Ch. 9 Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood
Developmental scientists propose that by ___ _______, toddlers are capable of empathy
24 months
high in both warmth/responsiveness and control. are affectionate and sensitive to their child's emotional needs, and typically use positive discipline methods
authoritative parenting
The finding that many Chinese parents use a style that is more demanding and less overtly affectionate than the average Western (European or Euro American) parent can be viewed as a ___________ __________ variation on _________ parenting.
culturally influenced; authoritative
Ronnie sometimes plays with Martina on weekends but in kindergarten, he ignores her and plays only with boys.
gender segregation
George's father makes negative comments when George plays with his sister's dolls. He also praises his son for not crying when he stubs his toe.
gender typing
involves actions, preferences, and attitudes that are associated with culturally defined roles that a boy or girl expects to play.
gender typing
__________ _________ is much more common when the child knows the person who needs help, and when the child has a positive opinion of that person
helping behavior
Reactive aggression may ____________ because of children's better ____________- of others' __________—if they perceive hostile intent, they are likely to retaliate in a hostile way
increase; understanding; intentions
Amrisha wrestles a toy that she had been waiting to play with for several minutes out of Keisha's hand.
instrumental aggression
which is designed to achieve a goal (such as acquiring objects, attention, or privileges).
instrumental aggression
____________ children did as well as the resilient children in reading and math, but had more internalizing problems
overcontrolled
(30 percent) were generally shy, anxious, dependent, and compliant.
overcontrolled children
Children of approximately the same age and developmental level are referred to as _______.
peers
Children of _________ parents tended to be low in self-control and cooperativeness with peers and teachers, and the boys in particular were impulsive and aggressive
permissive
Greg frequently gets up in the middle of rug time or, without warning, takes books or toys away from other children.
permissive parenting
high in warmth/responsiveness, but low in control. are affectionate, accepting, and indulgent toward their child's desires. but are not as willing to explain rules and expectations
permissive parenting
__________ has an inner "core" of temperament, around which the child builds more complex and individualized sets of thoughts, feelings, and behavioral habits
personality
(pushing, hitting, biting, or grabbing another child's toy) becomes common at 18 months, reaches a peak between 24 and 42 months, and declines after 4 years of age
physical aggression
Two of the main categories of infant temperament are moderately stable between infancy and early childhood, __________ emotionality and __________ emotionality
positive and negative
a bias by young children to view themselves in a positive light
positive bias
underlies children's sense of initiative and motivates children to keep trying at new tasks, even in the face of repeated failure
positive bias
is rooted in our basic biological drive to approach and seek rewards
positive emotionality
a feeling of concern or sorrow for the other person, and this can lead directly to prosocial behavior.
sympathy
__________ and __________ both contribute to emotion regulation
temperament and attachment
A child asks for some candy in the car ride to the grocery store and starts crying when denied. Her father calmly explains that they are stopping at the store to buy groceries for dinner, and not candy. He tells his daughter she is expected to hold his hand and walk through the store quietly. Which parenting technique did this father use?
the father established family routines and responsibilites
Children who engage in more social pretend play (with peers or siblings) tend to have more advanced levels of _______ of _____ ___________, taking into ______ _____ and ________ ability
theory of mind performance; account age; language
(insulting, threatening, or name-calling) begins to be more common as children's language skills grow (which may or may not be a relief to parents).
verbal aggression
A mutually responsive orientation at ages 1 to 2 years differs from secure attachment in infancy in that it consists of ________ and _________ as well as the _____________ of rules
warmth and responsiveness; establishment
ne approach to childhood personality focuses on the _________ ________.
whole child
Young children display more advanced emotions, such as embarrassment, pride, and shame, between ages __________. These self-conscious emotions are crucial to human interaction.
18 and 24 months
n predominantly collectivist cultures such as ________ ________, emotions are often viewed as something that should be __________, or expressed mainly in the service of group harmony rather than individual well-being
East Asia; suppressed
proposed that from the age of about 15 months, most children and parents set up a mutually responsive orientation
Grazyna Kochanska
An important context in which children (particularly boys) can learn to regulate ____________ is through _______-and-________ _____
aggression; rough-and-tumble play
shifting the child's attention away from the source of the negative emotion
attention refocusing
The most effective maternal strategies to help children reduce their sadness and anger were ____________ ____________ and _____________ ___________.
attention refocusing and cognitive reframing
tended to have higher levels of internalizing (for example, withdrawal, anxiety) and externalizing (such as aggression, destruction of objects) behavior.
authoritarian
Daniel is often in a bad mood, knocks down toys in the preschool, and refuses to pick them up when asked.
authoritarian parenting
low in warmth/responsiveness and high in control. are less affectionate, praise the child's accomplishments less, and are less sensitive to the child's emotional needs. have strict rules and don't often discuss the rules
authoritarian parenting
A mother asks her 3-year-old son to keep his food on the table and reminds him when he "accidentally" knocks it off. When he throws food at his sister, she explains to him that this is against the rules because it makes things dirty and hurts his sister's feelings. This parenting style would be classified as __________.
authoritative
hat children of ___________ parents tended to be independent, self-reliant, cheerful, and cooperative with adults and other children.
authoritative
Katrina is generally in a good mood and cooperates with both teachers and classmates in her preschool.
authoritative parenting
Parenting intervention studies can be used to show that changes in parenting style may be causally linked to changes in ________ _________
child behavior
Conventional rules are viewed by __________ as more open to ________ than moral rules.
children; change
high warmth, high control
classic authoritative
Baumrind and colleagues identified three subgroups of authoritative parents:
classic authoritative, directive, and democratic
changing the child's interpretation of the situation so that it is no longer negative
cognitive reframing
Each of the following has been found in laboratory studies to be an effective emotion regulation strategy in the preschool years except __________ the child with ________ ________.
comforting; physical attention
an "internal guidance system that regulates conduct without the need for external control"
conscience
Instrumental aggression may _________ because children find ____-_____________ ways to achieve their goals.
decline; non-aggressive
high warmth, moderate control
democratic
In an attempt to reduce Adolfo's aggression, his father encourages him to calmly build with blocks when his aggressive play begins to get out of hand.
differential reinforcement
Parents promote gender typing not only by modeling gender stereotyped roles around the house, but also by praising gender-typical play and ignoring (or failing to reward) gender-atypical play, a process known as ____________ ___________.
differential reinforcement
moderate warmth, high control
directive
Children who can guess what a character described as selfish might do next in a story appear to have a level of understanding of other people's ____________ _______.
dispositional traits
Four-year-old Lisa meets a cuddly-looking dog at the park. She has a dog at home, and in the past she has impulsively petted unfamiliar dogs. However, before petting the dog, she asks the dog's owner if it's OK. Lisa is demonstrating __________ _________.
effortful control
involves inhibiting the most typical action in a situation in order to act in a less typical and more adaptive way.
effortful control
refers to the ability to modulate one's emotional arousal (Saarni et al., 2006). It takes many years to develop, and is influenced over time by biological, cognitive, behavioral, and experiential factors
emotion regulation
Mothers who looked at emotionally rich picture books with their children and provided more elaborate explanations for the emotions (such as, "he's happy because he won the race") tended to have children who used more __________ __________ language.
emotionally descriptive
These studies showed that the ability to regulate one's ___________ and ___________ in early childhood may contribute to later ___________ achievement along with other variables.
emotions and behaviors; academic
they experience the emotions of others.
empathy
When children fail at a task or disappoint an adult, they are likely to be feeling one of two emotions:
evaluative embarrassment or shame
An important practical implication of research on children's play and peer relationships is that teachers can seek out __________-________ interventions to promote ________ __________ in the preschool years
evidence-based; social competence
drawing the child's attention to stickers that came in the bag with the prize.
example of attention refocusing
pointing out that the baby socks could be given to a baby the family knows or used as finger puppets
example of cognitive reframing
According to Vygotsky, sociodramatic play with peers may have benefits for __________ ___________.
executive functioning
Early childhood is an important time for the development of three aspects of emotional competence: emotional ____________, emotional ___________, and emotion ___________.
expressivity, understanding, and regulation
Giselle is 3 years old. When asked her name, she says, "Giselle, and I'm a girl." Martina is Ronnie's next-door neighbor.
gender identity
refers to an individual's inner sense of being male or female.
gender identity
A 4-year-old boy who adamantly believes that only boys can be firefighters and only girls can be nurses is applying his __________ __________ to the classification of these two careers.
gender schema
Samara's mother is a doctor. She was surprised when 4-year-old Samara told her she wanted to be a nurse because only boys could be doctors.
gender schema
an interrelated set of beliefs, observations, and expectations about how males and females should behave
gender schema
Children's emotional knowledge is greater when parents __________ and _______ emotions.
label and explain
children's __________ is very important to survival of the family, leading to speculation that a general tendency toward helping people in one's social group may have evolved in human beings
labor
Children at risk of becoming aggressive also show difficulties or delays in _________ and __________ functioning in infancy and early childhood that can affect their ability to solve _______ problems without becoming _________.
language and executive; social; aggresive
The fact that in the afternoon child care is associated with rising levels of cortisol and staying at home with falling levels of cortisol indicates that at ______ some children may experience child care as ____________
least; stressful
The researchers concluded that simple embarrassment was _______ stressful than the other emotions, which involved ______-___________ of failure
less; self-evaluation
High-quality child care is linked to _____ levels of _________ and _____ levels of ________ ___________.
low levels of aggression; and high levels of social competence
Between the ages of 4 and 8, instrumental aggression becomes proportionately _______ and reactive aggression (or hostile) proportionately ________.
lower; higher
Girls exposed to male sex hormones prenatally may tend to show ____________ _____ __________.
masculine play preferences
Psychologists believe that ________ childhood is the first time children develop an overall sense of self-esteem
middle
emphasize issues of harm, personal welfare, and individual rights, and cover actions such as hitting, stealing, cheating, and lying.
moral rules
Girls tend to use verbal or relational aggression ______ often than physical aggression, whereas it is the opposite with boys.
more
Children whose mothers had _________ ___________ orientations were more cooperative in laboratory play activities with the mother at ages 2 to 3, and less likely to cheat at games or to touch toys they were told not to touch at ages 4 to 5 years
mutually responsive
which the parent responds with warmth but firmness to the child's emotional signals and attempts to exert independence. Similar to attachment, but adds the notion of parental control.
mutually responsive orientation
our basic need to monitor threats and avoid danger
negative emotionality
low in warmth/responsiveness and low in control. generally focus on their own needs rather than the needs of the child.
uninvolved parenting
Young children's self-assessments of their abilities and personality traits are often characterized by an overconfidence known as __________.
positivity bias
In contrast, parents who use _______-_________ techniques to enforce compliance with rules (stern commands, physical restraints, and physical punishment) are likely to have children who tend to break rules when the parent is not present
power-assertive
defined as voluntary actions to help another, is considered by developmental theorists and parents to be an essential aspect of social development.
prosocial behavior
they try to control their children's behavior by means of psychological manipulation. Examples include withholding affection as a form of punishment; making their affection conditional on whether the child behaves in a certain way; and invalidating the child's ideas, emotions, and choices
psychological control
Willie pushes Grace angrily after she calls him a liar.
reactive aggression
involves an angry response to a blocked goal or retaliation against aggression by another person, and it is intended to inflict harm
reactive aggression
Grace says that Willie "lied to teacher" in order to get him in trouble with the preschool teacher.
relational aggression
involves damaging another person's position or relationships within the peer group by means of social exclusion or spreading rumors about the person
relational aggression
(50 percent of the sample) tended to be socially outgoing, cooperative, compliant, high in emotion regulation, and adaptive in stressful situations.
resilient children
cortisol ______ when people are under stress
rises
Vince pretends to be a tae kwon do fighter, and kicks out at Mike without hitting him. Mike smiles, says "Hey-ya!" and pretends to strike back at Vince. They continue to "spar" for a few minutes.
rough-and-tumble play
involves playful fighting accompanied by positive emotions. can gradually escalate the level of aggression, and then scale it back when someone yells, "Ouch!" or "Cut it out!"
rough-and-tumble play
children with a history of ________ attachments are viewed as developing an __________ __________ ________ of the self that carries over into self-concepts and social interactions in early childhood
secured; internal working model
a person's awareness of personal attributes, abilities, possessions, preferences, attitudes and values, that define them as a person
self-concept
the degree to which a child feels a sense of overall self-worth
self-esteem
appears to be felt as a personal or moral failure, and leads to avoidance and social withdrawal
shame
In contrast to older children, who regard friends as having a long-term relationship based on trust, preschool-age children regard friends as someone to ________ toys and have ______ with, possibly over several ____ or ______.
share; fun; days or weeks
refer to rules of conduct in particular social contexts, such as school rules, game rules, and rules of politeness.
social conventional rules
When changes in personality type occurred, they were related to changes in the __________ ___________.
social environment
meaning that their gender had been completely accepted by their parents
socially transitioned
children actively plan and assign roles, is common. Children act in and direct their own little plays, and will stop to discuss how to change things if someone has a better idea, or the actors become confused
sociodramatic play
researchers found that children who engaged in frequent ____________ play in preschool showed more growth over time in the ability to pay attention and control their behavior during clean-up periods or group time, compared with children who engaged in less frequent play
socioeconomic
Which method of parental correction has been frequently and consistently associated with negative outcomes, such as higher externalizing behavior (e.g., aggression and antisocial behavior), reduced quality of parent-child relationships, and elevated child mental health problems?
spanking
The study revealed that both evaluative embarrassment and shame reactions (evoked when the child failed at a rigged task) were associated with ________ in ________.
spikes in cortisol
The prevention studies focusing on annual family check-up meetings with researchers provided interventions to high-risk children who showed problem behavior as toddlers and lived in adverse family and socioeconomic conditions. A key finding was that interventions were ___________ in reducing ________ __________ through age ___ 1/2 years..
successful; conduct problems; 9
(20 percent) tended to be active, aggressive, and non-compliant, and had difficulties with emotion regulation.
undercontrolled children
Taking on and negotiating different roles in play may help children ___________ that other people have different __________ and __________.
understand; viewpoints and emotions
Children appear to have an implicit _____________ of their own ____________ before they can articulate it in their own _____-____________.
understanding; personality; self-descriptions
Melissa often seems depressed and lonely in preschool, refusing to play with other children, and doesn't comply with preschool rules. Her parents don't return phone calls from the concerned teacher.
uninvolved parenting
