Bio Midterm (Honorlock Exam)
1. Why is the net production of ATP in glycolysis 2 ATP, when actually 4 ATP are produced?
- The net production of ATP in glycolysis is 2 ATP because we used 2 ATP
What is the importance of NADH and FADH2?
- These two compounds transport electrons into the mitochondria to be used in the electron transport chain.
What is the process by which the cell physically divides? Is this cellular or nuclear division?
- This process is called Cytokinesis and its nuclear division because the cell is splitting in two
Spontaneity
how capable of proceeding in a given direction without needing to be driven by an outside source of energy
Allosterically
inhibitor molecules bind to enzymes in a location where their binding induces a conformational change that reduces the enzyme's affinity for its substrate
Cofactor
inorganic ion, such as iron and magnesium ions, required for optimal enzyme activity regulation
Reduction
involves gaining electrons
Oxidation
involves losing electrons
Substrate
level phosphorylation: production of ATP from ADP using the excess energy from a chemical reaction and a phosphate group from a reactant
Sister Chromatids
the identical copies formed by the DNA replication of a chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere
noncompetitive inhibition
the inhibitor binds with the enzyme at a site other than the active site and inactivates the enzyme by altering its shape.
Catabolism
the metabolic process of breaking down molecules
Anabolism
the metabolic process of building up molecules
What are the imaginary plane chromosomes align themselves on during metaphase?
the metaphase plate
Cell Division
the process cells go through to divide. Mitosis, Meiosis, and Binary Fission are the three types of cell division
Cellular Respiration
the process of making ATP using the chemical energy in glucose and other nutrients
Reduction
compound gains electrons
Oxidation
compound loses electrons
Cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm following mitosis that forms two daughter cells
Chromatin
each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA.
2nd law of thermodynamics
energy changes from one form to another form, or matter moves freely, entropy (disorder) in a closed system increases
Activation Energy
energy necessary for reactions to occur
1. Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing __________ to pyruvate.
glucose
Electron Transport Chain
group of proteins between PSII and PSI that pass energized electrons and use the energy released by the electrons to move hydrogen ions against their concentration gradient into the thylakoid lumen
What are the products at the end of the Kreb Cycle?
- 10 NADH and 2 FADH2
How many chromosomes does each daughter cell have?
- 46 Chromosomes
What happens to pyruvate after glycolysis in the presence of oxygen?
- After glycolysis, glucose is turned into 2 pyruvate molecules
What is an alternate name for the Krebs Cycle?
- Citric Acid Cycle
You are in the gym doing squats with very heavy weights. On your third set, your legs are shaky and you can barely squeeze out another rep. Suddenly, you see your rival push out squats like they were nothing. You immediately find the energy you need to max out a few more reps. Your oxygen is gone after this point. c. Bacteria such as yeast also follow a similar process. What is this process called?
- Glycolysis
Are the daughter cells identical, similar, or different from the parent cells?
- Identical to the parent cells
1. Explain the main purpose of oxygen in cellular respiration. Specifically, its role in the electron transport chain.
- Oxygen is the final electron receptor in the electron transport chain. Oxygen is also necessary to power some steps of cellular respiration, such as pyruvate oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
In what phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?
- The S Phase
Catalyst
A substance that helps a chemical reaction to occur
During cellular respiration, ______ is made through the oxidation of glucose
ATP
Two of the most common types of fermentation performed by organisms in anaerobic conditions are lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. What are their similarities and differences?
Both lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation do not need oxygen. They both create 2 ATP molecules and come from pyruvate. Alcoholic fermentation involves yeast, while lactic acid fermentation involves muscles.
You are in the gym doing squats with very heavy weights. On your third set, your legs are shaky and you can barely squeeze out another rep. Suddenly, you see your rival push out squats like they were nothing. You immediately find the energy you need to max out a few more reps. Your oxygen is gone after this point. a. What specific process has your body undergone to create the necessary energy for you to do more reps?
Anaerobic Respiration
Enzyme
catalyst in a biochemical reaction that is usually a complex or conjugated protein
You are in the gym doing squats with very heavy weights. On your third set, your legs are shaky and you can barely squeeze out another rep. Suddenly, you see your rival push out squats like they were nothing. You immediately find the energy you need to max out a few more reps. Your oxygen is gone after this point. b. What molecule is being created as a result of this process?
Carbon Dioxide
Catabolism
Catabolic pathways involve degrading (or breaking down) complex molecules into simpler
Cofactors VS Coenzyme
Cofactors are organic molecules. Coenzymes are minerals, which are non-organic molecules
What does the symbol ΔG represent?
Delta G; the free energy change of a reaction
Endergonic
Endergonic reaction describes chemical reactions that require energy input. Endergonic reaction means that the free energy of the products is higher than that of the reactants.
What are the functions of an enzyme? How does an enzyme affect activation energy?
Enzymes are molecules that catalyze (accelerate) reactions. They lower the activation energy that is required for a reaction. Enzymes can also build up molecules/break them down
Exergonic
Exergonic reaction describes chemical reactions that release free energy. Exergonic reaction means that the free energy of the products is lower than that of the reactants
Electron carriers
In living systems, a small class of compounds functions as electron shuttles: they bind and carry high-energy electrons between compounds in biochemical pathways
Redox reaction
chemical reaction that consists of the coupling of an oxidation reaction and a reduction reaction
Are sugars the only macromolecule that can enter aerobic respiration to produce ATP? If not, what other macromolecules can be used?
No, other macromolecules can be used, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats
1. What process is responsible for turning pyruvate into acetyl? What are the byproducts of such reaction?
Pyruvate Oxidation turns pyruvate into acetyl. The byproducts of this reaction are CO2 molecules
Laws of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics refers to the study of energy and energy transfer involving physical matter.
Homologous chromosomes
chromosomes of the same morphology with genes in the same location; diploid organisms have pairs of homologous chromosomes (homologs), with each homolog derived from a different parent
Types of Inhibition
competitive and noncompetitive
Depolymerization is the process of breaking up polymers to monomers. Is this anabolic or catabolic?
catabolic because the process is breaking down molecules.
competitive inhibition
a process by which a chemical substance has a shape that fits the active site of an enzyme and competes with the substrate, effectively inhibiting the enzyme.
Feedback inhibition
a product's effect of a reaction sequence to decrease its further production by inhibiting the first enzyme's activity in the pathway that produces it
Aster
a radiating array of microtubules associated with a centrosome in a dividing cell
Enzyme Substrate Complex
a temporary molecule formed when an enzyme comes into perfect contact with its substrate
Chromosome
a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
1st law of thermodynamics
also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; energy can only be transferred or changed from one form to another.
Is the process of going from ADP to ATP anabolic or catabolic?
anabolic because it is building up
Polymerization is the process of building a polymer from monomers. Is this anabolic or catabolic?
anabolic because the process is building up molecules
- In Cytokinesis in _____________, a cleavage furrow forms to pinch the cell in half
animal cells
Spindle
apparatus composed of microtubules that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during mitosis
What are the two metabolic pathways?
catabolic and anabolic
Is the process of going from ATP to ADP anabolic or catabolic?
catabolic because it is breaking it down more.
Entropy
measure of randomness or disorder within a system
Checkpoint
mechanism that monitors the preparedness of a eukaryotic cell to advance through the various cell-cycle stages
ATP synthase
membrane-embedded protein complex that adds a phosphate to ADP with energy from protons diffusing through it
Cell Cycle
ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells
Centrosome
organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell, as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression
Kreb( Citric Acid) Cycle
part of cellular respiration, at the center of cellular metabolism, playing a starring role in both the process of energy production and biosynthesis. It finishes the sugar-breaking job started in glycolysis and fuels the production of ATP in the process.
Mitotic Phase
period of the cell cycle during which duplicated chromosomes are distributed into two nuclei and cytoplasmic contents are divided; includes karyokinesis and cytokinesis
Mitosis
period of the cell cycle during which the duplicated chromosomes are distributed into two nuclei and cytoplasmic contents are divided; includes karyokinesis and cytokinesis
Interphase
period of the cell cycle leading up to mitosis; includes G1, S, and G2 phases (the interim period between two consecutive cell divisions)
- In Cytokinesis in __________, a cell plate is formed
plants
Aerobic respiration
process in which organisms convert energy in the presence of oxygen
Chemiosmosis
process in which there is a production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in cellular metabolism by the involvement of a proton gradient across a membrane
Glycolysis
process of breaking glucose into two three-carbon molecules with the production of ATP and NADH
Fermentation
process of regenerating NAD+ with either an inorganic or organic compound serving as the final electron acceptor; occurs in the absence of oxygen
Anaerobic respiration
process that does not use oxygen
Oxidative phosphorylation
production of ATP using the process of chemiosmosis in the presence of oxygen
Binary Fission
prokaryotic cell division process
Kinetochore
protein structure associated with the centromere of each sister chromatid that attracts and binds spindle microtubules during pro metaphase
Cytochrome
proteins that contain heme as their prosthetic group and whose principal biological function, in the cells of animals, plants, and microorganisms, is electron transport.
Centromere
region at which sister chromatids are bound together; a constricted area in condensed chromosomes
Origin of Replication
region of the prokaryotic chromosome where replication begins
Centriole
rod-like structure constructed of microtubules at the center of each animal cell centrosome
Coenzyme
small organic molecule, such as a vitamin or its derivative, which is required to enhance an enzyme's activity
Gibbs Free Energy
specifically refers to the energy associated with a chemical reaction that is available after accounting for entropy. In other words, Gibbs free energy is usable energy or energy that is available to do work
Cell Plate
structure formed during plant cell cytokinesis by Golgi vesicles, forming a temporary structure (phragmoplast) and fusing at the metaphase plate; ultimately leads to the formation of cell walls that separate the two daughter cells
Somatic Cells
the cells of an organism that are not germ cells, or reproductive cells.
What is a redox reaction?
the change of oxidation in an atom
Pyruvate Oxidation
the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by the enzyme complex pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
3rd law of thermodynamics
the entropy of a system at absolute zero is a well-defined constant
+ΔG
the reaction is endergonic and non-spontaneous
-ΔG
the reaction is exergonic and spontaneous
During mitosis, what do microtubules attach to on the chromosomes?
to the kinetochore
Enthalpy
total energy of a system
Genome
total genetic information of a cell or organism
What is meant by an enzymes optimum?
when the enzyme is most activated
optimal pH
where the curve is the highest, in other words, where it peaks