BIO 101 Exam 3 Salihu WVU

genetic engineering

Adding, deleting, or transplanting genes from one organism to another, to alter the organisms in useful ways

genetic markers

Allows researchers or counselors to identify harmful alleles (forms of genes) in the genetic material of an individual. Uses: Diagnostic or predictive information

mutation

A change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

plasmid

a circular DNA molecule found outside the main chromosome in bacteria

karyotype

a display of an individuals complete set of chromosomes

errors in meiosis

deviations from normal chromosome number can lead to problems/abnormal chromosome # in a egg or sperm

how differences in DNA sequence result in dif DNA profiles

differences in DNA sequence result in different DNA fragment lengths and those fragments move differently in a gel and that results in different band patterns on the gel

autosomes

all the chromosomes except the sex chromosomes; there are 22 pairs

amniocentesis

amniotic fluid is taken from fetus around 14-20 weeks, takes weeks to test

sex chromosomes

are the X and Y chromosomes; each individ has 1 pair

semi-conservative process

during replication half conserved from the original DNA, half is new

diploid

cells that have two copies of each chromosome (23 pairs, 46 total); somatic cells

haploid

cells with a single copy of each chromosome; gametes

proto-oncogene

code for proteins that help to regulate cell growth and differentiation; when mutated increases cell division/cancer; like accelerator

recombinant DNA technology

combination of DNA from two or more sources into a product

DNA repair and proof read enzyme

correct mistakes during DNA replication

DNA polymerase

critical for process of DNA replication; adds new DNA nucleotides to the end of primer as it builds a strand complementary to the template strand

mutagens

environmental factors tht cause mutations

DNA ligase

enzyme that facilitates the joining of DNA strands by catalyzing the formation of the phosphodiester bond

restriction enzymes

enzymes that recognize and bind to different specific sequences of four to eight bases in DNA and cut the DNA at that point; impt in biotechnology bcthey permit the cutting of short lengths of DNA which can be inserted into other chromosomes

spindle fibers

fibers that extend from one side of the cell to the other that pull the sister chromatids in anaphase of mitosis

site of meiosis

germ cells

DNA replication in eukaryotes

happens in nucleus

Taq polymerase

heat resistant enzyme used in PCR bc it won't denature

nuclear cell division

in eukaryotic cells; mitosis

GMO (genetically modified organisms)

the manipulation of a species' genome in ways that do not normally occur in nature

biotechnology

the use of technology to modify organisms; all DNA technology used to achieve practical societal benefits

tumor suppressor gene

when normal is a growth inhibiting protein and cell division is under control; when mutated is defective and nonfunctioning and cell division is not under control; act like brakes

S-phase

where DNA replication occurs; before mitosis

chorionic villus sampling

placenta tissue is taken and tested when fetus is around 10-12 weeks; several hours to test

common vectors used in recombinant DNA

plasmid and viruses

personalized medicine

prescribing treatments and therapeutics best suited for an indiv based on genetic and environmental factors that influence response to therapy; uses DNA

telomerase

prevents telomere shortening; less in cancer cells

binary fission

prok cell division that leads to asexual reproduction, where every bacterial cell is identical unless mutation occurs; cell doubles DNA and then pinches into two

telomere

protective cap of chromosomes; non-coding, highly repetitive section of DNA at the tip of euk chromosomes that shorten w every cell division; if too short then cell division can cause the loss of functional DNA and causes cell death

genomics

refers to data about DNA genome

transcriptomics

refers to data on mRNA transcripts; the transcriptome

proteomics

refers to data on proteins (proteome)

metabolomics

refers to data on small molecules (metabolome)

centromere

region of contact after replication located near the middle of two strands

crispr

relatively new molecular mechanism used to edit DNA; can modify multiple genes at the same time in an animal/plant cell; more precise and efficient than current technology

gene therapy

replacing defective genes with normal genes into cells; has limited success; uses a vector to carry gene into body

sister chromatids

replicated chromosomes that are identical

cleavage furrow

indentation of the cell's surface that begins the progression of cleavage

personal omics profiling

integrating all the OMICS field to develop personalized medicine

chromatin

material chromosomes are made of; consists of RNA, DNA, and protein

homologues

maternal and paternal copies of a chromosome

number of cell divisions in mitosis/meiosis

mitosis- 1 meiosis- 2 (cytokenesis)

polyploidy

more than 2 complete sets of chromosomes; usually in plants, will see bigger flowers/fruits

interphase I

stage before mitosis; chromosomes replicated; DNA has a threadlike apperance; G1, S phase, G2

cytokinesis

stage following mitosis and meiosis I and II; where cytoplasm and organelles duplicate and divide; cytoplasmic division; happens twice in meiosis and once in mitosis

PCR

start w a small quantity of DNA and end up with large amounts of that piece of DNA; uses heat to denature DNA into 2 single strands then uses Taq polymease to synthesize new DNA

oncogene

mutated proto-oncogene

hereditary mutations

mutation occurs during fertilization/in sperm and egg

acquired mutation

mutation that happens in somatic cells and is caused by environmental factors

how DNA profiling is done

obtain DNA samples, increase amount of DNA by PCR, cut with specific restriciton enzymes, seperate fragments on gel by doing gel electrophoresis, compare patterns

STR (short tandem repeats)

short repeating sequences of DNA at a given locus; for a given region the same seq repeats, but # of times differs by individual

one-gene, one-protein hypothesis

one chromosome has a gene that codes for one protein

epigenetics

one's experiences and behavior can influence gene expression (your grandmother's experiences can be inherited through DNA changes)

transgenic organisms

organism has a gene/DNA from a different species

change in chromosome number

pairs fail to seperate in meiosis 1 or sister chromatids fail to seperate during meiosis 2

site of mitosis

somatic cells

XXX females

sometimes called "metafemales"; indiv may be sterile but no obvious issues

XYY males

sometimes refered to as super males; live majority of life without knowing

Klinefelter Syndrome

XXY; individ has two X chromosomes, they are femenized males

Turner Syndrome

X_; only condition where humans can survive w/o one pair of chromosomes

1st meiotic divison

seperation of homologus chromosomes

2nd meiotic divison

seperation of sister chromatids; most similar to mitosis

number of chromosomal duplications mitosis/meiosis

1 for each in S-phase

natural protection against mutation

1. DNA proofreading 2. DNA repair 3. checking RNAs as they are made 4. eliminating malformed proteins 5. genetic code

causes of mutations

1. Radiation 2. Chemical 3. Spontaneous

reasons for mitosis

1. asexual reproduction 2. growth and repair of tissue 3. injury healing

abnormalities that occur when there's a change in chromosome #

1. change in autosomal chromosome number 2. change in sex chromosomes

reasons for meiosis

1. formation of egg and sperm 2. introduce genetic variability in a population

how DNA damage happens

1. mistakes during DNA replication 2. modify nucleotide bases, phosphate backbone broken

fears and risks of GMOs

1. organisms that we want to kill my become invincible 2. organisms we don't want to kill may be killed inadvertently 3. gm crops are not tested or regulated adequately 4. eating gm foods is dangerous 5. loss of genetic diversity among crops is risky 6. hidden costs may reduce financial benefits

contributions of genetic diversity

1. random alignment of chromosomes 2. crossing over 3. alleles come from 2 parents

prophase I

1st step in meiosis; replicated chromosomes condense; spindle fibers form; nuclear membrane breaks down; homologus chromosomes pair; gene cross over occurs between nonsister chromosomes

prophase II

1st step of meiosis II; chromosomes condense; spindle fibers form; nuclear membrane breaks down

daughter cells in mitosis

2 identical diploid cells; have the same number of chromosomes as parent cell

metaphase I

2nd step in meiosis/mitosis; paired homologous chromosomes line up along cell equator; mitosis- one line of chrom, meiosis- paired chrom

metaphase II

2nd step of meiosis II; chromosome line up along equator of cell; fibers attach to chromatids

anaphase I

3rd step in meiosis/mitosis; homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles

anaphase II

3rd step of meiosis II; sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) separate and move toward opposite poles

products of meiosis

4 genetically nonidentical haploid daughter cells; gametes (egg and sperm); daughter cells with half # of chrom from parent cell

telophase II

4th step in meiosis II; spindle fibers break down; chromosomes de-condense; nuclear membrane reform

telophase I

4th step in meiosis/mitosis; spindle fibers break down; chromosomes become long and thin; nuclear membranes partially reform

MaterniT21

Sequenom's blood test for down syndrome

PCR (polymerase chain reaction)

Used to "amplify" (make more) the quantity of DNA

DNA profiling/DNA fingerprinting

Used to compare DNA samples to each other to determine relatedness; used for Forensics, paternity suits, animal tracking studies, classification studies.

relationship between proto-oncogene and tumor suppressor gene

like brake and accelerator, need both to maintain speed; when these two are balanced you have regular cell division

OMICS

means mass of measurment

silent mutation

type of mutation that doesn't alter phenotype

base substitution

type of mutation that is sometimes called silent mutations, one nucleotide is switched; frame not altered

base deletion

type of mutation where a nucleotide is deleted from sequense; more disasterous bc frame is altered

base insertion

type of mutation; more harmful; alter reading frame by inserting a nucleotide

non-disjunction

unequal distrubution of chromosomes during meiosis; error of cell division that creates a gamete w 0 or 2 copies of a chromosome

gel electrophoresis

used to seperate DNA fragments according to size