Attitudes, Ch. 7 [Exam II]
1) the need to reduce cognitive dissonance motivates people to change their behavior ∙ Internal vs external justification: - through the use of *hypocrisy induction*, you can cause individuals to rely on internal justification which further motivates them to reduce the dissonance through attitude change 2) a message advocating a particular side of an argument (framing) - the process of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic (though not only logical) means - a problem-solving strategy, and relies on "appeals" rather than force.
1) Dissonance Theory of Attitude Change? 2) Persuasive Communication?
1) the study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages (a form of persuasive messaging) 2) *Communication Process:* ∙ *i.)* Who: The Source of the Communication - credible speakers (those with expertise persuade people more) - attractive speakers (whether physical or personality attributes, they persuade people more than unattractive speakers do) - sleeper effect (people sometimes remember a message longer than they do information about the message source) ∙ *ii.)* What: The Nature of the Communication - people are more persuaded by messages that dont seem to influence them - better to present a two-sided communication (presents arguments for AND against your position) - if speeches are back to back, there may be a delay before people have to make up their minds (primacy effect) ∙ *iii.)* To Whom: The Nature of the Audience - an audience that is distracted during persuasive communication is more likely to be persuaded - some individual differences (i.e. lower intelligence, lower self-esteem) predict greater likelihood of persuadeability - cultural differences
1) Yale Attitude Change Approach? 2) 3 steps in the communication process?
c) is below the threshold of conscious awareness of its content
A subliminal presentation is a presentation that: a) means something other than what the participant thinks b) can lead to a response that cannot be predicted by the experimenter c) is below the threshold of conscious awareness of its content d) is common in deception experiments
b) the audience recognizes the speaker's intent to manipulate
A gun manufacturer delievers a speech against stricter gun control legislation, but his arguments have little impact on the audience. The reason his speech has so little impact is probably: a) the speaker is not an expert on guns b) the audience recognizes the speaker's intent to manipulate c) the speaker is too specific on the issues involved d) the audience has weak attitudes on the issue of guns
Persuasive Communication
A message advocating a particular side of an issue is known as?
b) speaks rapidly and does not deliberately set out to persuade us
A person who is trying to persuade someone will be better able to produce attitude change if he: a) speaks slowly and does not deliberately set out to persuade us b) speaks rapidly and does not deliberately set out to persuade us c) speaks normally and deliberately sets out to persuade us d) uses a lot of gestures
∙ *Affectively based attitude:* - refers to the emotional reaction one has toward an attitude object - feelings/emotions - ex. fear of snakes; love of babies ∙ *Behaviorally based attitudes:* - refers to the way one behaves when exposed to an object (last resort) - actions/behaviors - ex. better keep snakes away from me; i cant wait to hold that baby ∙ *Cognitively based attitudes:* - an attitude based primarily on people's beliefs that we would associate with an object - beliefs/knowledge - ex. snakes are dangerous; all babies are cute *Any attitude may be comprised of more or less of each of these components*
ABC model of attitudes?
b) central
According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, a persuader with strong, convincing arguments should use the ________ route. a) peripheral b) central c) elaborative d) heuristic
Behaviorally Based Attitude
An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object is known as?
Cognitively Based Attitude
An attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object is known as a?
Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion
An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts or heuristics is known as?
1) a learning process that occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired - ex. conditioning a dog by ringing a bell, then giving them food - before, the bell meant nothing to them --> after conditioning, they know the bell = food 2) method of learning that occurs through *rewards & punishments* - ex. if dog gets treat for only peeing outside, he will no longer pee in the house, on the contrary... - if dog is punished when peeing inside, he will no longer do it 3) attitudes can be learned through imitation & modeling
Attitude Formation: 1) Classical conditioning? 2) Operant conditioning? 3) Social Learning Theory (Bandura 1977)
∙ importance & knowledge ∙ Importance: - how related the attitude is to self-interest, social identification, & value ∙ Knowledge: - how much a person knows about the attitude object
Attitude strength depends on the _________ & ________ of the attitude.
d) Explicit Attitudes
Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report a) Attitude Inoculation b) Implicit Attitudes c) Persuasive Communication d) Explicit Attitudes
b) exert stronger effects on behavior
Compared to attitudes acquired through indirect experience, attitudes acquired through direct experience: a) are the basis for slower more deliberate responses b) exert stronger effects on behavior c) are held with less confidence d) are weaker
1) if *YES* --> central route --> persuasion occurs if arguments are compelling --> listeners may think to themselves "this is so interesting", or "I cant wait to hear more!!" --> *result* --> attitude change that is long-lasting & resistant to change 2) if *NO* --> peripheral route --> persuasion occurs if peripheral cues (ex. length of lecture/attributes of lecturer) are compelling --> listeners may think to themselves "she is talking my ear off" or "this speaker us such a babe" --> *result* --> attitude change that is temporary & susceptible to further changes
ELM: Central vs. Peripheral route example: Do people have the *ability* & the *motivation* to pay attention to a lecture? 1) if yes, which route? what is the result? 2) if no, which route? what is the result?
∙ this model holds that there are 2 ways in which persuasive communication can cause attitude change ∙ *Centrally* (central route to persuasion): - when people have the motivation & the ability to elaborate on persuasive communications, listening carefully (high motivation) - persuasion will likely result from a person's careful and thoughtful consideration of the true merits of the information presented in support of an advocacy ∙ *Peripherally* (peripheral route to persuasion): - when people do *not* elaborate on the arguments & focus on the superficial aspects/cues (low motivation) - persuasion results from a person's association with positive or negative cues in the stimulus or making a simple inference about the merits of the advocated position - these cues will involve factors such as the credibility or attractiveness of the sources of the message, or the production quality of the message
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)? Centrally vs Peripherally attitude change?
1) persuasive messages that attempt to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears - ex. "smoking will kill you" - fear +attitude/behavioral change tactics = more effective 2) persuasive communication can cause attitude change either systematically *or* by using heuristics - takes on the Peripheral route (affectively based attitudes, experts are always right, how do i 'feel' about it) - Systematically: people think carefully about any available information when forming an opinion to determine whether the information is accurate or valid - Heuristically: involves using rules of thumb known as heuristics to decide what one's attitudes should be.
Emotions & Attitude Change: 1) what is Fear-arousing communication? 2) what is the Heuristic-systematic model of persuasion?
b) Attitudes
Evaluations of people, objects, and ideas a) Classical Conditioning b) Attitudes c) Implicit Attitudes d) Persuasive Communication
b. increase
Forewarning has been shown to often ____resistance to the persuasion that follows. a. weaken b. increase c. decrease d. neutralize
a. increases
If we receive arguments against our views along with arguments that refute these counterattitudinal positions, our resistance to subsequent persuasion attempts _____. a. increases b. weakens c. decreases d. stays about the same
∙ *Explicit* Attitudes: - attitudes within our conscious awareness, formed deliberately, that we can self-report - *ex.* you meet someone wearing a Patriots jersey, who is your favorite team --> - you decide you automatically like this person --> - you consciously noticed the jersey and determined that this was obviously someone with which you would get along --> - your attitude is at the conscious level, was deliberately formed and you are able to tell someone else about your attitude - ex. i like pizza ∙ *Implicit* Attitudes: - attitudes below our awareness, unconscious, involuntarily formed - *ex.* you are out talking to some friends & some strangers, but you feel very uncomfortable --> - however, you have no idea why. maybe one of the strangers reminds you of someone from your past that you disliked. your attitude toward this person is whats making you feel uncomfortable --> - however, the attitude is at the unconscious level, was involuntarily formed, and you have no idea it's there, so you couldn't tell anyone about it.
Implicit vs. Explicit Attitudes?
Attitude Inoculation
Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position is known as?
b) self-interest
One of the factors that plays a key role in determining attitude importance is how much impact the attitude has on the individual. This factor is called: a) social identification b) self-interest c) value relevance d) attitude comparison
1) making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of counterarguments - to keep existing attitudes and beliefs consistent in the face of attempts to change them - like medical inoculation (exposing the body to a weak form of a virus, so that if its ever faced with a stronger form of that virus, it will know what to expect and be ready to fight it) 2) when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, they are more likely to perform the behavior - occurs when a person feels that someone or something is taking away their choices or limiting the range of alternatives - *ex.* if skateboarding is prohibited at school, kids may be more likely to skate there, to deliberately taunt the authority who prohibits it
Resisting Attitude Change: 1) Attitude Inoculation? 2) Reactance Theory?
a) Every time she sees a puppy, she squeals in delight. - other options are either affective or cognitive
Sara loves puppies. Which of the following could be an example of the behavioral component of her attitude towards puppies? a) Every time she sees a puppy, she squeals in delight. b) She thinks all puppies are helpless and need to be protected. c) Every time she sees a puppy, she feels giddy. d) When she thinks about puppies, she experiences a boost in her mood.
∙ *Spontaneous Behavior:* - attitude accessibility: high v low (more direct experience means more accessibility) - more likely to occur when dealing with implicit attitudes, and in situations where you may not have a lot of time to consciously make decisions - you will be more likely to act in line with the attitude that is most easily accessible at the time of the social situation - the more direct your experience has been with the attitude, the more easily accessible it will be ∙ *Deliberate Behavior:* - you will often have more time to evaluate possible behaviors appropriate for the social situation - the best predictor of a person's behavior in these situations will be their attitude towards the target, their subjective norms, and their perceived behavioral control (the extent to which they believe they are in control of their behavior in the given situation) ∙ *theory of planned behavior:* - when people have time to think about how they will behave, the best predictor of their behavior is their intention - attitude towards the behavior - subjective norms - perceived behavioral control
Spontaneous vs Deliberate Behavior? Theory of Planned Behavior?
∙ (a form of priming/product placement), words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may influence people's judgments, attitudes, & behaviors - using words or images (stimuli) that consumers don't consciously detect - not always effective in everyday life, more effective in controlled lab settings - *ex.* Baskin Robbins logo. the 'BR' in the logo also makes the number 31, which is how many flavors they have
Subliminal Advertising?
a. conscious
Subliminal conditioning is classical conditioning that occurs in the absence of ___awareness of the stimuli involved. a. conscious b. nonconscious c. repeated d. automated
d. all of the above can occur
Suppose you strongly believe that eating healthy foods is important and you are about to eat a large order of french fries. What is most likely going to occur? a. you will feel a strong sense of dissonance b. you will change your behavior to match your attitude c. you will change your attitude to match your behavior d. all of the above can occur
c. reactance
Suppose your parents told you that you were not allowed to ride a motorcycle. Originally you did not have any real interest in riding one, however once your parents made that statement, you have had the overwhelming desire to ride one. This scenario exemplifies: a. cognitive dissonance b. selective avoidance c. reactance d. the perseverance effect
d) affective, behavioral, and cognitive
The ABC Model of Attitudes is comprised of which three components? a) antecedent, behavioral, cognitive b) attitudinal, behavioral, and cooperation c) affective, behavioral, and consequential d) affective, behavioral, and cognitive
b) decrease the amount of persuasion
The Elaboration Likelihood Model predicts that if weak arguments are added to strong arguments in a persuasive appeal, these weak arguments may actually: a) increase the amount of persuasion b) decrease the amount of persuasion c) not affect the amount of persuasion d) eliminate cognitive appraisal of the arguments
Central Route to Persuasion
The case in which people have both the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments presented is known as?
b) Theory of Planned Behavior
The idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control a) Attitude Accessibility b) Theory of Planned Behavior c) Explicit Attitudes d) Fear-Arousing Communication
b) reactance
The negative reaction which occurs when we perceive that someone is trying to limit our personal freedom is called: a) dissonance b) reactance c) discrepancy d) fogging
c) Operant Conditioning
The phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment a) Reactance Theory b) Central Route to Persuasion c) Operant Conditioning d) Explicit Attitudes
Attitude Accessibility
The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object is known as?
Yale Attitude Change Approach
The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience is known as?
c) hostile audience
The two-sided approach to communication is most effective with a: a) heckler b) sales pitch c) hostile audience d) negative message
∙ Def. 1: a complex mental state involving beliefs, feelings, values, & dispositions to act in certain ways ∙ Def. 2: evaluations of people, objects, & ideas - they determine what we will or will not do in certain situations - act as a part of our self-identity/self-knowledge
What is an Attitude?
a) peripheral
When atttitudes are changed without careful thought about the issue or the arguments being used, the persuasion route being used is the ________ route. a) peripheral b) central c) elaborative d) heuristic
b. central route to persuasion - remember, the central route to persuasion happens when people have the motivation & the ability to elaborate on persuasive communications, listening carefully
When one changes their attitude based upon systematic processing of information presented in the persuasive message this is called the a. heuristic processing method b. central route to persuasion c. peripheral route to persuasion d. main transfer route to persuasion
c. positively
When serious symptoms that could occur because of one's own health-related behavior are easy to imagine, a ______framed message is most effective at inducing change. a. fear-inducing b. negatively c. positively d. neutrally
a) theory of planned behavior; attitude to behavior process model
Whether a student will actually undergo body piercing to wear a "belly button ring" is best predicted by the ________; how someone reacts to a beggar who approaches them on the street is best predicted by the ________. a) theory of planned behavior; attitude to behavior process model b) attitude to behavior process model; theory of planned behavior c) theory of planned behavior; theory of planned behavior d) attitude to behavior process model; attitude to behavior process model
a. 18-25 years of age
Which age group is more likely to be persuaded by a message? a. 18-25 years of age b. 26-35 years of age c. 36-45 years of age d. 46-55 years of age
c) attitude change depends on the presence of persuasion cues
Which is true regarding persuasion on the peripheral route? a) produces long-lasting, permanent attitude change b) attitude change results from careful processing of information in the message c) attitude change depends on the presence of persuasion cues d) is especially likely when the message is relevant to the receiver
d. All of the above are correct
Which of the following can significantly effect how persuasive a message is? a. If the speaker talks fast b. If the speaker is perceived as credible c. If the speaker is perceived to be competent d. All of the above are correct
b) people who speak slowly are more persuasive than people who speak rapidly
Which of the following is not a finding reported by the researchers who studied persuasion using the Yale approach? a) experts are more persuasive than nonexperts b) people who speak slowly are more persuasive than people who speak rapidly c) persuasion can be enhanced by fear-arousing messages d) distracting a person from a message can produce greater persuasion than a person who is allowed to pay full attention to the message
a) accurate predictions of specific behavior can be dervied from people's specific attitudes
Which of the following is true? a) accurate predictions of specific behavior can be dervied from people's specific attitudes b) attitudes formed as a result of direct experience are poor predictors of behavior c) the more general the attitudes involved, the greater the accuracy in predicting particular behaviors d) the best conclusion is that attitudes do not predict behavior
a) peripheral
Zoe just watched a commercial advertising a new brand of soda. She decides to try it out because her favorite athlete appeared in the commercial and endorsed it. Zoe just took the _____ route to persuasion. a) peripheral b) short c) long d) central
∙ False - explicit attitudes are attitudes within our conscious awareness, formed deliberately, that we can self-report
[T/F] Attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness are Explicit Attitudes.
1) behavior (how we act in our social environments, how we interact with others) 2) attention (several concepts can be tied in here; confirmation bias, self-fulfilling prophecy, actor/observer bias. etc) 3) how we perceive & interact with the attitude object
what 3 things do attitudes influence?