when a monomer is added to a chain, a water molecule is released

Turgid

when a plant cell is fully inflated with water

Source

where it is made

sink

where it is stored or needed. -needed, as in where growth is occurring etc.

Plasmolysed Cell

where the protoplast has shrunken away from the cell wall

● What are disaccharides? ● What's the link between two monosaccharides?

● A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides joined by a condensation reaction and a molecule of water is removed. ○ Many disaccharides taste sweet. ● The link between two monosaccharides is a covalent bond, known as a glycosidic bond. ○ Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide--->condesation reaction---> Disaccharide + water

● What are the monomers of amylose and how are they joined together? ● How does amylose become compact? ● How is the compact shape of amylose useful to its function?

● Amylose is made of alpha glucose molecules and joined together by 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds. ○ Forms an unbranched polymer. ● Amylose becomes compact as the angles of the glycosidic bonds which by hydrogen bonding, forms a helix/coiled structure. ○ A chain length increases, the molecule spirals and becomes more compact. ● The helix forms a compact shape which allows tight packing and is therefore an excellent storage molecule. ○ Amylose releases glucose for cellular respiration more slowly than amylopectin over a longer period, keeping a person going longer.

● In what two ways do fatty acids differ? ● What are fatty acid chains? ● What's the function of fatty acids? ● How do the molecules in triglycerides join together? ● What is the function of triglycerides?

● Fatty acids differ in 2 ways: Whether or not the fatty acid is saturated or unsaturated and the length of the carbon chain. ● Fatty acid chains: are long chains of carbon with a COOH (carboxylic acid) at one end. ◦ Sometimes presented as RCOOH, the R refers to the carbon part of the chain. ● Fatty acids are an energy source in most cells. Saturated fat's contain more energy than unsaturated fat because they contain the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to carbons. ● The molecules in triglycerides join together condensation reactions so an ester bond is formed, so that 3 water molecules form as a by product. ● Triglycerides are the form in which fatty acids are transported around the body and stored.

● Draw an alpha glucose. ● Why are fructose and galactose structural isomers of glucose? ● What is glucose

● Fructose and galactose have the same molecular formula as glucose (C6H12O6) but different structures. ● Glucose is the main respiratory substrate and building block for both disaccharides and polysaccharides. ○ The only difference between alpha and beta glucose is the position of the hydroxyl (OH) group on carbon 1. ○ Alpha glucose, OH pointing away from oxygen. ○ Beta glucose, OH is beside the oxygen.

● What is the general formula of monosaccharides and disaccharides? ● What are triose sugars? ● What are pentose sugars? Give examples. ● What are hexose sugars? Give examples.

● General formula of monosaccharides and disaccharides: CnH2nOn ○ Most monosaccharides taste sweet. ○ Monosaccharides-->Disaccharides-->Polysaccharides ● Triose sugars: Contain three carbons. C3H6O3. ○ Important in the mitochondria. Glucose is broken down to triose sugars in cellular respiration. ● Pentose sugars: Contain five carbons. C5H10O5. E.g. Ribose, deoxyribose. ○ Important in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA which make up genetic material. ● Hexose sugars: Contain six carbons. C6H1206. E.g. Glucose, galactose, fructose.

● What is glycogen? ● What are the monomers and structure of glycogen? ● Why is glycogen an ideal energy store for active tissues?

● Glycogen: is the main carbohydrate energy store found in animals. ● Glycogen is a polymer of alpha glucose. ○ Is similar in structure to amylopectin of starch it is also lined by 1,4-glycosidic bonds, but has more branches and the branches are shorter. This branching allows for the fast breakdown of the molecule during respiration as it means that there are more ends which enzymes can start the process of hydrolysis from. ○ Glycogen is even more compact than amylopectin. ● Glycogen has many side branches of glucose that can be hydrolysed rapidly faster than starch to release energy. ○ This is important as animals may need emergency glucose faster than plants. ○ Good for storage as glycogen is a compact molecule so more can be stored. ○ Ideal energy store for active tissues such as muscle and liver tissue, need available energy supplies at all times.

● What are lipids made of? ● What is the general properties of lipids? ● What are lipids insoluble and soluble in? ● What are the main types of lipids? ● What are phospholipids made of? ● What are triglycerides made up of? ● What do the properties of fats depend on? ● Draw a diagram of a triglyceride.

● Lipids are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. ◦ Smaller proportions of oxygen to carbon and hydrogen compared to carbohydrates. ◦ Contain more energy per gram compared with carbohydrates, but are more difficult to break down/hydrolyse. ● Insoluble to water (non-polar), less dense than water, compact and conduct heat poorly. ● Lipids are soluble in non-polar or weakly polar organic solvents like ethanol and insoluble in polar solvents like water. ● Main types of lipids: Triglycerides and phospholipids. ● Phospholipids: made up of glycerol (C3H8O3), 2 fatty acid chains and a phosphate group. ◦ Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head (water soluble) and hydrophobic tail region (not soluble in water, repels water). ● Triglycerides: Made up of a glycerol (C3H8O3) and 3 fatty acid chains, which combine by a condensation reaction to form 3 ester bonds and 3 water molecules. ◦ Triglycerides are not polymers, they are not made up of repeating monomers. ● The properties of fats change depending on the R-group of the fatty acid chains.

● What is the emulsion test for lipids?

● Lipids are soluble (dissolve) in organic solvents such as ethanol, but insoluble in water. The test for lipids is called the emulsion test. ◦ Place the sample in a clean, dry test tube and add ethanol. ◦ Shake the test tube so that any lipid present dissolves. ◦ Pour the mixture into a test tube containing (de-ionised) water. ◦ Look for a white cloudy suspension (like milk); this white emulsion indicates a positive test for lipids.

● What are macronutrients? Give examples. ● What are micronutrients? Give examples. ● What else is needed in your diet besides macronutrients and micronutrients?

● Macronutrients: Major parts of our diet. E.g. Carbohydrates, lipids, essential amino acids and proteins. ● Carbohydrates: ○ They can be broken down in digestion into glucose, some glucose is converted into glycogen, which is stored in the liver, muscles and the brain. ○ Any excess carbohydrate is converted to fat, which is stored in the body. ○ Carbohydrates: contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. ○ Due to carbon's electrons it is able to bond with 4 other atoms in a variety of ways, creating diversity. ○ Carbohydrates provide organisms with immediate energy or can be stored to provide energy later. ○ In some carbon components small molecules (monomers) bond with many other similar units to make a large molecule called a polymer. ● Lipids ● Essential amino acids: the human body cannot produce them and are mainly found in proteins. ● Proteins: are used for growth and repair of cells. ○ Broken down by digestion to amino acids. ○ Rebuilt during protein synthesis to form the proteins needed. ● Micronutrients: Things needed in small quantities in diet. E.g. Mineral salts, calcium, sodium and vitamins. ● Mineral salts ● Calcium: needed for formation of bones/skeleton and teeth. ○ Needed for muscles to contract properly and for blood clotting to take place. ○ Found in dairy products, fish and hard water. ● Sodium: needed for nerves to work properly, for muscle contraction and to maintain heart beat. ○ The salt balance in your body is crucial. ○ If sodium levels fall it can make you feel unwell. ○ Too much sodium leads to raised blood pressure, leading to health issues. ● Vitamins: are complex organic substances, can be absorbed directly into the blood from the gut. ○ Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed along with the fat you eat. ○ The lack of a particular vitamin in the diet for a long time will result in a deficiency disease. E.g.scurvy ○ E.g. Vitamin C: needed for the formation of connective tissue in the body, such as in the bones, teeth, hair and many internal body surfaces. Low levels of vitamin c increase the risk of CVD. ● Water and fibre/roughage are also needed. ○ Fibre is essential because it holds water and provides bulk for the intestinal muscles to work on. ○ Fibre cannot be digested by humans.

● What are the monomers of amylopectin and how are they bonded together? ● How do the branching chains of amylopectin, aid in starches function as an energy store. ● How does amylopectin release energy for cellular respiration?

● Made of glucose molecules joined by 1,4-glycosidic bonds but after every 25 glucose molecules adjacent chained are connected by a 1,6-glycosidic bond. ○ This means amylopectin is branched. ● The branching chains have lots of terminal glucose molecules. ○ The terminal molecules can be broken off rapidly when energy is needed. ● Amylopectin releases glucose for cellular respiration when needed rapidly. ○ Amylopectin has many side branches of glucose that can be hydrolysed rapidly to release energy. ○ Allows rapid release of glucose for cellular respiration when needed rapidly. Released faster than amylose.

● How many monosaccharides are there in polysaccharides? ● How many monosaccharides are there in oligosaccharides? ● What are polysaccharides? ● What are the physical and chemical characteristics of polysaccharides? How do the physical and chemical characteristics of polysaccharides interfere with functions of the cell?

● Polysaccharides: They are the most complex carbohydrates. ○ They are molecules with more than 11 monosaccharides. ● Oligosaccharides: They are molecules with 3-10 monosaccharides. ○ Many single sugars are joined together to form large macromolecules. ● Polysaccharides are organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. ○ They are polymers made up of of simple monomers. ○ Glucose is the most common monomer from which the macromolecule polymers formed. ● Polysaccharides are physically and chemically inactive, storing them does not interfere with other functions of the cell. ○ They are not very soluble in water so have very little impact on water relations and osmosis in a cell. ○ The sweet taste is lost in polysaccharides.

● What is starch made of? ● What are the two main properties of starch and how are these useful to the functions of starch in cells. ● What is the importance of starch in plants?

● Starch is made up of long chains of glucose. ○ Is a mixture of two polymers of alpha glucose- amylose and amylopectin. ● Properties of starch: ○ Compact so much can be stored in small areas. ○ Insoluble in water, so that the starch does not effect osmotic potential of cell. ○ Therefore starch is a good storage compound. ● Starch is the main energy storage material in plants. ○ Can be broken down to release glucose when needed. ○ Sugars produced by photosynthesis are converted into starch. ○ A typical starch grain in a plant cell contains 70%-80% amylopectin and the rest is amylase.

● What are the uses of lipids? ● How are lipids good as structural components? What's the function of phospholipids? ● How are lipids good as electrical installation? ● How are lipids good as energy stores. ● How are lipids good as thermal insulation. ● How are lipids good at water proofing. ● Why do lipids have buoyancy?

● To be used as energy storage, thermal insulation, structural components, mechanical protection (e.g. Of delicate organs), electrical insulation, water proofing and buoyancy. ● Phospholipids are used in the cell membranes as their amphipathic nature enable them to contribute to the spontaneous formation of bilayers. Cholesterol is also a major component of animal cell membranes. ● E.g. Sphingomyelin is a specialised phospholipid in the myelin sheet of nerve axons. ● Good stores as they are insoluble (so no osmotic effect/ cannot diffuse away) and will not be moved out of cell easily. ● Fats are slow conductors of heat, so they retain body heat. ● Good at preventing water loss as hydrophobic fatty acids repel water. E.g. The waxy cuticle on the leaf epidermis or as oils on bird's feathers. ● Lipids are less dense than water, so they float on water. Used in aquatic animals.

● What is an unsaturated fatty acid? ● Define mono saturated? ● Define polyunsaturated? ● What is a saturated fatty acid? ● What is the state of saturated acids at room temperature? ● What is the state of unsaturated acids at room temperature? ● Do saturated or unsaturated fatty acids have a higher melting point and why?

● Unsaturated fatty acid: When a fatty acid has some double bonds between the carbon atoms along the chain. ● Mono saturated: only 1 double bond between the carbon atoms along the chain. ● Polyunsaturated: More than 1 double bond between the carbon atoms along the chain. ● Saturated fatty acid: there are no double bonds between any of the carbon atoms along the chain ◦ All of the carbon atoms are joined with hydrogen atoms. ● Saturated acids are solid at room temperature. ● Unsaturated acids are liquid at room temperature. ● Saturated fatty acids have a higher melting point than unsaturated fatty acids as the double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids restrict movement so they do not pack as tightly together as the saturated fatty acids. It takes more energy (higher temperature) to separate more tightly packed molecules.

Oncogene

The particular term for a mutated gene that causes cancer is an oncogene.

facilitated diffusion

The passive movement of molecules across membranes down their concentration gradient, which is aided by transport (carrier) protein molecules. No metabolic energy is required.

interphase

The period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. During _____, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase. Often accounts for about 90% of the cell cycle.

interphase

The period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase. Interphase often accounts for about 90% of the cell cycle.

mitotic (M) phase

The phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis.

Water Potential

The physical property predicting the direction in which water will flow, governed by solute concentration and applied pressure.

Allosteric site

The place on an enzyme where a molecule that is not a substrate may bind, thus changing the shape of the enzyme and influencing its ability to be active

define:centromere

The point where sister chromatids are joined

Active site

The portion of the enzyme in which the substrate is loosely associated

What is the Bohr Effect?

The presence of a high partial pressure of Carbon Dioxide causes hemoglobin to release Oxygen

Replication

The process by which a cell makes a copy of the DNA in its nucleus.

Translation

The process of assembling protein molecules from information encoded in mRNA mRNA leaves the nucleus

How can the rate of breathing be measured?

The rate of breathing can be measured by counting the number of breaths in one minute. The depth of breathing can be measured using a spirometer (a device that measures the volume of air inhaled and exhaled).

Cell Cycle

The regular sequence of growth & division that cells undergo.

Diastole

The relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle

The bonding of two amino acid molecules to form a larger molecule requires A) the addition of a water molecule. B) the release of a water molecule. C) the release of a nitrous oxide molecule. D) the release of a carbon dioxide molecule. E) the addition of a nitrogen atom

The release of a water molecule

Cell Division

The reproduction of cells

G2 Phase

The second gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.

G2 Phase

The second gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs. Usually involves increasing the number of organelles and cytoplasm before mitosis.

Prometaphase

The second stage of mitosis, in which the nuclear envelope fragments and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.

quaternary structure

The shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.

What is the site of gas exchange?

The site of gas exchange is an alveolus in the lungs. We have many thousands of alveoli in each lung.

primary structure

The specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain.

Late telophase

The spindle fibers disappear, and the nucleoli and nuclear envelopes re-form

Metaphase

The spindle is formed and the nuclear membrane is no longer visible, as the duplicated chromosomes align on the equator of the spindle

Metastasis

The spread of cancer is this way is called metastasis.

Mitosis

The stage of the cell cycle during which the cell's nucleus divides into 2 new nuclei & 1 copy of the DNA is distributed into each daughter cell.

Interphase

The stage of the cell cycle that takes place before cell division occurs; the cell grows, copies its DNA & prepares to divide.

Cardiac cycle

The stages of the heartbeat, by which the atrial and then the ventricle walls alternately contract (systole) and relax (diastole)

Cell cycle

The steps or phases that eukaryotic cells go through. Consists of

What do stomata control?

The stomata control gas exchange in the leaf. Each stoma can be open or closed, depending on how turgid its guard cells are.

Pacemaker

The structure that originates the myogenic heart beat, also known as the sinoatrial node

Substrate

The substance, which fits into the active site of an enzyme, and is acted upon by the enzyme

S Phase

The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.

Water potential

The tendency of water molecules to move

Metaphase

The third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the ______ plate.

Pericardium

The tough membrane surrounding and containing the heart

Transmission

The transfer of a of a pathogen from one person to another.

Atrioventricular valve

The tri-cuspid or bi-cuspid valve

Bronchi

The two tubes leading from the trachea to each lung, they split to form bonchioles.

Thorax

The upper part of the body separated from the abdomen

Tricuspid valve

The valve between the atrium and the ventricle on the right side of the mammalian heart

Biscupid valve

The valve between the atrium and ventricle on the left side of the mammalian heart

Preventing HIV/AIDS

The virus has a long latent stage where the virus can be transmitted by people who are HIV positive but show no symptoms and do not know they are infected. Preventing by educating the public, using condoms and other contraceptives, contact tracing (if a person is HIV positive they will share the names of other individuals that they had intercourse with or shared needles with so that they can receive a test), and needle-exchange schemes.

Venous return

The volume of blood returning to the heart via the veins per minute

Site of action of Cholera Pathogen

The wall of the small intestine. If the stomach is extremely acidic (pH less than 4.5) the bacteria is unlikely to survive but if the pathogen does survive it multiplies and secretes choleragen. It disrupts function of the inning of the intestine and causes large loss of fluid.

Transmission Cycle

The way in which a pathogen passes form one host to another.

macromolecule

There are Four major types of biological macromolecules that make up the human body: nucleic acids (DNA & RNA), Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats

Factors affecting the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions

These factors are: - Temperature - pH - Enzyme concentration - Substrate concentration - Inhibitor concentration

Globular Protein

These proteins are small spheres with little to no water inside. They have hydrophobic amino acids in the inside and hydrophilic R groups on the outside.

similarities between fibrous and globular

They all are polypeptides Encoded by DNA Consisting of any combination of the 20 biogenic amino acids.

Which of the following is true of both starch and cellulose? A) They are both structural components of the plant cell wall. B) They are cis-trans isomers of each other. C) They can both be digested by humans. D) They are both used for energy storage in plants. E) They are both polymers of glucose

They are both polymers of glucose

Which of the following statements is true for the class of biological molecules known as lipids? A) They are made from glycerol, fatty acids, and phosphate. B) They contain less energy than proteins and carbohydrates. C) They contain nitrogen. D) They are made by dehydration reactions. E) They are insoluble in water.

They are insoluable in water

Why are human sex hormones considered to be lipids? A) They are not soluble in water. B) They contribute to atherosclerosis. C) They are hydrophilic compounds. D) They are made of fatty acids. E) They are essential components of cell membranes.

They are not soluable in water

Which of the following is true regarding saturated fatty acids? A) They have double bonds between carbon atoms of the fatty acids. B) They are usually produced by plants. C) They are the predominant fatty acid in com oil. D) They are the principal molecules in lard and butter. E) They are usually liquid at room temperature.

They are the principal molecules in lard and butter

How is a subunit/conjugate vaccine prepared

They contain only pieces of pathogen to provoke the immune system response, alternatively you can genetically insert the vaccine protein coding region into another virus

Which of the following statements conceming saturated fats is not true? A) They contain more hydrogen than unsaturated fats having the same number of carbon atoms. B) They are one of several factors that contribute to atherosclerosis. C) They are more common in animals than in plants. D) They have multiple double bonds in the carbon chains of their fatty acids. E) They generally solidify at room temperature.

They have multiple double bonds in the carbon chains of their fatty acids

The label on a container of margarine lists "hydrogenated vegetable oil" as the major ingredient. What is the result of adding hydrogens to vegetable oil? A) The hydrogenated vegetable oil has more "kinks" in the fatty acid chains. B) The hydrogenated vegetable oil has fewer trans fatty acids. C) The hydrogenated vegetable oil stays solid at room temperature. D) The hydrogenated vegetable oil has a lower melting point. E) The hydrogenated vegetable oil is less likely to clog arteries

They hydrogenated vegetable oil stays solid at room temperature

Cell Wall

Thick outer layer in plant cells. Made of the carbohydrate cellulose. It maintains the shape of these cells and creates a protective barrier. Fluid collects in the plant cell's vacuole and pushes against it, creating turgor pressure. Also found in fungi, algae, and some bacteria.

Pleural membranes

Thin, moist membranes that form a continuous envelope around the lungs, creating an airtight seal.

Temperature

This graph shows the effect of ______ on enzymes.

pH

This graph shows the effect of ______ on the rate of enzyme action.

Biological Significance of Mitosis: Replacement of Cells and Repair of Tissues

This is possible using mitosis followed by cell division. Cells are constantly dying and being replaced by identical cells. In the human body, for example, cell replacement is particularly rapid in the skin and in the lining of the gut. Some animals are able to regenerate whole parts of the body; for example, starfish can regenerate new arms.

Different enzymes have different Optimum pH values.

This is the pH value at which the bonds within them are influenced by H+ and OH- Ions in such a way that the shape of their Active Site is the most Complementary to the shape of their Substrate. At the Optimum pH, the rate of reaction is at an optimum.

Ribosome

This is where PROTEINS are produced in protein synthesis. Made up of packets of RNA.

Supercoil

This process occurs in prophase, and is the physical coiling of the DNA molecule, around proteins (called histone proteins) that condense the chromosomes so they are able to be separated during mitosis.

Nucleolus

This produces ribosomes and is NOT a "regular" organelle.

Platelets

Tiny cell fragments that lack a nucleus, found in the blood and involved in the blood clotting mechanism

Organelle

Tiny organs within a cell that carry out a specific task

Why is the lumen in an artery more narrow?

To help push the blood along.

2e) State two functions of centromeres during nuclear division

To hold chromatids together and to attach chromosomes to spindle

How can you investigate the effects of exercise on breathing?

To investigate the effects of exercise on breathing, record the rate of breathing for a few minutes when the person is at rest. After they do some exercise, record their rate of breathing every minute until it returns to the normal resting value.

Why should blood vessels have smooth endothelium?

To minimize friction with moving blood (friction causes blood clots)

Cartilage

Tough connective tissue found in the walls of the trachea and bronchi. It supports the airways and keeps them open when we breathe.

Haemoglobin

Transport protein - quaternary structure with central haem group in each chain - oxygen transport

What is the function of red blood cells?

Transports Oxygen and some Carbon Dioxide

Denature

Treating an enzyme with chemical or physical means that alters the shape of the enzyme to the point where it cannot function, such as by altering the pH or temperature

The binding and release of sodium or potassium ions are due to conformational changes in the protein?

True

The sodium potassium pump is a trans-membrane protein?

True

True

True or False: RNA molecules are transcribed according to the information encoded in the base sequence of DNA

Microtubules

Tubulin; provides support and motility for cellular activities; found in spindle fibers, flagella, and cilia

Malignant Tumors

Tumors that spread through the body, invade other tissues and destroy them that cause cancer, and these are known as malignant tumors.

dipeptide

Two amino acids bonded together

Sister Chromatids

Two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached to each other by proteins at the centromere. While joined, two sister chromatids make up one chromosome. Chromatids are eventually separated during mitosis

Sister Chromatids

Two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached to each other by proteis at the centromere and sometimes, along the arms. While joined, they make up one chromosome. They are eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II

Biological Significance of Mitosis: Growth

Two daughter cells formed have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell and are genetically identical (clones). This allows growth of multicellular organisms from unicellular zygotes. growth may occur over the entire body, as in animals, or be confined to certain regions, as in the meristems (growing points) of plants.

disaccharide

Two monosaccharides joined by condensation reaction

Nuclear envelope

Two phospholipid bilayers that surround the nucleus; contain nuclear pores to allow RNA and ribosomes to exit; attaches to rough ER

Anti-A antibody reacts with?

Type A-antigen

Anti-B antibody reacts with

Type B-antigen

Strains of Cholera

Until 1990s on the strain O1 caused Cholera. A 7th pandemic began in Indonesia with a new strand called 'El Tor' which took 2 years to displace the previous O1 strain. An 8th pandemic with the strain O139 replaced El Tor in 2 months.

The layers of the leaf are

Upper epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, lower epidermis (with stomata)

Chloroplast

Uses carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to carry out photosynthesis. Found in plant cells and some protists. They reflect green light while absorbing all other colors.

Non-competitive Enzyme Inhibitors work not by preventing the formation of Enzyme-Substrate Complexes, but by preventing the formation of Enzyme-Product Complexes. So they prevent the substrate from reacting to form product.

Usually, Non-competitive Inhibitors bind to a site other than the Active Site, called an Allosteric Site. Doing so distorts the 3D Tertiary structure of the enzyme, such that it can no longer catalyse a reaction

Artificially acquired active immunity

Vaccination

Give 3 structural differences between arteries and veins.

Veins have a wider lumen, arteries lumen is narrow. Arteries have a thicker tunica media, veins have a thinner tunic media. Arteries tunica media's have collagen fibers, veins don't.

Bacterial genome

Very short, single circular chromosome that floats in the nucleoid region

How is a live attenuated vaccine manufactured

Viru is weakened by passing through a series of cell cultures/chick embryos losing some ability to replicate in human cells, but it is still recognized by the human immune system

How is a inactivated/killed vaccine prepared

Virus is killed typically with heat or chemicals, destroying their ability to replicate, but remains "intact" and is recognized by the immune system

Phospholipid bilayer

Visible using high magnifications at least x 10,000. Two layered structure. Basic structure of membranes. About 7 nm wide.

Why can't 100% of Carbon Dioxide be carried back in the plasma?

Water in the plasma will bond with the Carbon Dioxide and make carbonic acid which lowers the PH, causing denaturation.

Deoxyribose

What 5 carbon sugar is in DNA?

Ribose

What 5 carbon sugar is in RNA

Cytoplasm

What all the organelles are floating in

Phosphodiester linkages

What are the linkages called between the sugar and phosphates on the "sides of the ladder"

DNA

What controls the production of proteins within a cell?

The shape

What determines the function of an enzyme?

Ribonucleic acid

What does RNA stand for?

Serves as an assembly for the amino acids

What does mRNA do during protein synthesis?

Transmits information from DNA to protein synthesis

What does mRNA do?

It varies, not fully understood

What is rRNA's function?

rRNA

What is the most abundant form of RNA?

a pH of 2.5

What is the optimum pH for pepsin?

36 degrees celsius

What is the optimum temperature in this graph?

As enzyme concentration increases the rate of reaction increases and then levels off.

What is the relationship show in this graph?

As substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction increases and then levels off.

What is the relationship show in this graph?

Thymine

What nitrogen base is not found in RNA

Uracil

What nitrogen base is seen in RNA but not DNA

Proteins

What type of organic molecule are enzymes?

Denatured

When an enzyme loses its shape it is said to have become _____________.

Horizontal Transmission

When bacteria cling on ti the original DNA strands of the organism.

Transmission of TB

When infected people with active form of illness cough or sneeze, and the bacteria are carried in air in tiny droplets of liquid.

When does hemoglobin release its Oxygen?

When it picks up Hydrogen.

Vertical Transmission

When resistant bacteria spread in a population.

Enzyme-substrate complex

When the substrate is interacting with the enzyme at the active site and is in the process of being converted into products.

Describe what happens when you inhale.

When you inhale: 1.the internal intercostal muscles relax and the external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribcage upwards and outwards 2.the diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards 3.lung volume increases and the air pressure inside decreases 4.air is pushed into the lungs

Nucleus

Where DNA is found. RNA is also made here.

Because they have a single ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms

Why are pyrimidines similar?

Because they have a double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms

Why are the purines similar?

females have what sex chromosomes?

XX

males have what sex chromosomes?

XY

Why could you not make drinks with high alcohol concentrations by fermentation alone?

You would have to take it away and add more because the yeast dies.

protein

a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific 3D structure

Thrombus

a blood clot, often formed in the coronary arteries.

fatty acid

a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain; vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; 3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also known as a triacyglycerol or a triglyceride

mutation

a change in any gene

dehydration reaction

a chemical reaction in which 2 molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule

hydrolysis

a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between 2 molecules by the addition of water; functions in disassembly of polymers to monomers

Antibiotic

a chemical that kills or inhibits growth of bacteria by deregulation of metabolic pathways.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

a double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule, consisting of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins

mutagen

a factor which brings about any mutation

Pinocytosis

a form of endocytosis with the bulk uptake of liquid

Do humans have diploid or haploid sets?

a human 2n body cell has 46 chromosomes, a gamete has 23

How does CO2 concentration effect the rate of evapotranspiration?

a large amount (breathing on it) can shock the plant and slow down rate, stomates will close. In a low concentration, stomates with open. CO2 influences stomate aperture.

fat

a lipid consisting of 3 fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or a triglyceride.

phospholipid

a lipid made up of glycerol joined to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar, hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar, hydrophilic head.; form bilayers that function as biological membranes

Memory cell

a long-lived lymphocyte of the immune system that has previously encountered a specific antigen and that upon re-exposure produces large amounts of antibody.

DNA

a molecule of inheritance and is made up of a series of genes.

oncogene

a mutated gene that causes cancer

Which of the following descriptions best fits the class of molecules known as nucleotides? A) a pentose sugar and a purine or pyrimidine B) a nitrogenous base and a pentose sugar C) a phosphate group and an adenine or uracil D) a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group E) a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, and a pentose sugar

a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group and a pentose sugar

nucleic acid

a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. the 2 types of nucleic acid are DNA and RNA

Thrombin

a protease in blood that facilitates blood clotting by converting fibrinogen to fibrin.

Fibrinogen

a protein in the blood plasma that is essential for the coagulation of blood and is converted to fibrin by the action of thrombin.

what is a globular protein

a protein whose molecules curl up into a ball shape such as myglobin or hemoglobin. Usually soluble because water molecules cluster around their outward pointing hydrophilic r groups

Platelet

a small cell fragment found in the blood plasma that functions to promote blood clotting.

primary growth

a small group of tumor cells

Transpiration requires

a source of heat energy like the sun

centromere

a specialized condensed region of each chromosome that appears during mitosis where the chromatids are held together to form an X shape

Promoter

a specific nucleotide sequence of DNA where RNA polymerase binds and initiates transcription

Termination signal

a specific sequence of nucleotides that marks the end of a gene

Chromosomes

a structure within a cell that contains a cell genetic information

carbohydrates

a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharide) or polymers (polysaccharide)

chromatins

a thin, tangled bundle of DNA threads found in the nucleus of the cells during anaphase

chromosome

a threadlike body in the cell nucleus that carries the genes in a linear order

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

a type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis, gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses

Phagocytic white blood cells

a type of white cell that carries endocytosis of large foreign substances.

Gene

a unit of inheritance, controlling one characteristic of the organism.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

a virus that targets t-killer lymphocytes. It leads to an inability to produce antibodies, and therefore lack of an immune response to infections.

Lymphocyte

a white blood cell that could be a B-cell or a T-cell.

What is the total number of different genes in humans?

about 30,000

Root hair cells

absorbs water by osmosis and minerals by active transport

Charged amino acids can either be _______ or _______

acidic or basic

Initial uptake of ions is facilitated by?

active processes and osmosis.

Which modifications of fatty acids will best keep triglycerides solid at warmer temperatures? A) creating cis double bonds to the fatty acids B) adding hydrogens and trans double bonds to the fatty acids C) creating trans double bonds to the fatty acids D) adding hydrogens to the fatty acids E) adding cis double bonds and trans double bonds to the fatty acids

adding hydrogens and trans double bonds to the fatty acids

Transpiration is necessary to

allow gases in and out of leaves for photosynthesis

ion channels

allow the passage of ions only; gated ion channels open and close in response to specific chemical/electrical stimuli

Partially Permiable

allowing only certain substances through

what are the two types of globin used to make haemoglobin

alpha and beta globin

What kind of glucose molecules compose starch?

alpha glucose

primary

amino acids held together by peptide bonds

Proteins

amino-amino - peptide bond

Antibody

an antigen-binding protein produced by B-cells.

mutant

an individual whose DNA or chromosomes differ from some previous or normal state

What methods may be used to elucidate the structures of purified proteins? A) X-ray crystallography B) both X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy C) NMR spectroscopy D) bioinformatics E) analysis of amino acid sequence of small fragments

analysis of amino acid sequence of small fragments

During which phase of mitosis are the sister chromatids separated

anaphase

carcinogen

any agent that causes cancer

Translocation can happen in

any direction

Penicillin

any of the antibiotic drugs obtained from penicillium moulds or produced synthetically, most active against gram-positive bacteria and used in the treatment of various infections and diseases.

Plasma cell

any of the antibody-producing cells, and derived from B-cells. It plays a major role in antibody-mediated immunity reacting with a specific antigen.

Pathogen

any organism that causes disease, such as a bacterium or fungus.

two principle mechanisms of phloem loading---

apoplastic loading and symplastic loading

Polysaccharides, triacylglycerides, and proteins are similar in that they A) are synthesized from subunits by dehydration reactions. B) all contain nitrogen in their monomer building blocks. C) are decomposed into their subunits by dehydration reactions. D) are synthesized as a result of peptide bond formation between monomers. E) are synthesized from monomers by the process of hydrolysis.

are synthesized from subunits by dehydration reactions

chromatids

are the two identical structures that result from chromosomes replication

centromere

area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached

Lactose, a sugar in milk, is composed of one glucose molecule joined by a glycosidic linkage to one, galactose molecule. How is lactose classified? A) as a hexose B) as a monosaccharide C) as a pentose D) as a disaccharide E) as a polysaccharide

as a disaccharide

all enzymes end in "___"

ase

Ribosomes:

assembly proteins can be attached to membranes or free floating

adhesion proteins

attach cells to neighboring cells or provide anchors for the internal filaments and tubules that give stability to the cell

What are chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes called?

autosomes

Why would it be wrong to say that the best temperature for fermentation of yeast is exactly 30 degrees?

because it can't be exactly 30 degrees

What kind of glucose molecules compose cellulose?

beta glucose

carrier proteins

bind to specific molecules, which are then transferred across the membrane after the carrier protein undergoes a change of shape

Which of the following techniques uses the amino acid sequences of polypeptides to predict a protein's threedimensional structure? A) bioinformatics B) analysis of amino acid sequence of small fragments C) NMR spectroscopy D) high-speed centrifugation E) X-ray crystallography

bioinformatics

pits have a meniscus, what is this?

blocks air movement. -thin area of primary wall -water moves through but air cannot!

1-4 glycosidic bond/link

bond between carbons one and four on two glucose molecules (linear)

1-6 glycosidic bond/link

bond between carbons one and six on two glucose molecules (branching)

lysozyme

break bacteria cell wall; structure has a cleft, alpha helix, beta-sheets

hydrolysis

breaking of bond between two molecules with the addition of water

endocytosis

bulk transport; moves large particles or cells into a cell through vesicular transport

exocytosis

bulk transport; moves large particles or cells out of the cell through vesicular transport

1 Which of the following describes an enzyme? A) a catalyst with an active site which binds to the product of a reaction B) a fibrous protein with an active site which binds to a substrate C) a globular protein with hydrophilic groups on its surface D) an insoluble biological catalyst

c) a globular protein with hydrophilic groups on its surface

what are hydrogen bonds/where do they occur in proteins

can form between a wide variety of r groups

molecule with the chemical formula C6 H12 O6 is probably a A) lipid. B) carbohydrate and monosaccharide only. C) carbohydrate and lipid only. D) monosaccharide E) carbohydrate.

carbohydrate and monosaccharide only

Which of these classes of biological molecules consist of both small molecules and macromolecular polymers? A) carbohydrates B) lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids all consist of only macromolecular polymers C) nucleic acids D) lipids E) proteins

carbohydrates

Name the three chemical elements present in a triglyceride

carbon, hydrogen, Oxygen

what is CHNOPS?

carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfer

pinocytosis

cell drinking - the uptake of large, dissolved particles

phagocytosis

cell eating - engulfing of large particles or small cells by pseudopods

lysis

cell rupture

apoplastic movement

cell wall to cell wall until they get to endodermis, then it becomes symplastic.

tertiary

cellular enzymes mediate reactions from these bonds; can be changed by heating/adding chemicals (denaturing)

On food packages, to what does the term insoluble fiber refer? A) amylopectin B) cellulose C) chitin D) polypeptides E) starch

cellulose

which carbohydrate provides plant cells with wall support?

cellulose

Early prophase

centriole replicates just before prophase chromosomes start to coil up, becoming shorter and thicker; they become visible because they stain more intensely

Late prophase

centrioles moving to opposite ends of nucleus nuclear envelope 'disappears' (it breaks up into small vesicles which are not visible with a light microscope) nucleolus 'disappears' (forms part of several chromosomes) two chromatids make one chromosome at the end of prophase, a spindle is formed

aquaporins

channels specifically for the transport of water into and out of the cell

disulfide bond

chemical side covalent bond that joins the sulfer atoms of two neighboring cysteine amion acids

All of the following contain amino acids except A) hemoglobin. B) antibodies. C) insulin. D) cholesterol. E) enzymes.

cholesterol

Anaphase

chromatids move to opposite poles, centromeres, first, pulled by the microtubules

High concentrations of CO2 open/close the stomates.

close.

which protein forms hair, skin, and nails?

collagen

Xylem are made of

columns of hollow, dead cells

Phloem are made of

columns of living cells

Transport pathways in roots

common: symplastic (most) and apoplastic less common: transcellular

integral proteins

completely embedded in the membrane; some are transmembrane

Phospholipid

composed of glycerol back bone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group. Hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic and non-polar tails.

cytokinesis

constriction of the cytoplasm between the two new nuclei

Lysosomes:

contain digestive enzymes to break down substances

Nitrogenous base

contains nitrogen atoms and carbon atoms and is a base

Pressure Potential

contribution made by pressure to water potential

Which of the following are nitrogenous bases of the pyrimidine type? A) ribose and deoxyribose B) guanine and adenine C) adenine and thymine D) cytosine and uracil E) thymine and guanine

cytosine and uracil

What is the chemical reaction mechanism by which cells make polymers from monomers? A) ionic bonding of monomers B) phosphodiester linkages C) hydrolysis D) dehydration reactions E) the formation of disulfide bridges between monomers

dehydration reactions

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid, the material that contains the information that determines inherited characteristics

Fluid Mosaic Model

depicts the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane and the proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates that are contained within it. It is called fluid because the components move about by diffusion.

maltose

diasacaride -glucose + glucose

Oswald Avery

did a follow up to Griffith's experiment and concluded it was transformation and the DNA was what caused the R strain to become lethal Hershey/Chase-performed an experiment 1952 using a bacteriophage (virus that infects bacteria) T2 bacteriophage

alleles

different forms of a gene

There are 20 different amino acids. What makes one amino acid different from another? A) different structural and optical isomers B) different asymmetric carbons C) different side chains (R groups) attached to the amino groups D) different side chains (R groups) attached to a carboxyl carbon E) different side chains (R groups) attached to an a carbon

different side chains (R groups) attached to an "a" carbon

Facilitated Diffusion

diffusion assisted by protiens for molecules that cannot diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer

Osmosis

diffusion of water

osmosis

diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from high >>> low concentration

types of passive transport

diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis

What diseases were eliminated by 2010 according to a "healthy people" study

diptheria, measles, mumps, rubella, and tetanus

What process is used to make drinks with high alcohol concentrations?

distillation

quarternary

disulfide bonds between different chains

tertiary

disulfide bonds only within same peptide chain