Chapter 1

stage

a specific identifiable position in a continuum or series or especially in a process

age-graded influences

events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last.

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

sensitive period

a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences

history-graded influences

explain why people born around the same time tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times

structured observation

investigator sets up a lab situation that evoke the behavior of interest so that every particpant has equal opportuniity to display responce.

normative approach

measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals, and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development

clinical interview

method in which the researcher asks detailed questions while interacting with the participant.

macrosystem

outermost level of bronfenbernner's model that is not a specific context but consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources (political systems, laws, religion, values, lifestyles)

cross-sectional design

research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time

correlation design

research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

evolutionary developmental psychology

seeks to understand the adaptive value of specieswide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age

exosystem

social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development

ethology

study of animal behavior

resilience

the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

experimental design

the manner in which a scientist intends to conduct an experiment

information processing

the methods by which we take in, analyze, store, and retrieve material

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

psychoanalytic perspective

the perspective that stresses the influences of unconscious forces on human behavior

behaviorism

the school of psychology, founded by John Watson, that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior

context

the set of facts or circumstances that surround a situation or event

ethnography

the study of human cultures

lifespan perspective

the view that developmental changes happen throughout the human lifespan and that interdisciplinary research is required to fully understand human development

random assignement

A process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiement.

discontinuous development

A process in which new and different ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times.

longitudinal design

A research design in which investigators observe one group of subjects repeatedly over a period of time.

cognitive-developmental theory

An approach introduced by Piaget that views children as actively constructing knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world and that regards cognitive development as taking place in stages.

social learning theory

Banduras theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

ecological systems theory

Bronfenbrenner's approach, which views a person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values and programs

mesosystem

Consists of the relationships that exist between two or more persons in the developing person's life (parent to parent, teacher to parent)

cohort effects

Effects due to a person's time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age.

psychosocial theory

Erikson's theory, which emphasizes that at each Freudian stage, individuals not only develop a unique personality, but also acquire attitudes and skills that help them become active, contributing members of their society

psychosexual theory

Freud's theory which emphasized that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in he first few years is crucial for healthy personality development

chronosystem

In Bronfenbrenner's bioecological approach, the system that captures the way changes in environmental systems, such as social trends and life events, are patterned over a person's lifetime.

nonnormative influences

Influences on lifespan development that are irregular, in that they happen to just one or a few individuals and do not follow a predictable timetable

sequential design

a research design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal examinations of development

Microsystem

The immediate settings with which the child interacts, such as the home, the school, and one's peers

structured interview

Type of interview in which interviewer asks every applicant the same questions; also called a repetitive interview.

sociocultural theory

Vygotsky's theory, in which children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society

developmental science

a field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the lifespan

developmental cognitive neuroscience

a new area of investigation that brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavior patterns

continuous development

a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

clinical, or case study, method

brings together a wide range of information on one person, including interviews, observations, and sometimes test scores

behavior modification

changing one's choices or actions by manipulating the cues that trigger the actions, the actions themselves, or the consequences of the actions

nature-nurture controversy

disagreement among theorists about whether genetic or environmental factors are more important influences on development