Bio Midterm (Honorlock Exam)

1. Why is the net production of ATP in glycolysis 2 ATP, when actually 4 ATP are produced?

- The net production of ATP in glycolysis is 2 ATP because we used 2 ATP

What is the importance of NADH and FADH2?

- These two compounds transport electrons into the mitochondria to be used in the electron transport chain.

What is the process by which the cell physically divides? Is this cellular or nuclear division?

- This process is called Cytokinesis and its nuclear division because the cell is splitting in two

Spontaneity

how capable of proceeding in a given direction without needing to be driven by an outside source of energy

Allosterically

inhibitor molecules bind to enzymes in a location where their binding induces a conformational change that reduces the enzyme's affinity for its substrate

Cofactor

inorganic ion, such as iron and magnesium ions, required for optimal enzyme activity regulation

Reduction

involves gaining electrons

Oxidation

involves losing electrons

Substrate

level phosphorylation: production of ATP from ADP using the excess energy from a chemical reaction and a phosphate group from a reactant

Sister Chromatids

the identical copies formed by the DNA replication of a chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere

noncompetitive inhibition

the inhibitor binds with the enzyme at a site other than the active site and inactivates the enzyme by altering its shape.

Catabolism

the metabolic process of breaking down molecules

Anabolism

the metabolic process of building up molecules

What are the imaginary plane chromosomes align themselves on during metaphase?

the metaphase plate

Cell Division

the process cells go through to divide. Mitosis, Meiosis, and Binary Fission are the three types of cell division

Cellular Respiration

the process of making ATP using the chemical energy in glucose and other nutrients

Reduction

compound gains electrons

Oxidation

compound loses electrons

Cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm following mitosis that forms two daughter cells

Chromatin

each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA.

2nd law of thermodynamics

energy changes from one form to another form, or matter moves freely, entropy (disorder) in a closed system increases

Activation Energy

energy necessary for reactions to occur

1. Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing __________ to pyruvate.

glucose

Electron Transport Chain

group of proteins between PSII and PSI that pass energized electrons and use the energy released by the electrons to move hydrogen ions against their concentration gradient into the thylakoid lumen

What are the products at the end of the Kreb Cycle?

- 10 NADH and 2 FADH2

How many chromosomes does each daughter cell have?

- 46 Chromosomes

What happens to pyruvate after glycolysis in the presence of oxygen?

- After glycolysis, glucose is turned into 2 pyruvate molecules

What is an alternate name for the Krebs Cycle?

- Citric Acid Cycle

You are in the gym doing squats with very heavy weights. On your third set, your legs are shaky and you can barely squeeze out another rep. Suddenly, you see your rival push out squats like they were nothing. You immediately find the energy you need to max out a few more reps. Your oxygen is gone after this point. c. Bacteria such as yeast also follow a similar process. What is this process called?

- Glycolysis

Are the daughter cells identical, similar, or different from the parent cells?

- Identical to the parent cells

1. Explain the main purpose of oxygen in cellular respiration. Specifically, its role in the electron transport chain.

- Oxygen is the final electron receptor in the electron transport chain. Oxygen is also necessary to power some steps of cellular respiration, such as pyruvate oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.

In what phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

- The S Phase

Catalyst

A substance that helps a chemical reaction to occur

During cellular respiration, ______ is made through the oxidation of glucose

ATP

Two of the most common types of fermentation performed by organisms in anaerobic conditions are lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. What are their similarities and differences?

Both lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation do not need oxygen. They both create 2 ATP molecules and come from pyruvate. Alcoholic fermentation involves yeast, while lactic acid fermentation involves muscles.

You are in the gym doing squats with very heavy weights. On your third set, your legs are shaky and you can barely squeeze out another rep. Suddenly, you see your rival push out squats like they were nothing. You immediately find the energy you need to max out a few more reps. Your oxygen is gone after this point. a. What specific process has your body undergone to create the necessary energy for you to do more reps?

Anaerobic Respiration

Enzyme

catalyst in a biochemical reaction that is usually a complex or conjugated protein

You are in the gym doing squats with very heavy weights. On your third set, your legs are shaky and you can barely squeeze out another rep. Suddenly, you see your rival push out squats like they were nothing. You immediately find the energy you need to max out a few more reps. Your oxygen is gone after this point. b. What molecule is being created as a result of this process?

Carbon Dioxide

Catabolism

Catabolic pathways involve degrading (or breaking down) complex molecules into simpler

Cofactors VS Coenzyme

Cofactors are organic molecules. Coenzymes are minerals, which are non-organic molecules

What does the symbol ΔG represent?

Delta G; the free energy change of a reaction

Endergonic

Endergonic reaction describes chemical reactions that require energy input. Endergonic reaction means that the free energy of the products is higher than that of the reactants.

What are the functions of an enzyme? How does an enzyme affect activation energy?

Enzymes are molecules that catalyze (accelerate) reactions. They lower the activation energy that is required for a reaction. Enzymes can also build up molecules/break them down

Exergonic

Exergonic reaction describes chemical reactions that release free energy. Exergonic reaction means that the free energy of the products is lower than that of the reactants

Electron carriers

In living systems, a small class of compounds functions as electron shuttles: they bind and carry high-energy electrons between compounds in biochemical pathways

Redox reaction

chemical reaction that consists of the coupling of an oxidation reaction and a reduction reaction

Are sugars the only macromolecule that can enter aerobic respiration to produce ATP? If not, what other macromolecules can be used?

No, other macromolecules can be used, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats

1. What process is responsible for turning pyruvate into acetyl? What are the byproducts of such reaction?

Pyruvate Oxidation turns pyruvate into acetyl. The byproducts of this reaction are CO2 molecules

Laws of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics refers to the study of energy and energy transfer involving physical matter.

Homologous chromosomes

chromosomes of the same morphology with genes in the same location; diploid organisms have pairs of homologous chromosomes (homologs), with each homolog derived from a different parent

Types of Inhibition

competitive and noncompetitive

Depolymerization is the process of breaking up polymers to monomers. Is this anabolic or catabolic?

catabolic because the process is breaking down molecules.

competitive inhibition

a process by which a chemical substance has a shape that fits the active site of an enzyme and competes with the substrate, effectively inhibiting the enzyme.

Feedback inhibition

a product's effect of a reaction sequence to decrease its further production by inhibiting the first enzyme's activity in the pathway that produces it

Aster

a radiating array of microtubules associated with a centrosome in a dividing cell

Enzyme Substrate Complex

a temporary molecule formed when an enzyme comes into perfect contact with its substrate

Chromosome

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes

1st law of thermodynamics

also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; energy can only be transferred or changed from one form to another.

Is the process of going from ADP to ATP anabolic or catabolic?

anabolic because it is building up

Polymerization is the process of building a polymer from monomers. Is this anabolic or catabolic?

anabolic because the process is building up molecules

- In Cytokinesis in _____________, a cleavage furrow forms to pinch the cell in half

animal cells

Spindle

apparatus composed of microtubules that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during mitosis

What are the two metabolic pathways?

catabolic and anabolic

Is the process of going from ATP to ADP anabolic or catabolic?

catabolic because it is breaking it down more.

Entropy

measure of randomness or disorder within a system

Checkpoint

mechanism that monitors the preparedness of a eukaryotic cell to advance through the various cell-cycle stages

ATP synthase

membrane-embedded protein complex that adds a phosphate to ADP with energy from protons diffusing through it

Cell Cycle

ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells

Centrosome

organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell, as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression

Kreb( Citric Acid) Cycle

part of cellular respiration, at the center of cellular metabolism, playing a starring role in both the process of energy production and biosynthesis. It finishes the sugar-breaking job started in glycolysis and fuels the production of ATP in the process.

Mitotic Phase

period of the cell cycle during which duplicated chromosomes are distributed into two nuclei and cytoplasmic contents are divided; includes karyokinesis and cytokinesis

Mitosis

period of the cell cycle during which the duplicated chromosomes are distributed into two nuclei and cytoplasmic contents are divided; includes karyokinesis and cytokinesis

Interphase

period of the cell cycle leading up to mitosis; includes G1, S, and G2 phases (the interim period between two consecutive cell divisions)

- In Cytokinesis in __________, a cell plate is formed

plants

Aerobic respiration

process in which organisms convert energy in the presence of oxygen

Chemiosmosis

process in which there is a production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in cellular metabolism by the involvement of a proton gradient across a membrane

Glycolysis

process of breaking glucose into two three-carbon molecules with the production of ATP and NADH

Fermentation

process of regenerating NAD+ with either an inorganic or organic compound serving as the final electron acceptor; occurs in the absence of oxygen

Anaerobic respiration

process that does not use oxygen

Oxidative phosphorylation

production of ATP using the process of chemiosmosis in the presence of oxygen

Binary Fission

prokaryotic cell division process

Kinetochore

protein structure associated with the centromere of each sister chromatid that attracts and binds spindle microtubules during pro metaphase

Cytochrome

proteins that contain heme as their prosthetic group and whose principal biological function, in the cells of animals, plants, and microorganisms, is electron transport.

Centromere

region at which sister chromatids are bound together; a constricted area in condensed chromosomes

Origin of Replication

region of the prokaryotic chromosome where replication begins

Centriole

rod-like structure constructed of microtubules at the center of each animal cell centrosome

Coenzyme

small organic molecule, such as a vitamin or its derivative, which is required to enhance an enzyme's activity

Gibbs Free Energy

specifically refers to the energy associated with a chemical reaction that is available after accounting for entropy. In other words, Gibbs free energy is usable energy or energy that is available to do work

Cell Plate

structure formed during plant cell cytokinesis by Golgi vesicles, forming a temporary structure (phragmoplast) and fusing at the metaphase plate; ultimately leads to the formation of cell walls that separate the two daughter cells

Somatic Cells

the cells of an organism that are not germ cells, or reproductive cells.

What is a redox reaction?

the change of oxidation in an atom

Pyruvate Oxidation

the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by the enzyme complex pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

3rd law of thermodynamics

the entropy of a system at absolute zero is a well-defined constant

+ΔG

the reaction is endergonic and non-spontaneous

-ΔG

the reaction is exergonic and spontaneous

During mitosis, what do microtubules attach to on the chromosomes?

to the kinetochore

Enthalpy

total energy of a system

Genome

total genetic information of a cell or organism

What is meant by an enzymes optimum?

when the enzyme is most activated

optimal pH

where the curve is the highest, in other words, where it peaks