Biopsych Essay Questions Exam #4
What is Dyslexia and define two forms of dyslexia. Some investigators have evidence that dyslexia may be a consequence of altered attentional processing, describe the findings.
-dyslexia: is a specific impairment of reading in a person with adequate skills in other academic areas - dysphonic dyslexia: difficulty sounding out words -dyseidetic dyslexia: fail to recognize the word as a whole
What is bipolar disorder and identify as well as define the two subtypes of bipolar disorder? Identify pharmaceuticals used to reduce symptoms.
Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder characterized by fluctuations in mood, energy levels, and activity levels. The two primary subtypes of bipolar disorder are Bipolar I Disorder and Bipolar II Disorder. Bipolar I Disorder is marked by manic episodes, which involve periods of elevated or irritable mood, increased energy or activity levels, and impulsivity, often accompanied by symptoms of psychosis such as hallucinations or delusions. Depressive episodes may also occur in Bipolar I Disorder. Bipolar II Disorder involves recurrent episodes of major depression alternating with hypomanic episodes, which are similar to manic episodes but less severe in intensity and duration. Individuals with Bipolar II Disorder do not experience full-blown manic episodes. Pharmaceuticals commonly used to reduce symptoms of bipolar disorder include mood stabilizers such as lithium and anticonvulsant medications like valproate or lamotrigine, which help stabilize mood and prevent the recurrence of manic or depressive episodes. Additionally, atypical antipsychotic medications may be used to manage symptoms of mania or psychosis in bipolar disorder.
Describe the symptoms of Broca's Aphasia. What region of the brain is compromised in cases of this disorder, Where is the Broca's area? Is this disorder characterized by language production problems, language comprehension problems or both? Provide examples from the case of Mr. Landry
Brocas' aphasia:refers to serious impairment in language production, usually due to brain damage. omission of most pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, tense, and number endings during speech production.broca's area is located just behind the lateral prefrontal cortex
Based of your reading of Sack's "The President's Speech" why would you employ an aphasic as a human "lie detector"? Which hemisphere allows them to function in this lie detection capacity and why?
In Oliver Sacks' "The President's Speech," aphasics demonstrate an exceptional ability to function as human "lie detectors" due to their reliance on non-verbal cues rather than spoken language to discern truthfulness. Aphasics, who often have damage to the left hemisphere of the brain responsible for language processing, compensate by utilizing their right hemisphere, which excels in interpreting emotional and non-verbal signals. This heightened sensitivity to tone of voice, facial expressions, and body language allows aphasics to detect insincerity and deception that others might overlook. The right hemisphere's specialization in these areas makes aphasics particularly adept at sensing when someone's emotional expression and non-verbal behavior do not align with their spoken words, thereby revealing potential lies.
Based on your reading of Sack's "A Matter of Identity" what health challenge is the person experiencing and why is this health condition associated with the topic of aphasia? Describe the specific type of aphasia that this person expresses and the nature of the symptoms.
In Oliver Sacks' "A Matter of Identity," the individual is experiencing a health challenge related to Korsakoff's syndrome, a chronic memory disorder often caused by severe thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, most commonly due to alcoholism. This condition is associated with aphasia because it affects cognitive functions and the ability to form new memories, which can impact language and communication. The specific type of aphasia expressed by the person in this story is an anomic aphasia, characterized by difficulty in finding words, especially names and nouns. The patient demonstrates symptoms such as fluent speech with relatively intact grammar and comprehension but struggles with significant word-finding difficulties and impaired short-term memory. This form of aphasia highlights the link between memory deficits and language production, underscoring how damage to certain brain regions can disrupt both cognitive and linguistic abilities.
Describe the term lateralization of function. What do bio psychologists mean when they use this term? For example, why is language considered a lateralized function?
Lateralization of function refers to the tendency for certain cognitive processes or neural functions to be more dominant in one hemisphere of the brain than the other. When biopsychologists use this term, they are highlighting how different tasks and abilities are primarily controlled by either the left or the right hemisphere. For example, language is considered a lateralized function because, in most people, language processing areas such as Broca's and Wernicke's areas are predominantly located in the left hemisphere. This specialization allows for more efficient processing and coordination of complex tasks such as speaking, understanding language, and reading.
Describe symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder and factors that may contribute to this mental health condition. Describe therapies that may be effective in reducing symptoms.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) encompasses a range of symptoms that affect social interaction, communication, and behavior. Common symptoms include challenges in understanding and interpreting social cues, difficulties in maintaining eye contact and engaging in reciprocal conversation, repetitive behaviors such as hand-flapping or rocking, and adherence to rigid routines or rituals. Sensory sensitivities, such as being overly sensitive or under-responsive to sensory stimuli, are also prevalent. While the exact cause of ASD is not fully understood, a combination of genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and prenatal influences are believed to contribute to its development. Effective therapies for reducing symptoms of ASD include behavioral interventions such as Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), which focuses on teaching social, communication, and adaptive skills, speech therapy to improve communication abilities, occupational therapy to address sensory sensitivities and promote daily living skills, and social skills training programs to enhance social interaction abilities in structured settings. Early intervention and a comprehensive, individualized treatment approach are essential for managing symptoms and promoting optimal development in individuals with ASD.
Drug use may start with positive reinforcement but is often maintained by negative reinforcement. What does this mean when it comes to substance abuse? Are drug dependent people(substance use disorder) simply craving reward and pleasure states?
Drug use often begins with positive reinforcement, as individuals may initially experience pleasurable effects from substance use, such as euphoria or relaxation. However, as drug use continues, it becomes maintained by negative reinforcement, where individuals use substances to alleviate negative feelings or symptoms, such as stress, anxiety, or withdrawal discomfort. This cycle of negative reinforcement can lead to the development of substance use disorder (SUD), where individuals feel compelled to use drugs to avoid or alleviate negative states rather than solely seeking pleasure. While craving reward and pleasure states may initially drive substance use, the persistence of drug dependence involves complex interactions between neurobiological, psychological, and social factors. Individuals with SUD may experience intense cravings for drugs, but their substance use is often driven by a combination of factors, including negative reinforcement, compulsive behaviors, and disruptions in brain reward pathways. Therefore, addressing both the positive and negative aspects of substance use is essential in understanding and treating substance abuse disorders effectively.
Describe the evidence that leads us to believe that Alcohol Use Disorder(AUD), or alcoholism, may be heritable especially so in men. Describe the terms heritability, Type 1, and type 2. Describe how we can identify behavioral signs of these two types of AUD before the person struggles with alcohol.
Evidence suggests that Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD), or alcoholism, may have a heritable component, particularly in men. Heritability refers to the proportion of individual differences in a trait or disorder that can be attributed to genetic factors. Research indicates that genetic factors contribute to approximately 50-60% of the risk for developing AUD, with certain genetic variations being more prevalent in individuals with AUD compared to the general population. Type 1 and Type 2 AUD are two subtypes characterized by different patterns of alcohol consumption and risk factors. Type 1 AUD typically begins later in life and is associated with a less severe course, while Type 2 AUD tends to onset earlier and is associated with more severe symptoms and comorbidities. Behavioral signs of Type 1 AUD may include binge drinking or heavy episodic drinking, while signs of Type 2 AUD may include early-onset alcohol use, impulsivity, and externalizing behaviors such as aggression or conduct problems. By identifying these behavioral signs early on, especially in at-risk populations, interventions can be implemented to prevent the development of AUD or mitigate its severity.
What is Agonist and Antagonist with respect to drugs actions in the synapse?
In pharmacology, agonists and antagonists play pivotal roles in modulating neurotransmitter activity at the synapse. Agonists are substances that bind to specific receptors and mimic the action of neurotransmitters, thereby activating the receptor and producing a biological response. By enhancing neurotransmission, agonists can elicit effects similar to those of endogenous ligands. In contrast, antagonists bind to receptors without activating them, effectively blocking the binding of neurotransmitters or other agonists. This inhibition prevents the activation of the receptor, thereby reducing or nullifying the biological response. Both agonists and antagonists are fundamental in pharmacotherapy, with agonists used to enhance neurotransmitter function and antagonists employed to inhibit or counteract specific physiological processes.
The famous painter, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, created whole images of human faces(portraits) from elements made of fruit, books and animals. How does the left hemisphere respond to these images, and how does the right hemisphere respond to these images? Use evidence from the "Joe" video.
In the "Joe" video, the responses of the left and right hemispheres to Giuseppe Arcimboldo's composite images—portraits made from fruit, books, and animals—highlight their different processing strengths. The left hemisphere, which is more analytical and detail-oriented, tends to focus on the individual elements of the image, such as recognizing the fruits, books, or animals separately, rather than perceiving the whole face. In contrast, the right hemisphere excels at holistic processing and pattern recognition, allowing it to see the composite image as a unified human face. In split-brain patients like Joe, this distinction is evident: when an Arcimboldo portrait is presented to the right hemisphere via the left visual field, Joe can recognize and understand it as a face. However, if the same image is presented to the left hemisphere via the right visual field, Joe is more likely to identify and describe the separate components without grasping the overall facial configuration. This demonstrates the right hemisphere's superior ability in integrating visual elements into a cohesive whole.
Name the distinct types of Affective/Mood Disorders considered in the biological bases of abnormal behavior.
In the biological bases of abnormal behavior, distinct types of affective/mood disorders include major depressive disorder (MDD), bipolar disorder, and persistent depressive disorder (formerly known as dysthymia). Major depressive disorder is characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest or pleasure in activities. Bipolar disorder involves recurrent episodes of mania or hypomania, characterized by elevated mood, increased energy, and impulsivity, alternating with episodes of depression. Persistent depressive disorder is marked by chronic depressive symptoms lasting for two years or more, often with periods of more severe depression interspersed with milder symptoms. These affective disorders are thought to have complex biological underpinnings involving dysregulation of neurotransmitter systems, genetic predisposition, and environmental factors.
A bio psychologist notes the an agonist drug has both affinity for a receptor and efficacy at the receptor site. Describe what affinity and efficacy mean with respect to agonist drug action.
In the context of agonist drug action, both affinity and efficacy play crucial roles in determining the drug's effectiveness. Affinity refers to the strength of the binding between the drug and the receptor site on the neuron. A drug with high affinity tightly binds to the receptor, while one with low affinity binds less strongly. This binding affinity determines how readily the drug can occupy and interact with the receptor. On the other hand, efficacy refers to the drug's ability to activate the receptor once bound. An agonist with high efficacy produces a strong biological response when bound to the receptor, whereas one with low efficacy elicits a weaker response. Together, affinity and efficacy influence the potency and effectiveness of agonist drugs in modulating neurotransmitter activity at the synapse, thereby impacting physiological processes and pharmacological outcomes.
Compare and contrast MAOI's, Tricyclics, SSRI's and Atypical Antidepressant. Be sure to describe the neurotransmitter systems and synaptic processes altered by these classes of drugs. What compared to MAOI's and Tricyclics, why are pharmaceuticals like Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil commonly prescribed?
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and atypical antidepressants are all classes of antidepressant medications that target different neurotransmitter systems and synaptic processes. MAOIs work by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which breaks down neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. By blocking this enzyme, MAOIs increase the availability of these neurotransmitters in the brain, leading to improved mood. TCAs primarily block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, thereby increasing their levels in the synaptic cleft and enhancing neurotransmission. SSRIs, like Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil, specifically target serotonin reuptake, resulting in increased serotonin levels in the brain. Atypical antidepressants, such as bupropion and mirtazapine, modulate various neurotransmitter systems, including serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, through mechanisms that differ from those of MAOIs, TCAs, and SSRIs. Compared to MAOIs and TCAs, SSRIs and atypical antidepressants are commonly prescribed due to their more favorable side effect profiles and reduced risk of serious adverse reactions, such as hypertensive crises or overdose toxicity, associated with MAOIs and TCAs. Additionally, SSRIs and atypical antidepressants are generally considered safer and more tolerable options for long-term use in the treatment of depression.
Describe in detail, how the right visual field information projects into the left hemisphere of the brain.
Note that the left hemisphere is connected to the left half of each retina and thus gets visual input from the right half. At the optic chiasm, axons from the right half of the left retina cross to the right hemisphere, and axons from the left half of the right retina cross to the left hemisphere
Describe Olds & Milner's important discovery using electrical stimulation of the brain. How did this early work eventually lead to research clarifying the role of brain systems and neurotransmitters implicated in stimulant drug abuse? Describe brain structures, pathways and neurotransmitters involved.
Olds and Milner's groundbreaking discovery involved the use of electrical stimulation of the brain to demonstrate the brain's reward system. In their experiments with rats, they found that when certain areas of the brain, particularly the mesolimbic pathway, were stimulated, the rats exhibited behaviors indicative of pleasure and reinforcement, such as increased self-stimulation. This early work laid the foundation for understanding the neural mechanisms underlying reward and reinforcement, which are fundamental to addiction. Further research clarified that the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, originating in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and projecting to the nucleus accumbens, plays a central role in mediating the rewarding effects of stimulant drugs. Stimulant drugs like cocaine and amphetamines act on this pathway by increasing the release and blocking the reuptake of dopamine, resulting in heightened dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens, which is associated with feelings of euphoria and reinforcement. Additionally, other neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine are also implicated in the stimulant drug abuse process, contributing to the complex interplay of brain systems involved in addiction. Overall, Olds and Milner's pioneering research paved the way for understanding the neural basis of addiction and the development of targeted interventions for substance abuse disorders.
Consider pharmacotherapies for treating schizophrenia. Describe why most antischizophrenic drugs reduce symptoms and how evidence supports one theory of the biological basis of schizophrenia.
Pharmacotherapies for treating schizophrenia primarily target neurotransmitter systems, particularly dopamine and glutamate, to reduce symptoms. Most antischizophrenic drugs exert their therapeutic effects by blocking dopamine receptors, specifically D2 receptors, thereby reducing dopamine neurotransmission in the brain. This approach is based on the Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia, which posits that dysregulation of dopamine neurotransmission contributes to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations and delusions. Evidence supporting this theory includes the efficacy of antipsychotic medications, which block dopamine receptors, in alleviating positive symptoms. Additionally, neuroimaging studies have shown increased dopamine release in the striatum, a key region in the mesolimbic pathway, in individuals with schizophrenia experiencing positive symptoms. By targeting dopamine neurotransmission, antipsychotic medications help restore the balance of neurotransmitters in the brain, thereby reducing symptoms of schizophrenia.
Darwin proposed that species are continuous in physical and behavioral characteristics in many ways, rather than distinct. Describe the research evidence that suggests that BONOBO(pan pan) Kanzi expresses a "language." Does this supply evidence for viewing species from a continuity or discrete perspective? Why?
Research on the bonobo Kanzi (Pan paniscus) provides compelling evidence for species continuity, particularly in the realm of language capabilities. Kanzi has demonstrated the ability to understand and use a symbolic communication system involving lexigrams—abstract symbols representing words. He can comprehend spoken English commands and respond appropriately using the lexigrams, indicating a sophisticated level of language comprehension and production. This ability suggests that the cognitive and communicative capacities underlying language are not unique to humans but are shared, to some extent, with other primates. Such findings support Darwin's proposal that species exhibit continuity in physical and behavioral characteristics rather than being entirely distinct. Kanzi's language skills bridge the gap between human and non-human primate communication, emphasizing the evolutionary continuity of cognitive functions across species.
Describe how researchers assess the independent function of the left or right hemisphere in people experiencing the "split-brain" phenomena. How do we provide evidence showing that the right hemisphere "knows" what that hemisphere observed in the left visual field? Use evidence from the "Joe" video.
Researchers assess the independent function of the left and right hemispheres in individuals experiencing the "split-brain" phenomena through a series of specialized experiments that isolate the visual fields and motor responses corresponding to each hemisphere. In the "Joe" video, for example, Joe, a split-brain patient, is shown images exclusively in his left visual field, which are processed by the right hemisphere. When asked to verbally identify what he saw, Joe cannot respond accurately because the language centers are located in the left hemisphere. However, when asked to draw or select an object with his left hand (controlled by the right hemisphere), he is able to do so correctly, demonstrating that the right hemisphere "knows" and processes the visual information. This ability to respond appropriately with non-verbal actions provides compelling evidence that the right hemisphere independently comprehends and reacts to stimuli seen in the left visual field.
What does it mean to say that within the left hemisphere lies an "interpreter"? Use evidence from the "Joe" video.
Saying that within the left hemisphere lies an "interpreter" means that this hemisphere has a unique ability to create coherent narratives and explanations for actions and experiences. In the "Joe" video, this concept is illustrated through Joe's responses to tasks that require interpretation and verbalization. For instance, when Joe's right hemisphere (seeing something in the left visual field) directs his left hand to draw a picture, his left hemisphere, unaware of the initial stimulus, concocts plausible explanations for his actions when asked. This demonstrates the left hemisphere's role in rationalizing and constructing stories to make sense of the world, even when it lacks complete information. This interpretative function is critical for creating a unified conscious experience and underscores the left hemisphere's dominant role in language and logical reasoning.
Consider the therapies available to help people struggling with alcohol use disorder. Describe options available and be sure to address CBT, AA, Antabuse, and Opiate Blockers in attenuating AUD.
Several therapies are available to assist individuals struggling with alcohol use disorder (AUD). Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a widely used approach that helps individuals identify and change unhealthy thought patterns and behaviors associated with alcohol misuse. CBT aims to develop coping strategies and skills to manage triggers and cravings, leading to long-term sobriety. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) provides a supportive group environment where individuals can share experiences, receive guidance, and work through the 12-step program to achieve and maintain sobriety. Medications such as disulfiram (Antabuse) create an aversion to alcohol by inducing unpleasant side effects, such as nausea and vomiting, when alcohol is consumed. Opiate blockers like naltrexone and naloxone block the rewarding effects of alcohol, reducing cravings and the desire to drink. These therapies, whether used alone or in combination, offer effective options for attenuating AUD and supporting individuals in their journey towards recovery.
Some argue that substance abuse disorders often involve the development of drug tolerance, eventual withdrawal states leading to drug dependence. Define each of the terms and supply an example of how an abused psychoactive drug like heroin may lead to substance abuse using all three concepts.
Substance abuse disorders frequently involve the development of drug tolerance, withdrawal, and eventual drug dependence. Drug tolerance refers to the diminished response to a drug after repeated use, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect. For example, individuals abusing heroin may initially experience intense euphoria and pain relief with a certain dose, but over time, they may need to increase their dosage to achieve the desired effects. Withdrawal occurs when drug use is discontinued or reduced, leading to a range of physical and psychological symptoms as the body adjusts to the absence of the drug. In the case of heroin, withdrawal symptoms may include nausea, muscle pain, and anxiety, motivating individuals to continue using the drug to avoid these unpleasant effects. Drug dependence refers to the compulsive need to use a drug despite adverse consequences, driven by tolerance and withdrawal. For instance, individuals dependent on heroin may feel compelled to continue using the drug to alleviate withdrawal symptoms and maintain normal functioning, leading to a cycle of substance abuse and dependence.
What is Tardive Dyskinesia? Why do newer, second generation drugs do not produce these types of motor side effects?
Tardive Dyskinesia is a neurological disorder characterized by involuntary, repetitive movements of the face, tongue, and other parts of the body. These movements can include grimacing, tongue protrusion, lip smacking, and rapid, jerky motions of the limbs. Tardive Dyskinesia is primarily associated with long-term use of certain medications, particularly first-generation antipsychotic drugs used to treat conditions such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. These medications block dopamine receptors in the brain, leading to imbalances in neurotransmitter function that can result in the development of tardive dyskinesia. Newer, second-generation antipsychotic drugs have been developed to address this issue. Unlike their predecessors, these drugs have a lower affinity for dopamine receptors and also affect serotonin receptors, leading to a more balanced neurotransmitter profile. As a result, second-generation antipsychotics are less likely to cause tardive dyskinesia and other motor side effects commonly associated with first-generation drugs, making them preferred options for long-term treatment of psychiatric disorders.
What is the Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia? Supply evidence that supports this explanation.
The Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia posits that dysregulation of dopamine neurotransmission, particularly in the mesolimbic pathway, contributes to the development of schizophrenia symptoms, particularly positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions. Evidence supporting this theory includes the observation that drugs that increase dopamine activity, such as amphetamines, can induce psychotic symptoms in healthy individuals resembling those seen in schizophrenia. Additionally, antipsychotic medications, which block dopamine receptors, are effective in reducing positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Neuroimaging studies have also shown increased dopamine release in the striatum, a key region in the mesolimbic pathway, in individuals with schizophrenia experiencing positive symptoms. Overall, the Dopamine Theory provides a neurochemical explanation for the positive symptoms of schizophrenia and has guided the development of antipsychotic medications aimed at modulating dopamine neurotransmission to alleviate symptoms.
What is the Glutamate Theory of Schizophrenia? Supply evidence that supports this explanation. How are the Dopamine and Glutamate theories linked to each other?
The Glutamate Theory of Schizophrenia proposes that dysfunction in the glutamatergic system, particularly the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, contributes to the development of schizophrenia symptoms. Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, and NMDA receptors play a crucial role in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. Research has shown that alterations in glutamate neurotransmission, including hypofunction of NMDA receptors, can lead to disruptions in neural circuitry and contribute to the cognitive and psychotic symptoms observed in schizophrenia. Evidence supporting this theory includes findings of decreased levels of glutamate and NMDA receptor function in the brains of individuals with schizophrenia, as well as the ability of NMDA receptor antagonists like phencyclidine (PCP) and ketamine to induce schizophrenia-like symptoms in healthy individuals. The Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia, on the other hand, suggests that overactivity of dopamine neurotransmission, particularly in the mesolimbic pathway, contributes to positive symptoms of schizophrenia. While the Dopamine and Glutamate theories initially appeared to be separate explanations for schizophrenia, emerging evidence suggests that they are interconnected. Disruptions in glutamatergic neurotransmission, particularly NMDA receptor hypofunction, may lead to dysregulation of dopamine release in the brain, particularly in the mesolimbic pathway, which is implicated in the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. This link between the two theories highlights the complex interplay between neurotransmitter systems in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and underscores the importance of integrated approaches in understanding and treating the disorder.
Describe the Neurodevelopmental Theory of Schizophrenia. Why is this theory especially useful in describing the typical emergence of schizophrenic symptoms in early adulthood?
The Neurodevelopmental Theory of Schizophrenia proposes that abnormalities in brain development during prenatal and early postnatal periods contribute to the onset of schizophrenia symptoms later in life. According to this theory, genetic and environmental factors interact to disrupt normal brain development, leading to structural and functional alterations in neural circuitry. These alterations may remain dormant until adolescence or early adulthood when environmental stressors or changes in brain maturation trigger the onset of symptoms. This theory is especially useful in describing the typical emergence of schizophrenic symptoms in early adulthood because it accounts for the timing of symptom onset coinciding with periods of increased neurodevelopmental changes and stressors associated with transitioning to adulthood. Additionally, the theory aligns with evidence suggesting that individuals with schizophrenia often show subtle cognitive and behavioral abnormalities during childhood and adolescence, preceding the onset of full-blown psychotic symptoms.
Describe the case of Witty Ticcy Ray. Many view drug therapies as a magic bullet that "cures" symptoms. Why should a student of biopsychology be cautious about the magic bullet view and why would someone opt out of taking medication on a chronic basis? Use examples of "Ray" to support your views.
The case of Witty Ticcy Ray, as described by Oliver Sacks, highlights the complexities and limitations of drug therapies in treating neurological conditions. Ray suffered from severe Tourette's syndrome, characterized by uncontrollable tics and vocalizations. Traditional drug therapies aimed at modulating dopamine levels, such as haloperidol, initially provided relief, effectively suppressing Ray's symptoms. However, the medication also induced debilitating side effects, including apathy and cognitive dulling, which significantly impacted Ray's quality of life and creative abilities as a writer. This experience underscores the importance of caution when viewing drug therapies as a "magic bullet" that simply "cures" symptoms. While medications can alleviate symptoms, they may not address the underlying causes of the disorder and can introduce new challenges and side effects. A student of biopsychology should be cautious about the magic bullet view and recognize the need for a holistic approach that considers individual differences, underlying neurobiological mechanisms, and potential trade-offs of drug treatments. Moreover, individuals like Ray may opt out of taking medication on a chronic basis due to concerns about side effects, diminished quality of life, or a desire to maintain personal autonomy and identity. Ray's decision to discontinue medication despite the relief it provided for his tics illustrates the complex interplay between symptom management, medication side effects, and individual preferences in chronic conditions. This underscores the importance of personalized treatment approaches that balance symptom relief with the broader impact on overall well-being and functioning.
Identify the major commissure within the brain that connects the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Why would a neurosurgeon intentionally cut this structure?
The left and right hemispheres exchange information primarily through a set of axons called the corpus callosum. if you dissect the brain and view it from above, in which gray matter has been removed to expose the corpus callosum.
Name the major types of antidepressant drugs.
The major types of antidepressant drugs include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), and atypical antidepressants. SSRIs, such as fluoxetine (Prozac) and sertraline (Zoloft), selectively block the reuptake of serotonin, thereby increasing its availability in the brain. SNRIs, like venlafaxine (Effexor) and duloxetine (Cymbalta), block the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine, leading to enhanced neurotransmission of both neurotransmitters. TCAs, such as amitriptyline and imipramine, block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, similar to SNRIs, but also have additional effects on other neurotransmitter systems. MAOIs, like phenelzine and tranylcypromine, inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which breaks down serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, leading to increased levels of these neurotransmitters in the brain. Atypical antidepressants, such as bupropion and mirtazapine, modulate neurotransmitter systems in unique ways and are effective in treating depression with different mechanisms of action compared to other classes of antidepressants. These various classes of antidepressants offer different options for the treatment of depression, allowing for personalized approaches based on individual patient needs and preferences.
Describe the primary symptoms of schizophrenia. Consider Positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Apply examples to illustrate the distinct types of symptoms.
The primary symptoms of schizophrenia can be categorized into positive and negative symptoms. Positive symptoms involve the presence of abnormal behaviors or experiences that are not typically seen in healthy individuals. Examples of positive symptoms include hallucinations (perceiving things that are not there), delusions (false beliefs), disorganized thinking (incoherent speech), and grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior. Negative symptoms, on the other hand, involve the absence or reduction of normal behaviors or experiences. Examples of negative symptoms include flat affect (reduced emotional expression), social withdrawal or isolation, anhedonia (loss of interest or pleasure in activities), and avolition (lack of motivation or initiative). For instance, a person experiencing positive symptoms of schizophrenia may believe they have special powers or abilities (delusion) or hear voices commanding them to take certain actions (hallucination), while negative symptoms may manifest as a lack of interest in socializing with others (social withdrawal) or a general lack of emotional expression (flat affect). These distinct types of symptoms contribute to the complex and heterogeneous nature of schizophrenia.
The right hemisphere of the brain was thought of as the "lesser" hemisphere when it comes to important human functions like language. Why do we view the right hemisphere as more equal than the left regrading some functions? What crucial functions are provided by operation of the right hemisphere?
The right hemisphere was historically viewed as the "lesser" hemisphere due to its limited role in language, which is predominantly processed by the left hemisphere. However, contemporary understanding recognizes the right hemisphere as equally crucial for various important functions. The right hemisphere excels in spatial abilities, facial recognition, and processing non-verbal cues such as tone of voice and body language. It is integral to emotional expression and social communication, enabling people to understand context, humor, and metaphor. Moreover, the right hemisphere is vital for holistic and creative thinking, allowing for the synthesis of information into coherent, big-picture understandings. These capabilities are essential for navigating complex social interactions and interpreting nuanced emotional signals, highlighting the right hemisphere's significant contributions to overall cognitive function and human experience.
Name the 2 other "minor" commissures within the brain. Why are these commissures important especially when considering symptoms of the "split brain" phenomena that weaken over time, like the hemispheric rivalry.
The two other "minor" commissures within the brain are the **anterior commissure** and the **posterior commissure**. These commissures play a critical role in interhemispheric communication by providing alternative pathways for the transfer of information between the brain's hemispheres. In the context of split-brain phenomena, where the corpus callosum is severed to treat severe epilepsy, these commissures help mitigate the initial symptoms of hemispheric rivalry and lack of coordination. Over time, their ability to facilitate some degree of communication between the hemispheres contributes to the reduction of these disconnection symptoms, enabling the brain to adapt and maintain more integrated functioning despite the absence of the corpus callosum.
Identify all the neurotransmitter systems and specific neurotransmitters implicated in unipolar depression.
Unipolar depression involves dysregulation of multiple neurotransmitter systems and specific neurotransmitters. The main neurotransmitter systems implicated include the serotonin (5-HT) system, where reduced levels of serotonin have been linked to depressive symptoms. Additionally, the norepinephrine system is involved, with dysregulation contributing to mood disturbances. Dopamine dysfunction is also implicated, particularly in anhedonia and reduced motivation seen in depression. Alterations in glutamate, the primary excitatory neurotransmitter, are observed, affecting synaptic plasticity and mood regulation. The gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system, responsible for inhibitory signaling, is also involved, with disruptions contributing to anxiety and stress responses. Finally, the acetylcholine system, crucial for cognitive functions, is impacted, potentially contributing to cognitive symptoms of depression. These interconnected neurotransmitter systems play complex roles in the pathophysiology of unipolar depression, highlighting the multifaceted nature of the disorder.
Describe the primary symptoms that unipolar depression may be a product of both nature and nurture. Describe the nature vs. nurture debate and use research evidence that shows genes that regulate serotonin transporters may predispose people to depression depending on the number of life stressors an individual experiences. How does the latter finding shape how we think about nature vs. nurture?
Unipolar depression may result from a combination of genetic predisposition (nature) and environmental influences (nurture). The nature vs. nurture debate centers on the relative contributions of genetic factors (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) in shaping human traits and behaviors. Research evidence suggests that genes regulating serotonin transporters may predispose individuals to depression, particularly when combined with high levels of life stressors. For example, individuals with a short allele variant of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT) may be more susceptible to depression when exposed to stressful life events compared to those with the long allele variant. This finding highlights the interaction between genetic susceptibility and environmental stressors in the development of depression, illustrating how nature and nurture factors can interact to shape mental health outcomes. This understanding challenges the dichotomous nature vs. nurture framework, emphasizing instead the complex interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental influences in determining individual susceptibility to depression.
Describe the symptoms of Wernickes Aphasia. What region of the brain is compromised in cases of this disorder, Where is the wernickes area? Consider Sack's reading, "A Matter of Identity" and why this Korsakovs syndrome case is associated with wernickes aphasia.
Wernicke's aphasia, also known as receptive aphasia, occurs when the Wernicke's area of the brain is damaged, causing difficulty understanding language and speaking. Wernicke's area is located in the left temporal lobe, typically in Brodmann area 22. The dominant side of the brain is usually the side opposite the dominant hand
What is Williams' Syndrome? What can people with this syndrome do quite well and what do they have difficulty with? How do case studies of people with Williams' Syndrome contribute to the between two opposing views: one arguing that language evolved as a byproduct of an overall larger brain (large cortical volume) versus one arguing that language evolved as a specialized module within the cerebral cortex.
Williams syndrome (WS) is a rare genetic disorder that causes developmental delays, learning problems, and heart and blood vessel problems. People with WS often have good verbal skills, are friendly and social, and may enjoy music-related activities. However, they may also have difficulty with visual-spatial tasks.
