BSC 116 Exam 1
What happens regarding xylem sap at night?
At night, water root pressure pushes xylem sap up through roots and stem -endodermis seals vascular tissue from cortex -roots continually pump ions into stele -water follows due to lower solute potential: generates root pressue -less important in tall plants: hard to overcome gravity -small plants: GUTTATION
(L4) What are the 3 domains of life?
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
How do we find information about the order in which key traits appeared?
By looking at the traits of living plants and using phylogenetic methods
Prokaryotes who use chemicals for their energy source
CHEMOAUTOTROPHS, certain prokaryotes, CHEMOHETEROTROPHS, many prokaryotes, many protists, fungi, animals
Which of the following is a correct statement about slime molds? -Cellular slime molds have haploid zygotes. -Cellular slime molds have fruiting bodies that function in sexual reproduction. -In plasmodial slime molds, the haploid condition is the dominant part of the life cycle. -Cellular slime molds form masses when food is scarce, but their cells remain separated. -Cytoplasmic streaming helps distribute nutrients and oxygen in cellular slime molds.
Cellular slime molds form masses when food is scarce, but their cells remain separated.
What is the purpose of complex life cycles?
Complex life cycles provide organization needed for multicellularity; (development of organism from single cell; differentiation of cells into tissues)
fungi plant parasites
Cryphonectria parisitica and American chesnuts- decrease yields and sometimes toxic to humans
Why do researchers use rRNA in investigations of relationships between taxa that diverged hundreds of millions of years ago?
DNA coding for rRNA changes relatively slowly
Select the correct statement describing the life cycle of angiosperms.
Double fertilization in the life cycle of seed plants results in the production of a diploid zygote and a triploid endosperm nucleus.
What does Kingdom Plantae=
Embryophytes
How did eukaryotes arise?
Endosymbiosis
Which statement about endotoxins is true?
Endotoxins are released only when bacteria die and their cell walls break down.
A rose bush is classified in domain _____ and kingdom _____.
Eukarya... plantae
A human is classified in domain _____ and kingdom _____.
Eukarya...animalia
Hfr cell
F factor on chromosome; High Frequency Recombination; chromosome passed and recombined
What does long distance transport rely on?
It relies on pressure rather than solute potential
In the five-kingdom system, prokaryotes are placed in the kingdom _____.
Monera
Select the correct statement(s) about the origin of fungi.
Multicellularity probably arose independently in fungi and animals.
What is an example of the life cycle of ascomycetes?
Neurospora
Prokaryotes who use CO2 as their carbon source
PHOTOAUTOTROPHS, photosynthetic prokaryotes, some protists, plants, CHEMOAUTOTROPHS, certain prokaryotes
Prokaryotes who use light for their energy source
PHOTOAUTOTROPHS, photosynthetic prokaryotes, some protists, plants, PHOTOHETEROTROPHS, some prokaryotes
Prokaryotes who use organic compounds as their carbon source
PHOTOHETEROTROPHS, some prokaryotes, CHEMOAUTOTROPHS, certain prokaryotes
What are two extant phyla of seedless vascular plants?
Phylum Lycophyta and Phylum Monilophyta
Select the valid comparison between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
Prokaryote cells have simpler internal structure and genomic organization than eukaryotic cells.
What does sexual reproduction allow for?
Sexual reproduction allows alleles to be shared among lineages, which increases genetic variation
How does sperm fertilize eggs?
Sperm must swim through water to fertilize eggs which is why mosses are limited to moist habitats
Stramenopiles + 3 major lineages
"hairy flagella" with 2 endosymbiotic plastids; diatoms, golden algae, and brown algae
active transport
"pumping" a solute against its gradient; does require energy; involves a protein pump
fimbriae
(attachment pili) proteinaceous spines
What are the two male and female parts of a pine tree?
(male) pollen cones with microsporocytes and (female) ovule cones with megasporocytes
gametophytes
(n) develop from spores (n), larger and longer living than sporophytes, spores germinate to form branched protonemata (1 cell thick), each protonemata produces 1+ gametophore(s), anchored by rhizoids not roots
mutualism symbols
+ +
parasitism symbols
+ -
commensalism symbols
+ 0
What is the ecological importance of seedless vascular plants?
- the ancient seedless vascular plants are now ancient coal forrests (gasoline, natural gas)
Fungi form mutualistic relationships with plants and animals. Which of the following is an example of such a relationship?
-Fungi can help increase drought tolerance in plants -Fungi help break down wood in the guts of termites. -Fungi help break down plant material in the guts of grazing mammals. -Endophytes in leaves produce toxins that deter herbivores.
gram negative bacteria
-appear pink after gram staining -alcohol rinse easily removes crystal violet -have an outer membrane as part of their cell wall structure -have thin peptidoglycan layer
gram positive bacteria
-appear purple after gram staining -alcohol rinse does not remove crystal violet -have a thick peptidoglycan layer
Examples of protist pathogens
-giardia: causes giardiasis -trypanosoma: causes African Sleeping Sickness -plasmodium: causes malaria
proton pump
-uses ATP to create proton (H+) gradient across membrane - membrane potential
Of the four haploid cells produced by a pine cone's megasporocyte (megaspore mother cell), _____ survive(s).
1
What are some adaptations of plants to keep from being eaten?
1) chemical- caffeine, nicotine, morphine, cyanide 2) mechanical- thorns, silica crystals
What do the two sperms released down the tube do?
1) one fertilizes embryo (2n) 2) one fuses with 2 nuclei in central cell: endosperm (3n)
What are 3 overlapping "zones" of development
1) zone of cell division 2) zone of elongation 3) zone of differentiation
evidence for secondary endosymbiosis
1)chloroplast (2 membrane) surrounded by two more membranes: 1 from engulfed euk, 1 from vacuole 2) nucleomorph
What does the female gametophyte produce? (n)
1+ eggs (n), fertilized by sperm produced by male gametophyte following pollination
#Major archaea clades
4- extremophiles, halophiles, thermophiles, methanogens
When was the oldest fossil fungi discovered?
460 My, terrestrial
Plants evolved from green algae approximately _____ million years ago.
475
#Major bacteria clades
5
Plants for food
80% of our calories come from only 6 angiosperm crops (wheat, rice, maize, cassava, sweet potatoes)
How much water escapes through the stomata?
95%
What happens as a result of large populations?
There is a greater chance for mutations ex- in E coli reproduction in the human gut, 20 billion new E coli per day will result in 9 mil new mutations per day
In fungi, haploid hyphae fuse to produce dikaryotic and then diploid nuclei, only to restore the haploid condition by meiosis before the growth of new hyphae. What is the significance of a transient diploid state in fungi?
These sexual processes generate genetic variation.
(L7) What are fungi?
They are multicellular heterotrophs that represent diverse ecological roles
How does the large amount of genetic variation observed in prokaryotes arise?
They have extremely short generation times and large populations; They can exchange DNA with many types of prokaryotes by way of horizontal gene transfer
T/F; Water potential gradient exists.
True (v important)
(L3) Population
a group of interbreeding individuals in space and time (individuals of the same species)
transmembrane
a hybrid of apoplast and symplast transport routes; route repeatedly crosses membranes; moves between apopoplast and symplast
What is a pine tree?
a mature sporophyte
What is a species?
a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring but don't produce viable fertile offspring with members of other such groups
In seedless plants, a fertilized egg will develop into _____.
a sporophyte
T/F There are protist pathogens that affect human health
T
Prokaryotic cells are found in the domain(s) _____.
bacteria and archaea
What are the two domains of prokaryotes?
bacteria and archaea
Two things leaf surfaces of land plants must do
balance photosynthesis and water loss
Where does meiosis occur in a mushroom?
basidia
cortex
between vascular tissue and dermal tissue
vascular tissue (leaves)
branches through mesophyll; continuous with stem vascular tissue surrounded by protective bundle sheath
nitrogen fixation
can convert atmospheric N2 into NH3 that can be used by other organisms
perennials
can live for years
transformation
can pick up DNA from the environment
What structures help maintain a prokaryotes position
capsule and fimbriae
taxa
categories, smaller nested in larger
What effect did an abundance in plants cause?
caused a drop in CO2 and global cooling which favored vascular seed plants
ciliates
cell covered in many short cilia rather than few long flagella; two types of nuclei; free living like paramecium
What kinds of cell structure does fungi have?
cell wall of chitin, hyphae that is either divided by septa or undivided (coenocytic fungi)
differentiation
cells change from unspecialized meristematic cells to specific specialized types
derivatives
cells divide and differentiate into different kinds of tissues; it is from these cells that all plant tissues arise
zone of elongation
cells elongate, pushing tip forward up to 10x original length
How do cells know when to open stomata?
cells know when to open stoma based on light, weather conditions, internal clock (when they're programmed to open)
zone of differentiation
cells mature to specialized cell types
plant growth
cells need to grow (elongate) as well as divide
What are 3 levels of plant body organization?
cells, tissues, organs
Stramenopiles include all of the following groups EXCEPT ______. brown algae water molds cellular slime molds diatoms golden algae
cellular slime molds
dinoflagellates
cellulose plates, with two flagella in groves; can cause neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
genetic drift
chance events can cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next, particularly in small populations
What does induction cause us to do?
change our understanding of what we observe
What are bryophyte life cycles like?
characterized by gametophyte, but with prominent sporophyte
The closest algal relatives of land plants are _____.
charophytes
Bacteria that live around deep-sea, hot-water vents obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic hydrogen sulfide belched out by the vents. They use this energy to build organic molecules from carbon obtained from the carbon dioxide in seawater. These bacteria are _____.
chemoautotrophs
green algae
chlorophytes and charophyceans + Land Plants
Which of these characteristics is shared by algae and seed plants?
chloroplasts
What are the 5 clades of fungal species?
chytrids, zygomycetes, glomeromycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes
A paramecium is a(n) _____.
ciliate
All of the organisms classified as _____ move and feed using cilia.
ciliates
How are leaves spaced in a bud?
close; elongation behind tips lengthens internodes
basidiomycetes
club fungi; sexual spores formed in basidia, with basidiocarps (fruiting bodies); decomposers
Lycophyta
club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts; more ancient than Monilophyta
three basic shapes of prokaryotes
cocci, bacilli, and spiral
annuals/biennials
complete life cycles in 1 or 2 years
gram negative
complex, outer membrane with less peptidoglycan (tends to be more toxic)
characteristics of leaves
composed of blade and petiole (stalk), veins, simple or compound leaf, needles are leaves, leaves can be modified for support, protection, etc
plant body organization: tissues
composed of cells within similar form and or function( dermal- external, vascular- transport, ground tissues- other)
symplast
connected spaces inside of cells -must go thru selective barrier (plasma membrane) once; includes phloem -water and solutes must go through plasma membrane of a living cell once, then it can travel from cell to cell via plasmodesmata (toll road)
apoplast
connected spaces outside living cells; open space without organelles; inside of dead tracheids and vessels (xylem) cell walls: "open mesh" of cellulose
How do you distinguish homology from analogy?
corroborative characters, fossil evidence, character complexity, DNA evidence
ground tissue
cortex of parenchyma; store carbs, absorb water, etc; endodermis
Quantitative
countable, measurable
gymnosperm phylums
cycadophyta, gnetophyta, ginkophyta, coniferophyta
How long does gymnosperm life cycle take?
cycle takes 3 years after the tree reaches maturity
dermal tissue (leaves)
upper and lower epidermis stomata- openings in the epidermis that allows air to reach photosynthetic ground tissue guard cells- open and close stomata that regulate exchange of oxygen and CO2
methanogens
use CO2 and H2; create methane; obligate anaerobes ex- species in anaerobic marshes
What does the cation exchange do?
use H+ gradient to loosen + ions from neg. charged soils
deductive reasoning
use a generalization to explain particular cases
facultative anaerobes
use either method; obligate aerobes or obligate anaerobes
secondary compounds in the evolution of plants
various compounds that protect plants from UV light, herbivores, pathogens, etc
ground tissue system
various tissues that are neither vascular or dermal; specialized, responsible for metabolic functions; cortex and pith
What did earliest land plants lack?
vascular tissue
What are 5 evolutionary innovations of vascular plants?
vascular tissue, roots, leaves, spsorophylls, life cycles dominated by sporophytes over gametophytes
How is sperm transported
via pollen tube thru micropyle
transduction
viruses (phages) carry bacterial DNA
xylem sap
water and dissolved minerals
From what area does water move from?
water moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
What determines which direction water will move?
water potential (Ψ)
waxy cuticle
water proofing so plants don't dry out
casparian strip
waxy barrier that blocks apoplastic route; solutes must go thru selective membranes of endodermis and enter symplast; doesn't let water or dissolved nutrients in; prevents back leakage
What other traits of plants have evolved to support life on land?
waxy cuticle, stomata, mycorrhizal associations, secondary compounds
What happens when K+ moves?
when K+ is moved, water follows, the turgor is changed, and cells bow or become flaccid
cross-pollination
when the egg and sperm are from different plants
nodes
where leaves attach
The conspicuous part of a fern plant is a _____.
diploid sporophyte
When you look at a pine or maple tree, the plant you see is a _____.
diploid sporophyte
Karyogamy produces a _____.
diploid zygote
two main groups of excavates
diplomonads + parabasalids and euglenozoans
Which of the following are two groups that are adapted to anaerobic conditions and contain modified mitochondria that lack DNA?
diplomonads and parabasalids
Three ways that natural selection can alter the frequency distribution of heritable traits
directional selection, disruptive selection, and stabilizing selection
What are two phases of scientific research?
discovery and explanation
solutes
dissolves materials (mineral ions and sugars); can move through membranes by active transport w ATP
Why is the diversity of bryophytes limited?
diversity is limited because of their life cycles and lack of vascular tissue
generative cell
divides and forms two sperm
What dominates the seedless vascular plant life cycle?
dominated by sporophyte stage
Which of these is unique to flowering plants?
double fertilization
What is unique to angiosperms?
double fertilization where one fertilization event produces a triploid cell
antibiotics
drugs that target the peptidoglycan cell wall, ribosomes of prokaryotes not harmful to humans ex- penicillin effective for gram + tetracycline for ribosomes
What happens regarding xylem sap during the day?
during the day, transpiration pulls xylem sap up
chytrids
earliest branch of fungi; decomposers, parasites and some mutualists
extremophiles
either halophiles or thermophiles
What kinds of associations do fungi have with plants?
either parasitic or mutualistic
What do the seeds of gymnosperm contain?
embryo (2n), food reserves (n), and maternal seed coat (n)
What are the seeds like in seed plants
embryo and food supply in protective coat, desiccation resistant, long dispersal distance
What must soil solution pass before reaching vascular tissue?
endodermis
membrane potential
energy stored in H+ gradient and voltage difference
dermal tissue
epidermis; absorb water and minerals; aided by root hairs
two types of eugenozoans
euglenids and kinetoplastids
What is suggested about the evolution of animals and fungi based on DNA evidence?
evidence suggests animals and fungi evolved independently from different protist ancestors
How observation supports evolution
evolution is documented over time
Order of eukaryotic evolution
evolution of nucleus, er> mitochondria via endosymbiosis> chloroplasts via endosymbiosis
Where did plants evolve from?
evolved from single celled, aquatic green algae: charophytes
Animals that possess homologous structures probably _____.
evolved from the same ancestor
Dinoflagellate example
ex- cause a crimson or Red Tide in coastal ecosystems due to high concentrations of carotenoids
What are the 4 main protist lineages
excavata, SAR (alveolates, stramenopiles, rhiziaria), archaeplastide, unikonta
Which of the main protist lineages are mostly parasitic?
excavates
Hypothesis
explanations of observations
dermal tissue system
external protective covering, first line of defense; epidermis with a waxy cuticle
Inductive reasoning
extrapolating from observations to a generalization
True or false? In most fungi, fertilization is complete after the cells fuse together.
false-In most fungi, fertilization is a two-step process consisting of the fusion of cells and then the fusion of nuclei in the fused cells.
heterotrophs
feed on other organisms, absorb dissolved molecules, get C and energy from organic C(sugar, protein,fat)
carpels
female flower parts (1+ per flower); produce female gametophytes; container in which seeds are enclosed; sticky stigma binds pollen; style connects it to ovary
In pine, the embryo develops within the _____.
female gametophyte
In gymnosperms megaspores develop into _____ .
female gametophytes
What are the two types of spores produced by a heterosporous seedless plant?
female megaspores produced by megasporangia and male microspores produced by microsporangia
Monilophyta
fern, horsetails, whisk fern, etc; more closely related to vascular plants because they share derived characters related to leaf and root growth
_____ are an example of seedless vascular plants.
ferns
During the Carboniferous period, forests consisting mainly of _____ produced vast quantities of organic matter, which was buried and later became coal.
ferns and other seedless plants
What does pollination lead to?
fertilization
photosynthesis
fix C, produce O2
How prokaryote species move around
flagella and taxis
excavates
flagellated parasites
What does the male gametophyte in seedless plants do?
flagellated sperm swim from male gametophyte (antheridium) to female gametophyte (archegonium)
Angiosperms are different from all other plants because only they have _____.
flowers
What are some uses of plants?
food, food for other human food, shelter, fuel, medicine, spices, ecosystem function
Examples of homologous structures in mammals...
forelimbs of humans, cats, whales, and bats are all constructed from the same basic skeletal elements but adapted different
zygomycetes
form sexual spores in zygosporangium; decomposers (like Rhizopus, black bread mold); also parasites/commensals on animals
Why is this association important?
fossil plants show association is important for colonization of terrestrial habitats
What do we use to help us date clades?
fossils and molecular clocks
kinetoplastids
free living predators and parasites, like Trypanosoma (causes sleeping sickness)
Which of the following is a difference between plants and fungi?
fungi are heterotropic, and plants are autotrophic
mycorrhizal fungi mutualism
fungi provides phosphorus and other nutrients while the plant provides carbs
The diploid phase of the life cycle is shortest in which of the following?
fungus
plasmogamy
fusion of cytoplasm of 2 different mating types
karyogamy
fusion of nuclei (2n)
gametes alternation of generations
gametes (n) fuse to produce sporophytes (2n)
Which term describes the multicellular haploid form of a protist that shows alternation of generations?
gametophyte
What stage are bryophyte life cycles dominated by?
gametophyte stage
gametophytes alternation of generations
gametophytes (n) produce gametes (n) by mitosis
What process actually increases the number of genes in an organism's genome?
gene duplication
migration
gene flow between populations; can bring new alleles and thus traits
allopatric speciation
gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolate subpopulations
What are scientific theories?
general hypotheses that have survived repeated tests
Recombination increases...
genetic variation and creates new genotypes via transformation, transduction, and conjugation
How biogeography supports evolution
geographic distribution of species
Examples of analogy/convergent evolution in mammals...
gliding of sugar gliders and flying squirrels evolved independently in response to similar pressures
Almost all of the members of this phylum form arbuscular mycorrhizae in a mutualistic partnership with plants.
glomeromycota
Most lineages of bacteria are gram - or gram +?
gram negative (-)
Alveolates + 3 lineages
grouped together based on shared presence of alveoli beneath the cell membrane; ciliates, apicomplexans, and dinoflagellates
purpose of stems in the shoot system
grow to increase the above ground volume occupied by branching thus facilitates dispersal of pollen and fruit; orients the plant in a way that maximizes photosynthesis
determinate
growth limited to embryonic/juvenile phase
What are three important developmental processes in plant growth?
growth, morphogenesis, differentiation
How/when do guard cells open?
guard cells open in half moon shape and when K moves out and water follows, the guard cell closes
Angiosperms are most closely related to _____.
gymnosperms
Which of these was the dominant plant group at the time that dinosaurs were the dominant animals?
gymnosperms
What are the two major clades of seed plants?
gymnosperms (naked seeds) and angiosperms (flowering plants, seeds, contained fruits)
The prokaryotic organisms most likely to be found living in salt ponds are the _____.
halophiles
Fungi produce _____ spores.
haploid
In the pine, microsporangia form _____ microspores by _____.
haploid...meiosis
What is used in the relationship between fungi and plant roots?
haustoria
euglenozoans
have flagella with unique morphology
R plasmids
have genes for enzymes that destroy antibiotics
cycads only
have palmlike leaves
diplomonads and parabasalids
have reduced mitorchondria, obligate or facultative anaerobes, generally parasites
An important example of interaction between fungi and certain other organisms is mycorrhizae, in which the fungal partners _____.
help plants take up nutrients and water
What are the 3 phyla of bryophytes?
hepatophyta, anthocerophyta, bryophyta
Where are the areas of high and low pressure in regard to bulk flow?
high pressure- sugar sources lower pressure- sugar sinks
example of a flaccid cell
higher in sucrose, water will move out of cell; plasmolysis not enough water; wilted
homosporous vs heterosporous
homo- (most seedless plants) one type of spore that typically gives rise to a bisexual gametophyte hetero- m and f spores of different sizes produce dif gametophytes
shared ancestral characters
homologies shared with distant ancestors; ex- mammals all have vertebrae and jaws
share derived characters
homologies that are evolutionary novelties of particular clades; ex- mammals have hair and mammary glands
Which process occurred frequently in the early history of the three domains on Earth, and makes determining phylogenetic relationships of that time difficult?
horizontal gene transfer
phyllotaxy
how leaves arranged on stem; determines light capture
Which of the following events occurs first in the development of a spore into a mature mushroom?
hyphae are produced by mitosis
The body of most fungi consists of threadlike _____, which form a network called a _____.
hyphae...mycelium
In pines, an embryo is a(n) _____.
immature sporophyte
Plants for medicine
in US 2% of prescription drugs contain an active ingredient from seed plants
flagella
in the front to pull, in the back to push, or both
gnetophytes only
includes three genera that vary greatly in appearance
selection
increase in the average fitness of a population
leaves
increase surface area for photosynthesis also allows plants to get bigger
ginkos only
leaves have fanlike appearance; only one living species today
What evolutionary development allowed plants to grow tall?
lignified vascular tissue
photosynthetic dinoflagellates
live in tissues of organisms in coral reefs, including coral and giant clams
Taxa who look the same as they did millions of years ago:
living fossils
transpiration
loss of water vapor by diffusion and evaporation. water vapor inside humid leaves moves to lower potential of dry air
What do bryophytes look like?
low "carpets" rather than upright branches
What plants formed the first forrests?
lycophytes and pterophytes
indeterminate
made up of embryonic, juvenile, and adult organs; can keep growing and living until killed
taprout
main vertical root from primary root, many lateral roots. Good for tall plants
stamens
male flower parts; anthers on filaments; produce pollen
pollen grain
male gametophyte in sporopollenin coat
Reproduction rate of prokaryotes
many generations over a short period of time from 20 minutes reproduction time to 24 hours
mycelia
masses formed by filaments, increase surface area; underground mass of hyphae
fruits of angiosperm
mature ovary; may be fleshy/dry/etc; aid in dispersal (can be carried away by animals)
petals
may be brightly colored to attract pollinators (bees, hummingbirds)
ovule contains
megasporangium (sporophyte tissue)(2n), megaspore (develops into f gametophyte) (n), integument (sporophyte tissue) (2n)
What are the products of meiosis in the life cycle of a seed plant?
megaspores or microspores
zone of cell division
meristem and immediate derivatives
ground tissue (leaves)
mesophyll- photosynthetic cells space between mesophyll cells allows diffusion of gases
Gymnosperms were most abundant during the _____.
mesozoic
In pine trees, pollen grains get to the ovule via the _____.
micropyle
In mosses gametes are produced by _____; in ferns gametes are produced by _____.
mitosis...mitosis
In mosses gametes are produced by _____; in ferns gametes are produced by _____. meiosis ... mitosis binary fission ... mitosis mitosis ... meiosis meiosis ... meiosis mitosis ... mitosis
mitosis...mitosis
sporophylls
modified leaves bearing sporangia, with many sporangia per plant
The sperm produced by mosses require _____ to reach an archegonium.
moisture
By definition a clade is _____.
monophyletic
What do bigger leaves mean?
more stomata, more photosynthesis, more water loss
What are some disadvantages to living on land?
more water escapes, the temperature will be higher, more UV light may lead to plant mutations, they need specialized tissues to acquire resources both above and below ground, need specialized tissues for transport
cercozoans
most are parasites and predators; most important consumers of bacteria in aquatic and soil ecosystems
What do almost all vascular plants have?
most vascular plants have mycorrhizae
euglenids
mostly free living mixotrophs(photosynthetic and heterotrophic) like Euglena
Protists
mostly single eukaryotic celled with organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, ER, contractile vacuoles) with metabolic adaptations
How would you move fluids large distances?
move them large distances by pressure depending on side gradient independent of solute conc. (combo of diffusion, active transport, and bulk flow)
translocation
movement of photosynthetic products in phloem sap
endospore
moves through time; resting stage can remain dormant but viable for centuries
What do charophytes lack?
multicelled sporangia and no sporopollenin in their spores
(L6) What is a plant?
multicellular, photosynthetic autotrophs, cell walls of cellulose, chloroplasts with a and b chlorophyll
red algae
multicellular, with accessory photopigment that makes them red
What are some major events in plant evolution?
multicellularity, invasion of land, origin of vascular tissue, appearance of (extant) seed plants, evolution of flowers
What is the ultimate source of phenotypic variation?
mutation
What symbiotic associations do prokaryotes have with larger organisms?
mutualism ex- help w digestion commensalism ex- 150+ spp on skin parasitism ex- cholera, tb, food poison, Lyme disease
Which structure allows the growing mushroom to nourish itself?
mycelium
Which structure is not directly involved in the reproduction of at least one major group of fungi?
mycelium
Examples of helpful fungi
mycorrhizae + lichens, ascomycete endophytes between leaf cells, (food) mushrooms truffles cheese bread beer, medicine (antibiotics), bioengineering (fungi can make euk products)
What is an example of mutualism between fungi and roots?
mycorrhizal fungi mutualism
What causes adaptive evolution?
natural selection
analogy
natural selection causes similar traits to appear in unrelated groups aka convergent evolution
What will natural selection do to a changing environment?
natural selection results in adaptations to new environments and possible rise to new species
stem cells
new cells that retain role of cell division in meristems
fibrous roots
no main root; lots of little branches; small plants
bryophytes
non-vascular plants
Plants and ecosystem function
nutrient cycling; fix carbon and nitrogen, use excess CO2
4 evidences for evolution because of natural selection
observation, homology, fossil record, biogeography
sympatric speciation
occurs within a population, gene flow is reduced between individuals by such factors as sexual selection and habitat differentiation
Molecular clocks are based on the idea that _____.
on average neutral mutations arise at a constant rate
Genes for the resistance to antibiotics are usually located _____.
on plasmids
Where do fern antheridia develop?
on the underside of the gametohyte
There is(are) _____ eukaryotic domain(s).
one
double fertilization
one fertilization event produces a zygote and the other produces triploid cell - UNIQUE TO ANGIOSPERMS
What are the differences between the two meristems?
one is responsible for primary growth and the other is responsible for secondary growth
conjugation
one way transfer of DNA where the donor and receiver are connected by sex pilus (mating bridge)
What is the stomata?
openings in leaf epidermis that control gas exhange: let CO2 in, oxygen and water out; trade-off with water loss
What happens over time as a result of natural selection?
organisms and their environment will become more matched
plant body organization: organs
organization of tissues to perform some function; two main systems of vegetative growth; reproductive growth (flowers)
sugar sink
organs that store or use sugars like growing tissue
roots
organs to absorb water and nutrients from soil which allows plants to get bigger
How does water move freely across cell membranes?
osmosis
sepals
outer most ring, usually green
apicomplexans
parasites with complex life cycles; like plasmodium which causes malaria
What is the purpose of flowers?
part of the shoot system, but involved with reproductive growth as opposed to vegetative growth
Where do vascular roots originate from?
pericycle, keeps vascular cylinders continuous
meristems
perpetually embryonic tissue; can differentiate into other cell types; make indeterminate growth possible; allow plants to both lengthen and increase the diameter of roots and shoots
Unlike most angiosperms, grasses are pollinated by wind. As a consequence, some unnecessary parts of grass flowers have almost disappeared. Which of the following parts would you expect to be most reduced in a grass flower?
petals
Which sap is thicker?
phloem sap is thicker than xylem sap: up to 30% sugar (sucrose)
Golden algae, brown algae, red algae, chlorophytes, and charophyceans are some examples of protists that are _____.
photosynthetic
diatoms
photosynthetic algae, with silica (glass) wall around cell
autotrophs
photosynthetic, use light energy to fix inorganc CO2
_____ are eukaryotic autotrophs that float near the surface of water and are the basis of the food chain.
phytoplankton
Example of prokaryote use in relation to nutrient cycling
pine seedlings grown in sterile soils which one of three strains of bacterium had been added absorbed more potassium than did seedlings grown in soil without any bacteria
conifers only
pines, redwoods, all species produce cones
example of turgid cell
place flaccid cell in water; water enters by osmosis and turgor pressure pushes back against the cell wall fully watered plant
Types of harmful fungi
plant parasites and animal parasites
What are animals dependent on?
plants (and vice versa)
Plants for food for other human food
plants used to feed livestock
Gram negative and gram positive bacteria both have
plasma membrane
F plasmids
plasmid passed; F+ passes plasmid to F- pilus; carries plasmid genes and F factor
What connects plant cells?
plasmodesmata
Which term describes the fusion of cytoplasm from two individuals?
plasmogamy
What is the sexual reproduction steps for fungi?
plasmogamy> heterokaryon/dikaryon> karyogamy > spores produced
secondary endosymbiosis
plastid aquired by engulfing photosynthetic eukaryote
obligate anaerobes
poisoned by oxygen ex- fermentation/glycolysis; anaerobic respiration
The adaptation that made possible the colonization of dry land environments by seed plants is most likely the result of the evolution of _____.
pollen
What is the male gametophyte in plants?
pollen
What is the pathway of the pollen in the angiosperm life cycle
pollen adheres to the stigma of the carpal, pollen tube grows down within the style of the carpal. the tube penetrates through the micropyle, and discharges two sperm cells into female gametophyte (embryo sac), then pollen releases 2 sperm through the tube
The male gametophytes of flowering plants are also referred to as _____.
pollen grains
horizontal gene transfer
recombination between species
Which of these algal groups possess a photosynthetic pigment that allows them to live in deep water?
red algae
Archaeplastida includes which plants
red algae and green algae
decomposers
release C and N into the environment
nucleomorph
remnant of eukaryote genome within 3rd membrane
cork cambium
replaces epidermis with periderm
branch points
represent ancestral species; "common ancestors" --x{
obligate aerobes
require aerobic respiration (humans) aka need oxygen
halophiles
require high salt concentrations ex- species living in Great Salt Lake
thermophiles
require high temperatures ex- species living in hot springs
drift
result of random processes; important in small populations
adventitious roots
root tissue emanating from stems or leaves (shoot system)
From the human perspective, which of the following kinds of fungi would be considered the least useful or beneficial?
rusts
asocomycetes
sac fungi; sexual spores formed in asci, with ascocarps (fruiting bodies); 40% of species lichens w green algae or cyanobacteria
Fungi of the phylum Ascomycota are recognized on the basis of their production of _____ during sexual reproduction.
saclike structures
mixotrophs
same individual capable of both: photosynthesis in light and heterotrophs in dark
heterogeneous taxa
same traits appearing repeatedly in different groups
lateral meristems
secondary growth (increase girth); woody plants; "cylinders of cells" that extend thru stems and roots; vascular cambium; cork cambium
In flowering plants the integuments of the ovule develop into a(n) _____.
seed coat
What are advantages of seeds?
seeds are better for dispersal than spores, can remain viable longer, seeds can remain dormant until conditions are right for germination, seeds can get dispersed further via wind/water/animals
all gymnosperms
seeds do not form in an enclosed structure; undergo alternation of generations
(L9) What characteristics do angiosperms have?
seeds, flowers, fruits
What causes the frequency of alleles to change over time?
selection, drift, and migration
What parts make up flowers?
sepals, petals, stamens, carpels
flowers of angiosperms
sex-organs made up to 4 rings of specialized leaves (sporophylls)
Fossil evidence indicates that some dinosaurs had feathers. If birds are indeed descended from dinosaurs, feathers are what kind of character?
shared ancestral character
How homology supports evolution
shared traits via common descent from common ancestor
foraminiferans
shell (test) of calcium carbonate; planktonic, sessile, when they settle to the bottom they form limestone/chalk
radiolarians
shell of silica (glass); planktonic
apical bud meristem
shoot tip, surrounded by leaf primordia where leaves developed
How fossil record supports evolution
shows evolutionary changes of different species
clomeromycetes
similar to zygomycetes, but most have arbuscular mycorrhizal associations with plants (90% of plants)
gram positive
simple, with a lot of peptidoglycan
cellular organization of prokaryotes
simpler than euks, lack compartmentalization and membrane bound organelles, perform same functions on folded membrane surfaces, singular circular chromosome in cytoplasm (no nucleus; nucleoid region); may have acessory DNA/plasmids that replicate independently of chromosome
Examples of single celled and multiple celled filaments of fungi
single- yeast multi- hyphae
Data
singular pieces of info
fungi animal parasites
skin (external) mycosis: athletes foot, yeast infection systemic (internal) mycosis: can be caused by inhaled spores
amoebozoans
slime molds and other amoebas; locomotion via pseudopodia; unicellular w large aggregations
amoebozoans fungi
slime molds, other amoebas
How does the soil solution enter than plant?
soil solution (water and dissolved ions) enters plant through root tissue via apoplastic/symplastic route and moves thru cortex
vascular stele
solid cylinder of vascular tissue; pericycle
water potential (Ψ)
solute concentration and pressure measured in megaPascals (Mpa)
Ψs
solute potential; solutes always lower Ψ
vascular tissue
specialized cells that transport water, nutrients, etc
stomata
specialized spores that allow exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the atmosphere and the plant
morphogenesis
specific tissues/organs must develop at specific places (pattern formation)
spores alternation of generations
spores (n) develop into gametophytes (n)
In contrast to bryophytes, in vascular plants the dominant stage of the life cycle is the _____.
sporophyte
seed of plant
sporophyte embryo (2n) encased in maternal sporophyte tissue
How evolution of plants from charophytes is supported?
supported by morphological/ biochemical evidence; shape of cellulose synthesizing complexes, flagellated sperm morphology; also supported by molecular phylogenetic analyses
parabasalids
symbionts in termite guts to break down cellulose
An ecological relationship between organisms of different species that are in direct contact can best be described as _____.
symbiotic
Which term describes the fusion of two gametes to form a diploid zygote?
syngamy
True or false? Most of the cells in a mushroom contain haploid nuclei.
t
What are the two main root morphologies?
taproot and fibrous roots
What is a key structure that distinguishes angiosperms from gymnosperms?
the carpels (gymnosperms don't have them)
Which of these facts provides the best support for the hypothesis that plants evolved from green algae?
the chloroplasts of plants and green algae all have both chlorophyll a and b
taxonomy
the classification of living things
Which of the following traits was most important in enabling the first plants to move onto land?
the development of sporopollenin to prevent the desiccation of zygotes
What does the female gametophyte of an angiosperm have
the female gametophyte has a large central cell with 2 nuclei (n+n)
How is the flow of xylem sap powered?
the flow is powered by transpiration and root pressure
endosperm
the food supply for the seed
What happens when fungi reproduces asexually?
the fungi molds and spores (n) are produced by mitosis
Which of these contains two haploid nuclei?
the heterokaryotic stage of the fungal life cycle
Why has the kingdom Protista been abandoned?
the kingdom protista is not monophyletic; some protists are more closely related to plants, animals, or fungi than they are to other protists
What does the large surface area of roots allow for?
the large surface area of roots allows for lots of membrane transport to take place
What does the male gametophyte of an angiosperm have
the male gametophyte (pollen) has two haploid (n) cells
What happens when populations become divided by a barrier?
the microevolutionary processes will operate in isolation (no gene flow), populations will diverge and acquire different traits; eventually populations are no longer compatible
Which observation supports the position of eukaryotes at the convergence of the "ring of life"?
the nuclear genome of eukaryotes contains genes from archaeans and from bacteria
What can the membrane potential be used for?
the potential can be used to move solutes against their gradient - positive ions driven to neg. side -cotransport of neg. ions
What happens to pressure potential as a result of transpiration during the day?
the pressure potential (Ψp) lowers inside of the leaves
speciation
the process by which a species arises from an ancestral species
How are archaeans most similar to bacteria?
the shape of their chromosomes and plasmids
gene flow
the transfer of alleles into or out of a population due to the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes
What does the gymnosperm life cycle enable them to do?
their life cycles allow them to live in drier habitats
What advantage do organisms that reproduce sexually have over organisms that reproduce asexually?
their offspring may be more adaptable to changes in the environment
(L11) What are some advantages to living on land?
there is more CO2 in the air than in water, more direct sunlight, more photosynthesis, and plants can grow bigger because of structural adaptations
Where are apical meristems located?
they are located behind root cap
Which statement is true about obligate anaerobes?
they are poisoned by O2
What is the ecological role of protists
they are producers, produce 25% of the worlds photosynthesis
In the two-kingdom system, why were fungi classified in the kingdom Plantae?
they are sedentary
What is the purpose of leaves?
they are the main organs of photosynthesis
What is the function of fimbriae?
they are used to attach the cell to its substrate or to other prokaryotes
What happens to fertilized female ovules?
they become seeds
What is the function of guard cells?
they can open and close the stomata
What does a megasporocyte develop into?
they develop into female gametophyte that makes eggs
What does a microsporocyte develop into?
they develop into male gametophyte (pollen) that makes sperm
What rate do molecular characters evolve at?
they evolve at a relatively constant rate
From what did fungi evolve?
they evolved from single celled protists
What do endodermis and living vascular cells both do?
they export minerals to the xylem
Uses of modern prokaryotes
they give info about original forms of life; their characteristics tell us about the evolutionary transition to eukaryotes
Where does the root system operate?
they operate below the ground
What do (good) decomposers do?
they secrete enzymes that breakdown many compounds
How do sperm in the bryophyte life cycle fertilize eggs?
they swim through water
What do aquaporins do?
they transport proteins for water; regulate movement of water -water moves thru plant membranes faster than just diffusion -open/close affecting the rate of water movement between cells
What do co transport ions do
they use hydrogen ions to get more ions in, ex- hydrogen nitrate being brought in together
How prokaryote cells keep their shape.
they're surrounded by a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan(sugars linked together by proteins)
What does the male gametophyte in seed plants do?
tiny male gametophyte transported to female gametophyte -microspore develops into pollen grain -pollination
What are a plants organs composed of?
tissues
What is the purpose of root hairs?
to increase surface area for absorption
Purpose of multicellular gametangia
to produce gametes
What is the purpose of roots?
to provide anchorage and absorb water and minerals
What is the purpose of the shoot system?
to reproduce and carry out photosynthesis via stems, leaves, flowers
sporopollenin
tough protective outer coating of charophyte zygotes and plant spores; walled spores made in sporangia
homology
traits shared by common descent via common ancestor
Which of the following processes contributes to genetic recombination in prokaryotes?
transduction
pollination
transport by wind or animal (bees) to female ovule
phloem
transport organic molecules
xylem
transport water
xylem of plants
transport water and minerals from roots up to the shoots
phloem of plants
transports sugars from where they are made (leaves) to where they are needed (flowers, fruits, roots)
turgid cell
turgor pressure pushes back against expansion of protoplasm
opisthokonts
unicellular and multicellular flagellate heterotrophs including fungi and animals
golden algae
unicellular or colonial mixotrophs. Many species form protective cycts that can survive for decades
chlorophytes
unicellular, colonial, and green algae
Which way does xylem flow?
up
Which way does phloem flow?
up and down (roots for storage or to leaves for energy)
How many stomata are there per leaf?
1-2% of external leaf surface
heterokaryon/dikaryon
2 parental nuclei in 1 cytoplasm (n + n)
What are the functions of roots?
anchor, absorb minerals and water, store carbohydrates
90% of living plant species are...
angiosperms
Human survival literally depends on the produce of _____.
angiosperms
(L10) How is plant growth different from animal growth?
animal growth is usually determinate while plant growth is usually indeterminate
opisthokont fungi
animal plus choanoflagellates; fungi plus nucleariids
herbivory
animals feeding on plants; plants have various adaptations to keep from being eaten
A stamen consists of _____.
anther and filament
In moss, _____ produce sperm.
antheridia
angiosperm phylum
anthophyta
What are the two main types of meristems?
apical meristems and lateral meristems
Plasmodium, the parasitic organism that causes malaria, is a _____.
apicomplexan
What are 3 routes for the transport of water and solutes through plants?
apoplast, symplast, transmembrane
What are two different kinds of mycorrhizal fungi mutualism?
arbuscular mucorrhizae (haustoria) and ectomycorrhizae (form sheaths around roots)
What are the male and female gametangia for gametophytes?
archegonia- produce eggs antherida- produce sperm
In pines, the female gametophyte contains _____, each of which contains a(n) _____.
archegonia...egg
All seed plants _____.
are heterosporous
apical meristem
area of growth on shoot and root tips
axillary bud meristems
areas of meristem left behind by leaf primordia
lateral stems
arise from axillary bud meristems, not the vascular tissue as with lateral roots
complex life cycles/ alternation of generation
asexual + sexual phases, mitosis (2n) meiosis (n) + fertilization
How do prokaryotes reproduce?
asexual reproduction via binary fission
Organisms that exhibit alternation of generations reproduce ____________ in the diploid stage by producing haploid cells that form spores, which then germinate into haploid adults.
asexually
3 protists
autotrophs, heterotrophs, mixotrophs
apical dominance
axillary bud growth inhibited by proximity of apical bud
How the stem tissues are organized:
dermal tissue: epidermis vascular tissue: xylem and phloem ground tissue: pith and cortex the bundled vascular arrangement of the stem converges with a solid vascular cylinder of the root
What is a prokaryotes role in nutrient cycling
depended on for oxygen production and nitrogen fixation
What are the three tissues that plants are made up of?
dermal tissues, vascular tissues, and ground tissues
Qualitative
descriptive, comparable
Desert plants and stomata:
desert plants have less stomata per leaf (environmental); higher CO2=less stomata
Which of these groups is characterized by glasslike walls containing silica?
diatoms
plant body organization: cells
differentiated to perform various specific functions (cells for photosynthesis, support, absorption, transport)
How does the soil solution get to the xylem?
diffusion and active transport
basidia
dikaryotic cells at the end of hyphae
What does the basidiomycete life cycle have?
dikaryotic mycelium
A sign on the beach states, "Beach Closed. Red Tide." The organisms interfering with your use of this beach are probably _____.
dinoflagellates
When does a high rate of evaporation/transpiration occur?
it occurs when stomata opens and air pockets provide surface area for trans/evaporation
What does haustoria do?
it perforates the cell wall but not the plasma membrane
What does 1" growth produce?
it produces all 3 root tissue types: dermal tissue, vascular stele, ground tissue
What is the purpose of a fungi's cell wall made of chitin?
it provides rigidity; keeps cells from bursting
What happens when the protoplast is full?
it pushes against the cell wall
What does phloem do?
it transports sugars from sources to sinks
What sexual processes in fungi generate genetic variation?
karyogamy and meiosis
Which of these groups consist of parasitic flagellated cells, such as Trypanosoma, the organism that causes sleeping sickness?
kinetoplastids
Most bryophytes, such as mosses, differ from all other plants in that they _____.
lack true leaves and roots
plasmolysis
protoplasm shrinks from cell wall because there is less water overall contained in cell
What did Darwin infer? (2)
1- Individuals w inherited traits that give them a higher chance of surviving and reproducing tend to cause more offspring 2- Because of #1, those w favorable traits will accumulate
4 features shared by all plants are...
1- alternation of generations (plus multic, dependent embryos) 2- sporopollenin 3- multicellular gametangia 4- apical meristems
What are the two male and female gametangia produced by gametophytes?
1- archagonia (produce eggs) 2- antheridia (produce flagellated sperm)
What are the two main functions of stems?
1- branch to provide 3D architecture for leaf surfaces 2- conduit for transport between leaves and roots: the movement of water and dissolved resources
Neurospora cycle (asexual)
1- conidia (asexual spores) form at hyphal tips(conidiophores)
What are 3 ways that resources can be transported through a plant?
1- diffusion 2- active transport 3- bulk flow
What are four evolutionary innovations of seed plants?
1- further reduction of the gametophyte stage 2- variation in spore size and density 3- seeds 4- ovules and pollen (no water needed)
Gametophyte stage
1- gametophytes (n) develop from spores (n) 2- spores germinate to form branched protonemata (1 cell thick) 3- each protonemata produces 1+ gametophore(s) 4-anchored by rhizoids: not roots
What are the two cells the male gametophyte has
1- generative cell 2- tube cell
life cycle of mosses
1- mature sporophytes produce haploid spores, dispersed by wind 2- separate spores develop into f and m gametophytes 3- haploid eggs form in archegonia, and haploid sperm form in antheridia 4- haploid gametes undergo fertilization, forming a diploid zygote 5- the diploid zygote develops into a sporophyte
What did Darwin observe? (2)
1- members of a population vary in their inherited traits 2- all species produce more offspring than can be supported, and many die
(L8) What are 5 key events in the history of plant evolution?
1- multicellularity (non vascular bryophytes) 2- invasion of land (seedless of vascular plants 475 My) 3- evolution of vascular tissue (seed plants 420 My) 4- appearance of (extant) seed plants (angiosperms 305 My) 5- evolution of flowers
Cycle of Basidiomycetes
1- plasmogamy 2- dikaryotic (n+n) mycelium grown quickly and may produce basidiocarp (mushrooms) 3- gills of basidiocarp lined w basidia 4- karyogamy produces basidiospores (100 M+)
Neurospora cycle (sexual)
1- plasmogamy 2- dikaryotic cells divide into asci 3- karyogamy (2n>4 x n> 8 x n) 4- ascospores form in asci arranged into ascocarps
What are 2 things that make a hypothesis useful?
1- provide the best explanation 2- must be falsifiable/testable
What are two main systems of vegetative growth?
1- root system: roots 2- shoot system: stems and leaves
Why can't natural selection fashion perfect organisms?
1- selection can act only on existing traits and genetic variation. The ideal phenotype may not exist in the population 2- evolution is limited by historical constraints, it operates on the traits that the organism already has 3- adaptations are often compromises: each organism can't possess optimal form and function in every possible aspect (there's trade offs) 4- chance extrinsic events (ie weather) and a constantly changing environment prevents organisms from perfectly adapting to the environment over evolutionary time (challenges w climate)
What do meristems divide into?
1- stem cells 2- derivatives
Two variations in flowers
1- symmetry 2- complete v incomplete flowers
How does the fern life cycle differ from that of a bryophyte?
1- the bisexual gametophyte stage is much smaller than the sporophyte 2- the sporophyte is not dependent on gametophyte
What does deduction cause us to do?
Gives us an idea where to look for new information
What does it mean for scientific knowledge to be conditional?
The meaning of our data changes as we get more
Plants for spices
derived from a variety of plant parts: flowers (cloves), fruits and seeds (vanilla, black pepper), leaves (basil, mint), bark (cinnamon)
Where does the shoot system function?
above ground
heterotroph
absorb nutrients without ingestion (unlike animals); don't photosynthesize and need food; can be parasitic or mutualistic; good decomposers
Fungi obtain nutrients through _____.
absorption
taxis
actively moving toward or away from the stimulus ex- positive phototaxis: moving toward the light
vascular cambium
adds 2" vascular tissue- xylem
Many types of foraminiferans form a symbiotic relationship with _____.
algae
brown algae
all multicellular "seaweeds" and kelp
lignin
allows plants to get bigger
Characteristics of stems in the shoot systems
alternating nodes and internodes; primary growth via axillary buds; apical dominance; stems modified for storge, asexual reproduction
alternation of generations
alternating, multicellular haploid (n) and diploid (2n) phases
nucleariids
amoeba that feed on algae and bacteria
Rhizarians + 3 groups
amoeboid pseudopodia; cytoplasmic for locomotion, prey capture, etc; foraminiferans, radiolarians, cercozoans
The two Unikont groups
amoebozoans and opisthokonts
What are the two main groups of unikonts?
amoebozoans and opisthokonts
What are the three tissue types of leaves?
dermal tissue, vascular stele, ground tissue
The largest seaweeds are _____.
brown algae
Which three groups contain large algae known as seaweeds?
brown algae, red algae, green algae
The living plants that are most similar to the first plants to bear gametangia are the _____.
bryophytes
How do fungi reproduce?
by producing spores and haploid hyphae (sexual and asexual)
circadian rhythms
daily opening of stomata; stimulated to open by light, when the CO2 in cells is low
Natural selection
individuals w heritable traits survive and reproduce more than others w/o those traits
endodermis
inner most cortex cells
endodermis
inner most layer; selective boundary with vascular tissue
vascular tissue system
internal transport between shoot and root systems; physical support
What happens when a seed germinates?
it becomes a seedling
What does the conjugation process depend on?
it depends on the location of the F factor
What does transpirational pull depend on?
it depends upon the cohesiveness and surface tension of water
Which of these statements is true about the gametophyte tissue that surrounds the pine embryo?
it functions as a haploid food reserve
How is pressure potential determined?
it is determined by how the protoplast presses against the cell wall
How is solute potential determined?
it is determined by solute concentration inside and outside cell
How is the phloem sap translocated?
it is translocated through long sieve tubes (sieve tube elements separated by sieve plates)
How does bulk flow move?
it moves by pressure-flow
How does sugar move?
it moves via apoplast and or symplast to sieve tubes; can require active transport
The major difference between angiosperms and gymnosperms comes from the _____.
presence or absence of a protective covering over the ovule
Ψp
pressure potential; physical pressure; can be positive or negative
apical meristems
primary growth (increase length) in tips of roots and apical+axillary buds of shoots; most growth in herbaceous plants
tube cell
produces a pollen tube
The diploid generation of the plant life cycle always _____.
produces spores
the most abundant organism
prokaryotes
root cap
protects root tip against soil; secretes polysaccharide lubricant
In the five-kingdom system, which kingdom consists primarily of unicellular eukaryotes?
protista
(L5) How do protists compare to prokaryotes and multicellular organisms?
protists are more complex than prokaryotes and more ecologically diverse than multicellular organisms
sporophytes alternation of generations
sporophytes (2n) produce spores (n) by meiosis
gram stain
standard test, provides info about cell wall structure; stains purple or pink
internodes
stem segments between nodes
capsule
sticky coat of polysaccharide or protein
In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen grain to the _____ of a flower on the same plant or another plant of the same species.
stigma
A carpel is composed of _____.
stigma, style, ovary
what is gas exchange and water loss controlled by?
stomata
Which group is characterized by cells with fine hairlike projections on their flagella?
stramenopila
What groups have complex life cycles?
stramenopiles, archaeplastida, unikonts
Where is the megasporangium retained?
within the parent sporophyte
pith
within vascular tissue
Plants for shelter, fuel
wood fibers (clothing), moss for peat
Basidiomycetes particularly decompose what?
wood(lignin)
stele
xylem + phloem; arrangement varies in roots (cylinder) and shoots (bundles)
composition of vascular tissue
xylem and phloem, reinforced with lignin
formula to calculate water potential (Ψ)
Ψ= Ψs + Ψp