chapter 1 psychology, PSY 101: Week 1, Chapter 1, chapter 2: Research Methods, Chapter 2 - Scientific Research, PSY 101: Chapter 2, PSY 101 : Chapter 3, Chapter 3 - Nervous System, chapter 3: Biological Psychology, chapter 4: sensation & perception,...
Functionalism
- created by William James (but influenced by Darwin) - function of mental experiences (identified by what they do, rather than what their made of)
Wundt
- developed introspection/ structuralism - looked into mental experiences (thoughts, images, feelings)
how can we tell where a sound is coming from
- difference in loudness of sound arriving at each ear - difference in timing of the sound arriving at each ear
Empirical Methods
- early psychologists would use this - gaining knowledge by direct/indirect observations
carpentered-world hypothesis
"angles in" looks like a near corner "angles out" looks like a far corner - lines look the same to the retina -so the brain assumes that because "angles out"is "further way" in space so it must be longer
Behaviourism
- created by John b Watson - acquired through conditioning - relate _______ (responses) to events in the environment (stimuli)
What is Snakes and Spiders an example of?
Evolutionary Theory
What can the firing rate of neurons be effected by
- effected by our world around us -specific colours - orientation of lines - response to things like a glass table on a water bottle
Evolutionary Psychology
- explains mental traits (memory, language) as adaptations - return to functionalism
Extraordinary claims
- go against sense -controversial - we should only claims that can be supported by data - extraordinary claims need extraordinary evidence
Why are experiments the most useful tool for hypothesis testing
- if you have constructed a well-controlled experiment, then you can be confident about cause
Sound waves measured in
-described in terms of frequency - how often these peaks are shown - measured in hertz = number of cycles per seconds
Optic ataxia
-dorsal-> parietal lobe damage can't use vision to guide movements
Why is measuring the absolute threshold challenging
-lapses in attention - background noise - uncertainty, lying response bias -demand characteristics
Stage 2 of sleep cycle
-still sensitive to events in the external world -sleep spindles and k-complexes - heart rate slows, body temperature decreases, eye movement cease - some level of consciousness
perceptions
-the organization and interpretation of sensations - brain makes sense of "raw data" - influenced by knowledge of the world, expectation, context -limited attention
criticisms of evolutionary psychology
-untestable - post hoc explanations (after the fact)
Scientific Method
-use to generate predictions about how come aspects of the world works ex. giraffes have long necks to reach food
visual agnosia
-ventral-> temporal lobe damage the inability to recognize objects by sight
sleep spindles and K complexes what stage of sleep
2
conditioned stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that now evoked a conditional response
Skinner Box
A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.
hypothesis
A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our theory is correct - if is not supported, then your work might need to be refined ex. tall people get paid more
temporal lobe
Auditory cortex Wernicke area A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.
Overreliance on anecdotes
Anecdotes are often not representative Can't tell us about cause and effect Difficult to verify
Dendrites
Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information from other neurons
Stage 3 &4
Deep sleep, sleep walking
convergent validity
Extent to which several measures all converge on the same conclusion
Neurotransmitters vs hormones
Neurotransmitters in nervous system, -carries through nerves -faster -brief effects hormones in the endocrine system. -carried through the blood stram -slower -long lasting
Sleep
SCN sends signals to the pineal gland, which increases the production of the hormone melatonin as light decreases (melatonin makes you sleepy)
Proof not Evidence
Scientific knowledge is rarely if ever conclusive
NOVA video: files
Sehgal showed effects of sleep deprivation by putting _____ in a deprivator all night; then next day they sleep all day to catch up on sleep (connect between sleep and memory); discovered that a single mutation in a gene causes symptoms resembling jet lag in files
Stage 1
Sudden jerks & bizarre images
Population
The entire group of objects or individuals (usually impossible to fully measure)
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated
learning style
an individual's preferred or optimal method of acquiring new information
family study
analysis of how characteristics run in intact families
twin study
analysis of how traits differ in identical versus fraternal twins
adoption study
analysis of how traits vary in individuals raised apart from their biological relatives
scientific skepticism
approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them
dissociation theory
approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated
sociocognitive theory
approach to explaining hypnosis based on people's attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and responsiveness to waking suggestions
Causation Fallacy
assuming that because two things are correlated that one caused the other (ex. students that drink have lower GPA)
Top down processing
beliefs and expectations about the whole used to process parts; past experience/ knowledge; driven by expectations about how the world is organized; perception directs cognition
What is pseudoscience?
beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method
sympathetic division
The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats. - flight or fight things that are not necessary are turned off - thinking digestion - pupils dilate to take in as much light as possible -heart rate/ breathing rate increased ->body get prepared for work
Phrenology
The study of the conformation of the skull based on the belief that it is indicative of mental faculties and character. -has no evidence to back it up
Non-shadowed Info
_______ is poorly processed in dichotic listening, since only basic info recalled (like if the speaker is male/ female); but still notice if your name in spoken
Physical Energy
a light source emits electromagnetic radiation that travels as a wave
operational definition
a working definition of what a researcher is measuring -thoughts -feeling -memory ex- social media makes people anxious test on a scale of one to ten or measure HR
plasticity
ability of the nervous system to change
depth perception
ability to judge distance and three-dimensional relations
Perception of Depth
ability to use visual cues in order to perceive 3-dimensional characteristics of an object; images on retina are 2-D
sensory adaptation
activation is greatest when a stimulus is first detected
Thalamus (part of Limbic System)
acts as a switch board, sends info to forebrain for more processing
Warning signs of pseudoscience
ad hoc immunizing Lack of self correction over reliance on ancedots
Introspection
experimental self observation (make observations biased on personal interpretation or previous experience)
Experimenter Expectancy Effect
experimenter acts in ways that influences results that are consistent with expectations (solution: make experimenter blind to which group participants are in)
scientific theory
explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world
Sleep Deprivation
extended ______ can have severe physical and psychological consequences; cold can occur with loss of sleep
validity
extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure
Interrater Reliability
extent to which two or more raters agree (consistent between people?)
internal validity
extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study
external validity
extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings
Structural Plasticity
forming new connections (synaptogensis), and getting rid of ones not using (pruning)
frontal lobe
forward part of cerebral cortex responsible for motor function, language, memory, and planning
forebrain (cerebrum)
forward part of the brain that allows advanced intellectual abilities
myelin sheath
glial cells wrapped around axons that act as insulators of the neuron's signal
nocebo effect
harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm
Awake/ Alert Brain
has fast frequency and small (amplitude) alpha waves (8-13Hz); brain waves get slower (frequency) and larger (amplitude) during sleep cycle compared to this
dream continuity hypothesis
hypothesis that there is continuity between sleeping and waking experiences and that dreams can mirror life circumstances
trichromatic theory
idea that color vision is based on our sensitivity to three primary colors
gate control model
idea that pain is blocked or gated from consciousness by neural mechanisms in spinal cord
statistically significant
if more then 5 out of 100 - when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low
basal ganglia
involved in control of voluntary movement -rich in dopamine
Basal Ganglia (subcortical structures)
involved in control of voluntary movements (rich in dopamine)
Amygdala (part of Limbic System)
involved in fear response
Cerebellum
involved in sense of balance and learning motor skills
informed consent
informing research participants of what is involved in a study before asking them to participate
conditioned stimulus (CS)
initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response due to association with an unconditioned stimulus
Cochlea
inner ear; vibrations converted to a neutral signal in the cochlea; fluid filled coil contains receptors for hearing
Absolute Threshold (sight)
intensity level at which a person detects the presence of a stimulus (50% of time); is an example of psychophysics is analyzing the dimmest light people can see; people have an __________ : lowest intensity detected
Grob et al : psiloybin effects
interest in therapeutic value of ______; one challenge: ______ found that 31% of reported extreme fear and paranoia even in a controlled, emotionally supportive environment
Structuralists
interested in measuring the limits of conscious experience ex. what the quietest sound you can hear?
terminal buttons
located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons
receptor site
location that uniquely recognizes a neurotransmitter
Eliasson et al, GPA Study
looked at sleep patterns in college students; asked questions such as 'what time do you wake up?' 'How much sleep do you get?; relates to the MEQ
temporal lobe
lower part of cerebral cortex that plays roles in hearing, understanding language, and memory
absolute threshold
lowest level of a stimulus needed for the nervous system to detect a change 50% of the time
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
magnetic fields to visualize brain structure
Nerve Cells
makes up the nervous system, which is a complex communication network
Overuse of ad hoc immunizing
making up new details to protect one's claim
pituitary gland
master gland that, under the control of the hypothalamus, directs the other glands of the body
inferential statistics
mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population
retina
membrane at the back of the eye responsible for converting light into neural activity
threshold
membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential
basilar membrane
membrane supporting the organ of Corti and hair cells in the cochlea
introspection
method by which trained observers carefully reflect and report on their mental experiences
Eardrum
middle ear; vibration of the eardrum amplified by the three tiny bones
median
middle score in a data set; a measure of central tendency
Sympathetic Division
mobilizes the body for emergencies (fight or flight response - sweating, goosebumps, pupils dilate)
Aversion Therapy
modify problematic behaviour by pairing it with an unpleasant factor; used with chronic alcoholics; ex. give a person emetic - substance that causes vomiting (unconditioned stimulus); feeling nauseous (unconditional response); hope to stop by associating drinking to nausea
aversion therapy
modify problematic behaviour by pairing it with an unpleasant stimulus - often uses an emetic UCS - mostly used with chronic alcoholics
Linear Perspective
monocular cues: linear perspective: lines converge in the distance; eventually meeting at a vanishing point
Motion Parallax
monocular cues: objects at diff distances move across retina at diff rates; some objects that are closer appear to move faster than objects further away
why are we drawn to pseudoscience?
need to have a cause for things that are unexplainable need to find patterns in random data
neuron
nerve cell specialized for communication
optic nerve
nerve that travels from the retina to the brain
peripheral nervous system
nerves in the body that extend outside the central nervous system PNS
peripheral nervous system
nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
autonomic nervous system
nerves that connect the heart, blood vessels, muscles and glands - involuntary functions -- heartbeat, digestion, perspiration
Autonomic Nervous System
nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, (involuntary), muscles and glands - critical to survival (digestion/heartbeat)
Somatic Nervous System
nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors
somatic nervous system
nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors -two way street
Peripheral Nervous System
nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord, and they connect the central nervous system to limbs and organs
Plasticity
nervous system's ability to change, unique experiences can change brain structure
interneuron
neuron that sends messages to other neurons nearby
Brain Waves
neurons always firing; differ in frequency (Hz = # of peaks per second) and amplitude (peak height)
Stimulus
neurons spontaneously fire, the rate at which neurons fire may change in response to something happening in the world
dishabituation
occurs with new stimulus
pheromone
odorless chemical that serves as a social signal to members of one's species
Post Hoc
one event is said to be the cause of a later event simply because it occurred earlier
Necker Cube
bistable two dimensional figure of a cube that can be seen from different perspectives; illustrates sensation and perception
Psychophysics
branch of psych that deals with the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experience
Psychophysics
branch of psychology that deals with the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experience - sets of methods for quantifying what people are able to detect
Dendrites
branch-like fibres in neurons that RECEIVE info
nerves
bundles of axons
Psychobabble
buzzwords taken from psychological terminology but used out of context -be skeptical of a claim if a person can not explain it laymen's terms
multiply determined
caused by many factors
hallucinogenic
causing dramatic alterations of perception, mood, and thought
Soma
cell body where info is received (chemically) and results in changes
glial cell
cell in nervous system that plays a role in the formation of myelin and the blood-brain barrier, responds to injury, removes debris, and enhances learning and memory
mirror neuron
cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated when an animal performs an action or observes it being performed
feature detector cell
cell that detects lines and edges
opponent process
cells in retina, thalamus and occipital cortex increase activation for one member of a pair and decrease activation for the other member
Neurons
cells in the nervous system that receive and transmit info
neuron
cells in the nervous system that receives and transmit information -massively connected to each other neuron "fires" - all or nothing (action potential)
fovea
central portion of the retina
Cognitive Psychology
challenges behaviourism by focusing on inner thoughts (decision making depends on how people evaluate them)
learning
change in an organism's behavior or thought as a result of experience
evaluative conditioning
changes in whether you like something resulting from it being paired with a another positive or negative stimulus
Evaluative Conditioning
changes in whether you like something resulting from it being paired with another positive/negative stimulus (ex. ads with famous people)
accommodation
changing the shape of the lens to focus on objects near or far
endorphin
chemical in the brain that plays a specialized role in pain reduction
neurotransmitter
chemical messenger specialized for communication from neuron to neuron
hormone
chemical released into the bloodstream that influences particular organs and glands
Neurotransmitters
chemicals that transmit info from one neuron to another
Lateralization
cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other
hue
color of light
Spotlight metaphor
compares attention to a beam of light that can be focused on particular locations in the visual field; ALSO a metaphor for consciousness that focuses on its selectiveness and limited capacity
what is the nervous system
complex communications network
timbre
complexity or quality of sound that makes musical instruments, human voices, or other sources sound unique
top-down processing
conceptually driven processing influenced by beliefs and expectancies
demand characteristics
cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypotheses
circadian rhythm
cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24-hour basis in many biological processes
sleep apnea
disorder caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep, resulting in daytime fatigue
narcolepsy
disorder characterized by the rapid and often unexpected onset of sleep
parasympathetic nervous system
division of autonomic nervous system that controls rest and digestion
correlation-causation fallacy
error of assuming that because one thing is associated with another, it must cause the other
ad hoc immunizing hypothesis
escape hatch or loophole that defenders of a theory use to protect their theory from falsification
ad hoc immunizing
escape hatch or loophole that defenders of a theory use to protect their theory from falsification - making up new details - be sceptical
fitness
organisms' capacity to pass on their genes
law of Closure (gestalt)
organize perception into wholes rather than parts
Law of closure
organize perception into wholes rather then parts -simplify -
midbrain
part of the brain stem that contributes to movement, tracking of visual stimuli, and reflexes triggered by sound
Hippocampus
part of the brain that plays a role in spatial memory
cornea
part of the eye containing transparent cells that focus light on the retina
lens
part of the eye that changes curvature to keep images in focus
central nervous system
part of the nervous system containing the brain & spinal cord that controls the mind & behavior CNS
automatic nervous system
part of the nervous system controlling the involuntary actions of our internal organs & glands, which (along eight the limbic system) participates in emotion regulation
somatic nervous system
part of the nervous system that conveys information between the CNS and the body, controlling and coordinating voluntary movement
Wenicke's area
part of the temporal lobe involved in understanding speech
blind spot
part of the visual field we can't see because of an absence of rods and cones
variable-ratio schedule (VR)
pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a specific number of responses on average, with the number varying randomly
fixed-ratio schedule (FR)
pattern in which we provide reinforcement following a regular number of responses
variable-interval schedule (VI)
pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once during an average time interval, with the interval varying randomly
fixed-interval schedule (FI)
pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once following a specified time interval
schedules of reinforcement
pattern of reinforcing a behavior
Scalloping
pattern of response, seen on a cumulative record, that is produced by a fixed-interval schedule; there is a pause after reinforcement, then a few probe responses, and finally an increasingly accelerated rate of response until reinforcement
Attention
paying _______ refers to focusing selectively on some things while largely ignoring others
Bottom-up processing
perceiving parts and using them to create a whole; driven by the physical input contacting the physical receptors (brain shows up edges quickly); perception is constructed by cognition
Heritability
percentage of the variability in a trait across individuals that is due to genes
subliminal perception
perception below the limen or threshold of conscious awareness
illusions
perception in which the way we perceive a stimulus doesn't match its physical reality
illusory correlation
perception of a statistical association between two variables where none exists
Extra sensory perception (ESP)
perception of events outside the known channels of sensation
Frequency Theory
perception of pitch corresponds to the frequency or rate at which the basilar membrane vibrates
self-report
personality, preferences, opinion and attitudes ex giving rating, (how well does the following statement apply to you
Place Theory
perception of pitch corresponds to the place of vibration along basilar membrane (high pitch towards opening of cochlea/ low pitch towards the end)
frequency theory
perception of pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates
place theory
perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions, or places, along the basilar membrane -high pitch towards the opening of the cochlea; low pitch towards the end - brain make a decision if it is high or low -
Ventral Stream
perception pathway; after visual cortex info sent here for further processing; temporal lobe; identifying what
experimenter expectancy effect
phenomenon in which researchers' hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study
Way of brain mapping
phrenology lesioning EEG imaging -Ct -PET -MRI -fMRI TMS
stimulus generalization
process by which conditioned stimuli similar, but not identical, to the original conditioned stimulus elicit a conditioned response
stimulus discrimination
process by which organisms display a less pronounced conditioned response to conditioned stimuli that differ from the original conditioned stimulus
habituation
process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli
selective attention
process of selecting one sensory channel and ignoring or minimizing others
opponent process theory of colour vision
process that certain cells in the visual pathway increase their activation levels to one colour and decrease their activation colours to another colour - red vs green -yellow vs blue - black vs white - one cell is using yellow, black and green you can't see white, red and blue
bottom-up processing
processing in which a whole is constructed from parts
Parietal Cortex
processing sensory info (touch, temp, pain), spatial awareness and number processing
bottom-up processing
processing that is driven by the physical input contacting the sensory receptors - you start with the components of form, such as lines, edges and corners and build them perception of squares, stop signs, and ice cream cones"
Freud: Day Residue
proposed that people fulfill wishes in dreams; dreams about stuff that happened in day; dreams showed unconscious thoughts (criticism: dreams are not always about sex/ violence)
Rosalind Cartwright
proposes a problem-solving view as a reason for dreaming - they not constrained by realism or logic and offer a unique and creative place to work out problem solving - anecdotal evidence
Opponent Process Theory of Colour Vision
proposes that certain cells in visual pathway increase/decrease their activation levels to certain colours (ex. black vs green/ can explain why we don't experience blueish yellow)
signal detection theory
provides a set of statistical procedures for removing response bias from threshold estimates
Signal Detection Theory
provides set of statistical procedures for removing bias from threshold estimates; ex. one measure involves subtracting false positives from true positives
anorexia nervosa
psychiatric condition marked by extreme weight loss and the perception that one is overweight even when one is massively underweight
Recognizion
one way to sense different basic features and integrate them into a perceptual whole
Skinner's Box
operant chamber, has a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a reward of food or water, or consequence of a shock; IV - type of reinforcement/ schedule of reinforcement; DV - number of responses/ resistance to extinction
Shaping by Successive Approximations
operant conditioning involves learning new voluntary responses; skinner used ________; reinforces closer and closer approximations of a desired response; ex. training a dog
double dissociation in brain-damaged patients
optic ataxia (where) visual agnosia (what)
synapse
space between two connecting neurons through which messages are transmitted chemically
sense receptor
specialized cell responsible for converting external stimuli into neural activity for a specific sensory system
place theory
specific place along the basilar membrane matches a tone with a specific pitch, FOR HIGH PITCHED SOUNDS 5,000-20,000 hz
Broca's Area (frontal lobe)
speech production
synaptic vesicle
spherical sac containing neurotransmitters
REM sleep
stage of sleep during which the brain is most active and during which vivid dreaming most often occurs
non-REM (NREM) sleep
stages 1 through 4 of the sleep cycle, during which rapid eye movements do not occur and dreaming is less frequent and vivid
sleep paralysis
state of being unable to move just after falling asleep or right before waking up
deja vu
strong feeling of familiarity regarding a new experience
pitch
subjective perception of frequency - low frequency- low pitch - high frequency- more peaks
Pitch
subjective perception of sound wave; low pitch - low frequency, and high pitch - high frequency
Colour or Hue
subjective perception of wavelength (short - violet, long - red)
Sample
subset of population that is being studied to make inferences about population
psychoactive drug
substance that contains chemicals similar to those found naturally in our brains that alter consciousness by changing chemical processes in neurons
renewal effect
sudden reemergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the conditioned response was acquired
spontaneous recovery
sudden reemergence of an extinct conditioned response after a delay in exposure to the conditioned stimulus
night terrors
sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiring, and confusion followed by a return to a deep sleep
brain wave
summed activity of neurons are measured by EEG - brain waves differ in frequency and amplitude - pass through 5 stages whose brain waves are distinguishable from awake brain waves
"proof"
talk of "proof" instead of evidence -scientist never say they proved something
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
tech that allows for temporary excitement or deactivation of activity in specific part of brain (sends electrical pulses)
Electro-myography (EMG)
technique for evaluating and recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles
belief perseverance
tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
biological clock
term for the area of the hypothalamus that's responsible for controlling our levels of alertness
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
technique that applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull that can either enhance or interrupt brain function
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
technique that measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
technique that uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure
functional MRI (fMRI)
technique that uses magnetic fields to visualize brain activity using changes in blood oxygen level
Informed Consent
tell participants what they are getting into beforehand
informed consent
tells participates what they are getting in to beforehand
instinctive drift
tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement
response set
tendency of research participants to distort their responses to questionnaire items
Hypothesis
testable prediction about how the world will behave if theory is correct
hypothesis
testable prediction derived from a scientific theory
Selective Attention Test
testing the process of directing our awareness to relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant stimuli in the environment
Limbic System (subcortical structures)
thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala
negative reinforcement
removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior
functionalism
school of psychology that aimed to understand the adaptive purposes of psychological characteristics
behaviorism
school of psychology that focuses on uncovering the general laws of learning by looking largely at observable behavior
cognitive psychology
school of psychology that proposes that thinking is central to understanding behavior
psychoanalysis
school of psychology, founded by Sigmund Freud, that focuses on internal psychological processes of which we're unaware
science vs. intuition
science is not about math or beakers or microscopes - systematic approach to evidence - a set of attitudes and skills designed to prevent us from fooling ourselves - scientist are humans: prone to bias, self deception
Psychology
scientific study of mind, brain and behaviour (why do people do the things they do?)
Confirmation Bias
search for, interpret, favor and recall info in a way that supports one's prior beliefs (used when people want a certain idea to be true)
Adrenaline
secretion by adrenal glands which boosts energy production in muscles
Cortisol
secretion by adrenal glands which regulates blood pressure and cardiovascular function
Psychoactive Drugs
selectively alter neurotransmitter activity in the brain; block reuptake; mimic neurotransmitter produced internally (ex. opiodis mimic body's own natural pain killers called endorphins)
fetishism
sexual attraction to nonliving things
right visual field
simulates left eyes and brain
left visual field
simulates right eyes and brain
Hypothalamus (part of Limbic System)
sits underneath thalamus and regulates constant internal body states (triggers fight or flight)
pariental lobe
somatosensory cortex processes information about touch and sensory spatial awareness and number processing
Limits to Classical Conditioning
some responses are voluntary; some responses are influenced by what follows
confirmation bias
the tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them
opponent-process theory
theory that we perceive colors in terms of three pairs of opponent colors: either red or green, blue or yellow, or black or white
Process of accommodation
this becomes harder with age, as lens become less flexible/ muscles become weaker
THE CAT
this shows an issue that if by analyzing just edges/ lines we should not recognize bottom up processing (we see the cat)
semicircular canals
three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance
thichromatic theory
three types of cones with sensitivities to different wavelengths
independent variable
type of reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement
parietal lobe
upper middle part of the cerebral cortex lying behind the frontal lobe that is specialized for touch and perception
Dichromatic Colour Blindness
vision have only two types of cones which are able to perceive colour; ex blindness to green or red (this is evidence for the trichromatic theory of colour vision)
occipital lobe
visual cortex visual processing
Occipital Lobe
visual cortex (processing visual info)
sleepwalking
walking while fully asleep
naturalistic observation
watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation high in external validity
Little Albert
watson's real life classical conditioning; shows that irrational fears may develop through classical conditioning
operational definition
a working definition of what a researcher is measuring
hyperopia
farsightedness cornea too flat or eyes too short can't see up close light is focused behind the retina
What is the absolute refractory period?
fastest rate neurons fire limits the rate at which a neurons can fire -they could fire because of sounds, feeling
prefrontal cortex
part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language
Amygdala
part of limbic system that plays key roles in fear, excitement, and arousal
brain stem
part of the brain between the spinal cord & cerebal cortex that contains the midbrain, pons & medulla
Hypothalamus
part of the brain responsible for maintaining a constant internal state
pons
part of the brain stem that connects the cortex with the cerebellum
dendrite
portion of neuron that receives signals
axon
portion of neuron that sends signals
Electro-oculogramh (EOG)
records eye movement
Electro-myograph (EMG)
records muscle activity
hindbrain
region below the midbrain that contains the cerebellum, pons, and medulla
primary sensory cortex
regions of the cerebral cortex that initially process information from the senses
association cortex
regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate simpler functions to perform more complex functions
Pupil
regulates amount of light passing into eyes; ex when you enter a dark room your pupils dilate so more light can enter, while your pupils contract in bright rooms
pupil
regulates amount of light passing into the eye - pupils dilates in dark room to get as much light as possible
Hypothalamus
regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
Medulla
regulates heart rate, breathing, vomiting, sneezing
shaping by successive approximations
reinforce closer and closer approximation of a desired response
fixed-interval schedule
reinforcement after a set amount of time every 20 sec
fixed-ratio schedule
reinforcement after a set number of non-reinforced responses every 10th time
varible-interval schedule
reinforcement after a variable amount of time - every 15 or 23 or 22 sec
variable- ratio schedule
reinforcement after a variable number of non-reinforced responses -every 10 or 21 or 32
EMG reading during REM
study showed that lucid dreaming is a real phenomenon; people able to blink three times and count to 10 in REM sleep
Brightness
subjective perception of amplitude - low amplitude = dull - high amplitude = bright
Loudness
subjective perception of amplitude - low amplitude- quiet - high amplitude - loud
Colour or hue
subjective perception of amplitude - short wavelength = violet - long wavelength = red
Brightness
subjective perception of amplitude (low amplitude - dull light, high amplitude - bright light)
Loudness
subjective perception of amplitude; low amplitude - quiet, and high amplitude - loud
transduction
the process of converting an external energy or substance into electrical activity within neurons
Correlation isn't Causation
* many observe relationships between two variables * this doesn't mean that the relationship is casual (direct) * the relationship may be an artifact of a variable that precedes it ex. living near parks and gardens raise QI -maybe rich people live near parks and they can get a better education
Skinner's Box (Operant Chamber)
- Pigeon presses keys for food/water (type of reinforcement) - relates to gambling in humans
Inattantional blindness
- The eyes see it but the brain doesn't process it - the brain not the eye - shows that perception depends on attention
behaviourists
- all behaviour explainable as learned responses to stimuli in our environment - aimed to understand universal learning principles - behaviour is certain - you don't need to know whats going on in the head -ex dog sit because they think they are going to get a reward
Confirmation Bias safe guard
- being aware of thinking challenges - be aware of your bias - using critical and scientific thinking - have these attitudes - using research method that control for short comings
Why do we need sleep? (Evolutionary perspective)
- conserving energy, staying away from predators
Why do we need sleep? (research)
- research shows improved ability to recall info, learn a new task and gain insight on problems - sleeping on a problem (wait and relax)
What is psychology?
- scientific study of the mind, brain, behaviour -psychologist make inference about mind and behaviour
Behavourism
- should study observable behaviour - behaviours are learned
sound waves
- successive pressure disturbances in some medium - ex stuck tuning stick
evolutionary psychology
- tailor over 1000's of years to fit early ancestor's environment - thinking about the mind / behaviour due to evolution - people lived in very different environments -snakes and spiders fears --> way back then it was a real fear -the idea that fear is pasted down genetically
Legal implications of free will vs determinism debate
- the order of thoughts - freewill-> want to do something -> do it - determinism-> do it -> take note that you did it
Structuralism
- the study of the elements of consciousness - structure of mental experiences - wundt wanted a 'formula' faded due to subjectiveness
confirmation bias
- we tend to biased to things we believe to be true ( may discord info that doesn't agree with it)
Psychoanalysis
-"free association" (1st thing that comes to mind and sensor) - hypnosis -dreams
What is the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve?
-A curve showing the percentage of studied/arbitrary information remembered over time. -Proves rapid memory loss on learned information -100%--> 40% retention within 60 minutes! - studied 3 letter letter words (not real words) and seen how much he could remember
when can Deception be used in an experiment
-couldn't have done the study without it - doesn't negatively affect the rights of participant - research doesn't involve medical or therapeutic interventions they can withdraw at any point and debriefing: inform participants what the study was about
Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)
.05; sedative and depressive effects; slowed thinking; impaired concentration, walking and muscular coordination; unconsciousness
order of the sleep cycle
1-2-3-4-3-2-REM repeats about 4-5 per night - 90mins each
3 pitfalls of experiment design
1. placebo effects 2. experimenter expectancy effect 3. demand characteristics
What are the two defining features of an experiment
1. researcher can manipulate at least one variable -ex. drug experiment- control group and experimental group 2. Random assignment to one group or the other -mix it up (males and females)
Limitations to Classical conditioning
1. some responses are voluntary 2. some responses are influenced by what follows
2 types of plasticity
1. structural plasticity- forming new connections and getting rid of old ones you aren't using (pruning) 2. Synaptic plasticity- is the strengthening of existing synaptic connections-> potentiation -cell that wire together fire together -biological basis of memory -ex learning and practicing how to play the guitar
Why does it matter that neurotransmitters regulate behaviour
1. under/over activity of neurotransmitters associated with certain psychological disorder -depression associated with low serotonin level 2. drugs can impact behaviour (positively and negatively) influencing neurotransmitter activity
National Cannabis Survey (2016)
18% of Canadians 15 or older used cannabis in the pst 15 months; 6.1% uses cannabis daily
Trichromatic theory of Colour Vision
3 types of receptors with differing wavelengths: short - blue, medium - green, long - red
Number Reduction Task
8-digit series of 1s, 4s, and 9s; Rules: if 2 digits are the same, respond with that digit and if 2 digits are diff, respond with the remaining; end of experiment, the percentage of subjects who saw hidden rule is calculated (sleep group vs no-sleep group)
The Equity Potentiality Assumption
?
Agonist
A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.
multiple sclerosis
A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech
Replicability
A finding must be capable of being duplicated by independent researchers following the same "recipe."
normal distribution
A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph. - most people get somewhere in the middle
Synapse
A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next (terminal buttons triggers the release of neurotransmitters)
Cerebellum
A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
Nature vs. Nurture
Behaviours attributable to genes vs. environment
NOVA video: video games
Bob Sickle makes participants play ______ before falling asleep; he says you will see the _____ if you wake up the participant promptly, b/c brain reviews what you learnt and is studying it
Strength
Consistency with which changes in x are associated with changes in y
Between Subjects Design
DIFFERENT people for each level of independent variable
True negative (correct rejection)
Deny hearing a sound that wasn't there
false negative (miss)
Deny hearing a sound when it was present
Ruling out Rival Hypotheses
Findings consistent with several hypotheses require additional research to eliminate other explanations
Hall
First psych lab in USA (1882)
Wundt
First psychology laboratory (1879)
lens
Focuses light rays to fall on the retina curvature if the lens adjusts (accommodates) -> closer object = fattens further object = flattens - when the lens can't accommodate - the body does ex old people reading a book, holding it far away
Mirror Neurons
Frontal/ parietal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
endocrine system
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
Amplitude
Height of a wave
Parsimonious
Identifying the simplest and most accurate explanation (Occam's Razor: crop circles - pranksters or aliens?👽 )
experimental group
In an experiment, the group of participants that received the manipulation
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Debriefing
Inform Participants what study was about (inform if deception was used)
pseudosymmetry
May create a false sense of scientific controversy Imbalance in the quality of information but seems like balanced coverage
Sharpening
May exaggerate a claim
Median
Middle number in set of scores
Fear Learning
Mineka and Ohman propose that humans have an evolved ability for _____ (preparedness); activated by threats to our ancestors survival (involves amygdala)
Leveling
Minimize less central (but important) details "It out-performed other pills- leaves out that the other pills are placebos"
Nature vs. Nurture
Nature: a behaviours attributes to genes (evolution) Nurture: a behaviours attributes to environment (behaviourism) - is not much of a debate now. its a combo of both
Lack of self-correction
Never adjusts claims when contrary evidence is provided (astrology - Neptune)
Hindbrain
Oldest evolution, basic survival functions (medulla, reticular activating system, cerebellum)
Law of Effect
Operant Conditioning: Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favourable consequences become more likely, and that behaviours followed by unfavourable consequences become less likely (behaviours which have positive outcomes tend to be repeated)
Least helpful for quickly escape an alligator
Oxytocin- sleepy & lovey & interpersonal trust & calm(correct answer) Cortisol- helps regulates your body to get it back to homeostasis, produced after adrenaline to make sure it doesn't go over board (wrong answer)
Ebbinghaus
Pioneered study of memory by using nonsense words (forgetting curve)
He has never hiked a mountain but has a fear of them. What evolutionary predisposition best explains this phobia
Preparedness
Sending neuron
Presynaptic neuron
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur - almost no muscle tension - brain wave resembles a waking brain -random brain activity from the hindbrain
Within Subject Design
SAME people for each level of independent variable
Occam's Razor
Simpler explanations are more likely to be true than complex ones
Occam's Razor
Simpler explanations are more likely to be true than complex ones.
Wavelength
The distance between two corresponding parts of a wave
Mode
The value that occurs most frequently in a given data set.
Scientific Method Circle
Theory--> hypothesis-->research--> observation
Whats the central question in psychology?
Why do people do what they do? -individual difference -behaviour is multiply determined (no single explanation)
NOVA video: rats
Wilson implants 'mind readers' in rats; when awake rats are put in a maze and their neurons are recorded; same neuron recording found in sleep (saw maze in dream)
Operational Definition
Working definition of what your measuring (ex for memory, measure time it takes to forget random words)
Myelin Sheath
Wrapped around the axon and is a fatty substance that acts as insulation (which speeds up transmissions)
What should psychologist study?
Wundt- mental experiences -thought - feeling -memory often relied on being sensitive to and recording one's own mental experience (introspection- hyper aware of own thought process
stem cell
a cell, often originating in embryos, having the capacity to differentiate into a more specialized cell
Learning
a change in an animals behaviour or thought as a result of experience (does not need to be practical, or involve school/ other people)
learning
a change in an behaviour or thought as a result of experience - doesn't need to - involve facts or school -involve people -be practical or useful
Pseudoscience
a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method
synesthesia
a condition in which people experience cross-modal sensations
Inattentional blindness
a failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention; shows that attention limits perception
Epigenetics
a field that examines how environmental influences affect the expression of genes
evolutionary psychology
a field that strikes to explain psychological traits as naturally selected adaptations
synaptic cleft
a gap into which neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal
test-retest reliability
a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions ex. rating looks. see if they are the same
Phenotype
a person's observable characteristics (controlled by environment)
Operant conditioning
a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
Action Potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Gestalt Psychology
a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
computed tomography (CT)
a scanning technique using multiple X-rays to construct three-dimensional images
Afterimage
a sensation experienced after a stimulus is removed - should see afterimage in opposing colours - Green/black/yellow receptors are tired out; while red/white/ blue released from inhibition
correlation coefficient
a statistic that indicates whether two variables are relates in a systematic way; number between -1 and +1 -direction and strength of correlational coefficient
sample
a subset of the population that is studied to make inferences about the population
Sound Waves
a successive pressure disturbance in some medium (usually air)
dichotic listening
a task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear -task is to shadow or repeat aloud, one message while ignoring the other - dichotic- divided into 2 - poor processing of the non-shadow message
Dream Interpretation
a technique used in psychoanalysis in which the content of dreams is analyzed for disguised or symbolic wishes, meanings, and motivations
Position Emission Tomography (PET)
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
Manifest Content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (actual plot of dream)
Latent Content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (hidden message)
Dorsal Stream
action pathway; after visual cortex info sent here for further processing; parietal cortex; knowing where
Curvature of Lens
adjusts automatically; for closer object it fattens, further object - flattens; this allows more focus on objects to ensure focal point of light rays are on the back of eye (retina)
Hormones
affect biological function and behaviour (carried through bloodstream/ longer effects)
Correlation research
aim is to examine the link/co-relationship between two variables. (x and y)
structuralism
aimed to identify the basic elements of psychological experience
Correlational Research
aims to specify the relationship between two variables
transcrianial magnetic stimulation
allow for temporary excitement or deactivation in specific part of the brain o electrical impulse to the brain temporary knocks it out virtual lesion
psychoactive drugs
alter neurotransmitter activity in the brain - blocking reuptake - mimicking neurotransmitters produced internally
loudness is to
amplitude or heigh of sound wave
Tritone Paradox/ Shepard Tone Illusion
an auditory illusion in which a sequentially played pair of Shepard tones separated by an interval of a tritone, or half octave, is heard as ascending by some people and as descending by others (brain chooses what to listen to)- same clip
reflex
an automatic motor response to a sensory stimulus
Electro-oculogram (EOG)
an electrical potential from the eyes, recorded by means of electrodes placed on the skin around them; detects eye movements
reinforcer
an event that increases or strengthens the behaviour that it follows
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels
Biological Clock
an internal control of natural cycles; corrects itself with reference to environmental cues but can function without
Freudian Slip
an unintentional error regarded as revealing subconscious feelings
Dement and Kleitman (1957)
analyzed brain waves; showed that they vary in predictable ways
resistance to extinction
animals continues to respond after reinforcement is removed
variable
anything that can vary
statistics
application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data
Receptor
are in eyes, ears, skin, nose and tongue; receive raw data that is then sent to the brain
interrated reliability
are measurements between people fairly consistent?
Memories
are strengthened or consolidated by REM sleep; days events are replayed in our heads; important stuff kept - unimportant discarded
activation synthesis model
argue that, as it does when it is awake, the brain attempts to "make sense" or "construct a story" out of random brain activity during dreams - result of a dream - provides explanation for why dreams are so weird
Activation Synthesis Model
argues that, as it does when awake, the brain attempts to make sense or construct a story out of random brain activity during REM; dreams are a result; explains why dream are random/ weird
myelin sheath
around the axon of some neurons is a fatty substance that acts as insulation, speed up transmission along the axon -insulates so the axon travel efficiently
if a correlation is negative what happens to x and y
as x increase, y decreases as x decreases, y increases -looks like the chart is going down
Beauregard and Paquette (2006)
asked 15 nuns to relive their most intense state of union they felt with God and their most intense state of union they felt with another human; used fMRI to measure brain activity
metaphysical claim
assertion about the world that is not testable
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
Sclerosis
associated with loss of myelin and is the stiffening of a tissue (motor generative tissue)
McGurk Effect
audio of one sound paired with video of another- third sound is perceived
McGurk Effect
audio of one sounds paired with video of another; third sound is perceived; ex. man saying far and bar, same audio but what you hear depends on how you see his lips moving
Temporal Lobe
auditory cortex (processing auditory info), Wernicke's Area (speech comprehension)
unconditioned response (UR)
automatic response to a UCS
Unconditioned Response (USR)
automatic response to a UCS (in pavlov's experiment: drooling since it is a reflex)
unconditioned response (UCR)
automatic response to a non neutral stimulus that does not need to be learned
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
automatic response transferred ti a neutral stimulus
Classical Conditioning
automatic response transferred to a neutral stimulus
Mean
average
Standard Deviation
average amount that a individual data point differs than the mean
mean
average; a measure of central tendency
occipital lobe
back part of cerebral cortex specialized for vision
frued
behaviour is governed by unconscious thought - what we are motivated
Free Will vs. Determinism
behaviours caused by conscious control (freely) vs. unconscious control (external factors)
Behaviourism
behaviours learned (nurture); should study observable behaviour (not what's in your head)
Hot Hand Fallacy
belief that a person who has experienced success has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts (mistaken beliefs in streaks)
Illusory Correlation
belief that two variables are correlated when their are not (used when people need to find meaning or confirmation bias)
naive realism
belief that we see the world precisely as it is
Awake brain waves
beta waves - small amplitude -high frequency - alpha waves
Retinal disparity
binocular cues: closer an object is, the greater the difference/ disparity between 2 retinal images
circardian rhythm
biological activities that rise and fall in a 24-hour cycle - circa= about - diem = 1 day - aligned to environmental cues - body temperature - jet lag - biological clock corrects itself with reference to environmental cues but can function
Circadian Rhythm
biological activities that rise and fall in a 24-hour cycle; aligned with environmental cues (light) ; are internally produced (jet lag, shift work)
Cognitive neuroscience
biological processes that underlie cognition (focus on the neural connections in the brain involved in mental processes: blood flow/activity)
cochlea
bony, spiral-shaped sense organ used for hearing
Central Nervous System
brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord - carries motor commands from brain to body; sensations from body to brain
reticular activating system (RAS)
brain area that plays a key role in arousal
cerebellum
brain structure responsible for our sense of balance
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain
Punishment
can be disciplinary (weakening behaviour), but does not always have to be; negative reinforcement and ____ is not the same thing
Waves
can differ in amplitude and wavelength (1nm = one billionth of a meter); measured by scientific instruments
Rosalind Cartwright
canadian psychologist; says that people dream about problems in their waking life; because dreams are not constrained by logic/ realism, they offer a unique place for working out problems (anecdotal evidence: # of famous solutions to scientific problems solved in sleep)
falsifiable
capable of being disproved
functionalMRI
captures regional changes in blood flow over time (compares brain activity under different conditions)
PET
captures regional changes in glucose over time
Naturalistic Observations
careful examination of behaviour without intervening directly with research subjects (observing human behaviour in real world)
naturalistic observation
careful observations of behaviour without intervening directly with research subjects ex. smiling on the baseball cards
four types of research designs
case study experimental design naturalistic observation correlational design
Safeguards
critically thinking/ scientific thinking (used to not be bias)
Neurotransmitters
chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another - arrival of an action potential at the terminal buttons triggers the neurotransmitter release - the neurotransmitter molecules "bind" to receptors in the post-synaptic neuron - the molecules that don't bind are sponged backup by the pre-synaptic neuron
pupil
circular hole through which light enters the eye
Falsifiability
claims capable of being disproved (warning sign: ad hoc immunizing)
binocular cues
clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes - ex retinal disparity- closer an object is, the greater the difference between the two retinal images
Binocular Cues
clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes; depth cues that require both eyes
monocular cues
clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone - ex motion parallax - objects at different distances move across the retina at different rate -->we are moving on a train - pass light post (fast), pass mountain (slowly)
Monocular Cues
clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone; depth cues that require one eye
Extinction
condition response slowly fading away; in classical conditioning: CS no longer paired with UCS; in operant conditioning: experimenter stops reinforcing; resistance to ______: animal continues to respond after reinforcement is removed
shaping
conditioning a target behavior by progressively reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target
parasympathetic division
conserves energy, promotes house-keeping functions during rest - slowing HR - reducing BP -constricting pupils
Parasympathetic Division
conserves the body's resources (homeostasis - slowing heart rate, reducing blood pressure)
Evolutionary Perspective on Sleep
conserving our energy, staying away from predators; research shows improved ability to recall info, learn a new task and gain inside on problems (Wagner et al: sleeping on a problem)
Reliability
consistency of measurement
reliability
consistency of measurement
Reliability
consistency of measurements
strength of correlation
consistency with which changed in x are associated with changes in y -value between -1 and +1
Forebrain
consists of cerebral cortex and several subcortical structures (underneath the cortex)
Simon and Chabris (1999)
created a test that tells you to count basketballs and see if you notice a gorilla walking by; found that 73% of participants failed to spot the gorilla (Selective Attention Test)
neurogenesis
creation of new neurons in the adult brain
lesion
damage to a part of the brain -usually local, lesions can tell us something about localization of function
Lensions
damage to part of brain tells us something about localization of functions (stroke, tumour, injury)
rapid eye movement (REM)
darting of the eyes underneath closed eyelids during sleep
freud
day residue - proposed people fulfilled wishes in dreams - dream about what happened during the day - people can fill those urges in dreams
Antagonist
decrease receptor site activity & act as fake neurotransmitters
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
decrease the likelihood of neuron firing
Depressants
decreased activity of the CNS, initial high followed by sleepiness, slower thinking, impaired concentration; ex: alcohol, barbiturates, Quaaludes, Valium
existence proof
demonstration that a given psychological phenomenon can occur
Existence proof
demonstration that a given psychological phenomenon can occur (concrete proof)
physical dependence
dependence on a drug that occurs when people continue to take it to avoid withdrawal symptoms
manifest content of dreams
details of the dream itself
sensation
detection of physical energy by sense organs, which then send information to the brain
higher-order conditioning
developing a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus by virtue of its association with another conditioned stimulus
Cerebral Cortex
develops more slowly (outer layer)
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain (uses electrodes attached to the scalp - brainwaves)
Binaural Cues
difference in the loudness of sound arriving in each ear, and difference in the timing of the sound arriving at each ear
Phrenology
different parts of the brain correspond to different aspects of intelligence/personality (ex. bumps on skull means bigger brain)
between-subjects design
different people for level of the IV - drug trail
insomnia
difficulty falling and/ or staying asleep
latent inhibition
difficulty in establishing classical conditioning to a conditioned stimulus we've repeatedly experienced alone, that is, without the unconditioned stimulus
evolutionary psychology
discipline that applies Darwin's theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior
Prefrontal Cortex (frontal lobe)
discision making and planning
Hubel and Wiesel (1962)
discovered feature detector cells-cells in brain that are sensitive to primitive features; research done by implanting wire into visual cortex of cats and showed that their cells are only sensitive to vertical lines (evidence for bottom up processing
Pavlov's Dogs
dogs learned or were conditioned to associate the sound of a tone with food
Optic Ataxia
dorsal damage; where you can not use vision to guide movements
Psychedelics
dramatically altered perception, mood and thoughts, ex: marijuana, LSD, ecstasy
Why do we Dream? (theories of REM)
dreaming as a wish fulfillment; activation - synthesis theory; neurocognitive theory
Dopamine
drive
Antagonist
drug that blocks neurotransmitter activity (poison curare paralyzes by blocking acetylcholine)
sedative
drug that exerts a calming effect
hypnotic
drug that exerts a sleep-inducing effect
stimulant
drug that increases activity in the central nervous system, including heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure
Agonist
drug that mimic neurotransmitter activity (ex. L-DOPA acts like dopamine for Parkinson's pts)
Antagonist
drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters
resting potential
electrical charge difference (-60 millivolts) across the neuronal membrane, when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited
action potential
electrical impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters
Light source
emits electromagnetic radiation that travels as a wave -waves can differ in amplitude and wave length
limbic system
emotional center of brain that also plays roles in smell, motivation, and memory
Early Psychology wanted more ___________
empirical methods (systematic approach ) - interested in insights from other sciences (med) -do we inherit the person we become or are we shaped into the person
Population
entire group about which one wants to make predictions
random selection
every person in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate
Filter Metaphor
everything you experience is filtered through and what you concentrate on; looks at what we what to care about
preparedness
evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others owing to their survival value
lucid dreaming
experience of becoming aware that one is dreaming
lucid dreaming
experience of becoming aware that you are dreaming
Lucid Dreaming
experience of dreaming - aware that you are dreaming; opens of possibility of controlling our dreams
near-death experience (NDE)
experience reported by people who've nearly died or thought they were going to die
decline effect
fact that the size of certain psychological findings appears to be shrinking over time
inattentional blindness
failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere
mystical experience
feelings of unity or oneness with the world, often with strong spiritual overtones
Behavioural Genetics
field that aims to 'tease apart' genetic influences on behaviour (nature) from behaviour learned from our environment (nurture)
Ruling out rival hypotheses
find consistent with several hypothesis need research to rule out certain ones - ackwowledge it - take the steps to rule it out
Replicability
findings must be capable of being duplicated
Balwin
first psych lab in Canadian (1891)
cochlea
fluid- filled coiled in the inner ear that contains the receptors for healing
Lens
focuses light rays to fall on retina; flexible/ attached to muscles that adjust shape of lens (if muscles stretch lens = lens becomes flat
What does paying attention mean
focusing selectively on some things while largely ignoring others
classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response
Free Will vs. Determination
free will- behaviours freely selected - conscious control over behaviours Determinism- behaviours cause by factors outside our control of our control - behaviours are generated automatically ex. rat presses lever to get food is it doing because of freewill or is guided by some other motive
pitch is to
frequency of sound wave
outer ear (pinna)
funnel sound waves to the middle ear
thalamus
gateway from the sense organs to the primary sensory cortex
Griffiths et al : psiloybin study
gave people psiloybin (magic mushrooms) ; 15 months later 58% reported life changing mystical experience
recessive gene
gene that is expressed only in the absence of a dominant gene
dominant gene
gene that masks other genes' effects
whats the disadvantage to. a case study
generalizability - one serial killers reason won't apply to serial killer
Genotype
genetic info inherited from parents
Genotype
genetic information inherited
gene
genetic material composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
placebo effect
getting better just because you expect to get better to fix this- get rid of expectations and don't tell them if they are placebo or the real drug
Placebo Effect
getting better just because you expect to get better (solution: eliminate expectations by making participants blind)
Presbyopia
gradual loss of your eyes' ability to focus on nearby objects (old age)
extinction
gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus
insight
grasping the underlying nature of a problem
scatterplot
grouping of points on a two-dimensional graph in which each dot represents a single person's data
Infant Experiments
habituation; dishabituation; in ______ you can measure heart rate, when measuring the time an infant spends watching a video (since infants are not able to verbally communicate)
Lang et al (1975) : drunk aggression experiment
had 4 male groups drink gin & tonics or just tonics; confederate (person in on the experiment) told to make fun of participants to provoke them - then participants had to deliver shocks; findings: those who expected they drank alcohol delivered stronger shocks (more aggressive)
Tolman (1930s) : Rats in a Maze
had three groups of rats run through a maze once a day; Group A received food reward at the end of maze (they gradually improved); Group B never received a reward (improved very little); Group C received food reward starting on the 11th day (improved rapidly slightly better than Group A)
Pope et al (2001) : Weed Study
had three kinds of users abstain from cannabis use for a month; current users, former users, and controls (smoked no more than 50 times in their life); cognitive tests at day 0,1,7, 28, - controls do better on memory test scores
Seligman's 'Steak Bearnaise' Incident
he happened to have steak with béarnaise sauce the night he got violently ill; his entire workplace got stomach flu but he still could not stand the thought of béarnaise sauce for the next ten years (could be instinctive drift or classical conditioning)
Norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal
latent content
hidden meaning of a dream
latent content of dream
hidden meaning of a dream
the brain can be divided into three parts
hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain hindbrain to forebrain basic to complex automatic to conscious control
variability
how spread out the scores are they also can be shown in a bar graph with a standard error bars (larger braket the more variability)
Random Sampling/ Selection
how you draw the sample of people for your survey (not biased)
Falsifiability
if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong - claims must be capable of being disproved - scientist don't want to invest time into things that can not be proven right or wrong
If a correlation is positive whats happens to x and y
if x increase so does y x decreases so does y - looks like the chart is going up
positron emission tomography (PET)
imaging technique that measures consumption of glucose-like molecules, yielding a picture of neural activity in different regions of the brain
Serotinin
impluse
placebo effect
improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement
control group
in an experiment, the group of participants that does not receive the manipulation
Case Study
in dept investigation of a study (advantage - existence proof, disadvantage - generalizability)
suprachiasmatic nucleus
in hypothalamus; regulates the circadian rhythm - biological clock -SCN sends signals to the pineal gland, which increases the production of the hormone melatonin as light decreases
case study
in-depth investigation of an individual subject
color blindness
inability to see some or all colors
afferent nerves
incoming nerves, carry information from sensory receptor in the skin, muscles and joints to the central nervous system - the frog I just touched was cold
Afferent Nerves
incoming, carry info from sensory receptors in skin, muscles and joints to CNS
Agonist
increase receptor site activity & reduce our emotional response to painful stimuli by binding with opioid receptors & mimicking endorphins
Stimulants
increased activity of the CNS; sense of alter ness, well-being, energy; ex: tobacco, cocaine, caffeine, amphetamine
excitatory postsynaptic potential
increases the likelihood it will fire an action potential
top-down processing
influence of context (past experiences) - processing that is driven by beliefs and expectations about how the world is organized
Reinforcer
is something that increases the likelihood that a specific behaviour or response will occur; ex. an event that increases or strengthens the behaviour that follows it (operant conditioning)
brain stem
is the junction where the spinal cord meets the brain -includes the hindbrain and the midbrain -midbrain receives auditory and visual input -helps coordinate reflexive movement
range
is the simplest measure of variability, but can be deceptive
primary reinforcer
item or outcome that naturally increases the target behavior
Psychobabble
jargon used to create impression of truths (implies that writer lacks experience)
Brain Stem
junction where spinal cord meets brain (midbrain/ hindbrain)
Correlation is not Causation
just because two variables correlate strongly does not mean that one caused the other
Reticular Activating System
keeps you alert and awake
dichromatic color blindness
lack function of red or green cones -rarely blue
Broca's area
language area in the prefrontal cortex that helps to control speech production
Response Bias (threshold estimation)
lapses in attention, background noise, blinking, lying can all impact research; solution to ______ is to sometimes deliver a stimulus and sometimes don't
corpus callosum
large band of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
conditioned response (CR)
learned reaction to a CS
Conditioned Response (CR)
learned response to a UCR (in pavlov's experiment: drool); UCR and ____ often the same but do not have to be; ___ are not permanent
obervational learning
learning by observing others - doesn't have to be separates from classical and instrumental conditioning - can be indirectly conditioned by someone else's conditioning
observational learning
learning by watching others
Conditioning
learning connections between behaviours and events; when x happens, I should do y; when I do X, Y happens after
conditioning
learning connections between events and behaviour - ex when X happens, I should do Y - ex when I do X, Y happens after
operant conditioning
learning controlled by the consequences of the organism's behavior
operant conditioning
learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences
Operant Conditioning
learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences; method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behaviour
acquisition
learning phase during which a conditioned response is established
latent learning
learning that's not directly observable
Corpus Callosum
left and right hemispheres of the cortex separated by this
Visual Fields (visual cortex)
left visual field stimulates receptors cells of right side of both eyes then is processed in right hemisphere (vice vera for right visual field)
Biology of Sleep
light info sent from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus; biological clock
Stage 1
light sleep, alpha waves (8-13 Hz) then theta waves (4-7); just dozing off; hypnagogic imagery (flashes of light); mycologic jerks (flail out)
Law of similarity
like things tend to get grouped together -we see rows of dots
Absolute Refractory Period
limits the rate at which a neuron can fire
linear perspective
lines converge in the distance
3 main types of central tendencies
mean median mode
3 measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode
reuptake
means of recycling neurotransmitters
descriptive statistics
means of summarizing and organizing data - for an experiment, they describe how it is distributed ex take IQ test of 100 people-- its the summary of the 100 people
Descriptive Statistics
means of summarizing data (describe how scores are distributed)
variability
measure of how loosely or tightly bunched scores are
Variability
measure of how much the scores in a data set differ
Test-retest Reliability
measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals (are they consistent?)
central tendency
measure of the "central" scores in a data set, or where the group tends to cluster
range
measure of variability that consists of the difference between the highest & lowest scores
standard deviation
measure of variability that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean
LaBerge
measured EEG while lucid dreamers counted to 10 while awake and dreaming; interval initiated by eye movements (similar between awake and sleep); chin muscle activity measured
External Validity
measures generalize to real world (ex. watching real workers for an experiment)
what hormone increases after dark
melatonin
cognitive map
mental representation of how a physical space is organized
Why focus selectivity
mental resources are limited -so we make choices about which parts of the environment to process more deeply
Focus Selectively
mental resources are limited, not possible to pay attention to everything which is why you ______
heuristic
mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world
Gambling
most forms of this rely on VR schedule; pigeons; variable ratio
mode
most frequent score in a data set; a measure of central tendency
Gestalt Psychologists (1920s)
most well known for their top down ideas about visual perception; basic idea: we tend to order of experiences that is regular; biased to perceive whole objects rather than parts
frontal lobe
motor cortex prefrontal cortex broca's area A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement
CT
multiple x-rays used to construct 3-d image of the brain
What is wavelength measured in?
nanometers 1 nanometers = one billion of a meter
what are the 2 biggest debates in psychology
nature vs nurture and freewill vs determinism
Myopia
nearsightedness cornea too steep or eyes too long can't see far light is focused in front of the retina
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
neurotransmitters that DECREASE the likeihood of the post synaptic neuron
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
neurotransmitters that INCREASE the likeihood of the post synaptic neuron (voluntary movements - acetylcholine in motor neurons)
secondary reinforcer
neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforcer
psychological dependence
non-physiological dependence on a drug that occurs when continued use of the drug is motivated by intense cravings
dependent variable
numbers of responses - resistance to extinction
descriptive statistics
numerical characterizations that describe data
Law of Similarity (gestalt)
objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
partial reinforcement
occasional reinforcement of a behavior, resulting in slower extinction than if the behavior had been reinforced continually
Observational Learning
occurs as a result of observing the experience of others; does not have to be separate from classical/ instrumental conditioning; can be indirectly conditioned by someones conditioning (ex. friend good with sales people)
genotype
our genetic makeup
phenotype
our observable traits
Proprioception
our sense of body position
vestibular sense
our sense of equilibrium or balance
audition
our sense of hearing
olfaction
our sense of smell
gustation
our sense of taste
somatosensory
our sense of touch, temperature, and pain
consciousness
our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental perspectives
reinforcement
outcome or consequence of a behavior that strengthens the probability of the behavior
punishment
outcome or consequence of a behavior that weakens the probability of the behavior
Pinna
outer ear; funnel sound waves to the middle ear
cerebral cortex
outermost part of forebrain, responsible for analyzing sensory processing and higher brain functions
efferent nerves
outgoing nerves, carry motor commands from the central nervous system to muscles - I am going to touch that frog
Efferent Nerves
outgoing, carry motor commands from the central nervous system to the muscles
phantom pain
pain or discomfort felt in an amputated limb
medulla
part of brain stem involved in basic functions, such as heartbeat and breathing
motor cortex
part of frontal lobe responsible for body movement
Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire
people differ in their circadian rhythms; chronotype: behavioral manifestation of underlying circadian rhythms of physical processes; _____ shows if you are morning person or evening (teens more 'evening people' adults 'morning people')
Psychoanalysis (Freud)
people possess unconscious thoughts, desires, memories (influences behaviour)
Phenotype
physical characteristics of an organism
Stimulus
physical energy; is 'raw data' about outside world
Motor cortex (frontal lobe)
planning/ coordinating movements
Hippocampus (part of Limbic System)
plays a central role in forming memories
cerebral ventricles
pockets in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which provide the brain with nutrients and cushion against injury
Receiving neuron
postsynaptic neuron
positive reinforcement
presentation of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior
Mineka and Ohman (2002) : fears easily conditioned
presented pictures of 3 types of CS; neutral stimuli - mushroom/ flowers, phobic stimuli - snakes/ spiders, modern fear-relevant stimuli - guns/ knives; CS paired with UCS (electric shock); found that phobic stimuli elicited rapid conditioning, larger fear responses, greater resistance to extinction
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
previously neutral stimulus that evokes a conditioned response (in pavlov's experiment: tone)
law of effect
principle asserting that if a stimulus followed by a behavior results in a reward, the stimulus is more likely to give rise to the behavior in the future
natural selection
principle that organisms that possess adaptations survive and reproduce at a higher rate than do other organisms
random selection
procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate
split-brain surgery
procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizures
Behavourism
psychology should only study observation behaviour -should relate behaviours (responses) to events in the environment
Self-report measures
questionnaires and surveys that ask about personality, preferences, opinions and attitudes
REM sleep
random brain activity originating in the hindbrain (internally or externally generated); sent to emotion, memory, and sensory processing centres of the brain (kinda occurs when awake)
Superstition
random reinforcement produces superstitious behaviour; Rafael Nadal has a checklist before every game; Dawkins says that pigeons look over their shoulder in hopes of getting the food
random assignment
randomly sorting participants into two groups
REM
rapid side to side cycle about 4-5 times per night; 90 mins per cycle; _____ sleep gets longer and non-______ sleep gets shorter
frequency theory
rate at which neurons fire the action potential reproduces the pitch, FOR LOW PITCHED SOUNDS up to 100 hz
Reuptake
reabsorption of a neurotransmitter after its performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse
Midbrain
receives auditory and visual input (ex. reflexive movements when hearing loud sound)
cones
receptor cells in the retina allowing us to see in color
rods
receptor cells in the retina allowing us to see in low levels of light
Cones
receptors for daylight, fine detail and colour vision
rods
receptors for night and peripheral vision - stimulation of rods and cones converted to neutral signals that are sent to the brain via the optic nerve -chain reaction where it gets converted to a brain signal
Cons
receptors in retina for daylight, fine detail and colour vision
Rods
receptors in retina for night and peripheral vision
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
recording of the brain's electrical activity at the surface of the skull
Electro-encephalograph (EEG)
records brain activity
Habituation
reduced response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly
habituation
reduced response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly
tolerance
reduction in the effect of a drug as a result of repeated use, requiring users to consume greater quantities to achieve the same effect
Hemispheric Specialization
refers to the control of distinct neurological functions by the right and left hemispheres of the brain
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs, resulting in faster learning but faster extinction than only occasional reinforcement
partial reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
cognitive neuroscience
relatively new field of psychology that examines the relation between brain functioning and thinking
Mueller Lyer Illusion
rely on size cues from previous experience with corners and rooms; lines look the same length on retina but brain assumes that one is further put because it angles out
false positive (false alarm)
report hearing a sound that isn't present
true positive (hit)
report hearing a sound when it is present
Dreams (psychoanalysis)
represents wishes, unconscious desires, and conflicts to uncover emotions
experiment
research design characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable high in internal validity
case study
research design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period
correlational design
research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated
basic research
research examining how the mind works
applied research
research examining how we can use basic research to solve real-world problems
stimulus gerneralization
responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established CS
Stimulus Generalization
responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an estimated CS
conditioned response (CR)
response previously associated with a non-neutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning
Challenges to Behaviorism in 1950
reward and punishment depend on how people evaluate things - people criticized - you can't put aside through that lead people's decisions
levels of analysis
rungs on a ladder of analysis, with lower levels tied most closely to biological influences and higher levels tied most closely to social influences
basilar membrane
runs the length of the cochlea, has tiny hairs protruding from it
Basilar Membrane
runs the length of the cochlea; has tiny hairs protruding from it
within-subjects design
same people for each level of the IV
Generalizability
sample represents the performance of larger population under similar conditions
Afterimage
sensation experienced after a stimulus is removed
out-of-body experience (OBE)
sense of consciousness leaving our body
Opiates
sense of euphoria; decreased pain; ex: heroin, morphine, codeine
taste bud
sense receptor in the tongue that responds to sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami, and perhaps fat
Central sulcus (frontal lobe)
separates frontal and parietal lobes
perceptual set
set formed when expectations influence perceptions
pseudoscience
set of claims that seems scientific but isn't
critical thinking
set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion
hypnosis
set of techniques that provides people with suggestions for alterations in their perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Volley theory
sets of neurons fire at highest rate slightly out of sync with each other to reach overall rates of 100-5000 hz
Covergent Validity
several measures converge on the same topic (ex. studying self-esteem, a researcher shows similar constructs, such as self-worth, confidence)
acuity
sharpness of vision
Albert Bandura: Bobo Doll
showed that children imitated adults aggressive behaviour; best conditions for observational learning are those with positive characteristics
Garcia et al. : taste
showed that taste aversions more easily conditioned than others; occurs when an animal associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance; generally, taste aversion is developed after ingestion of food that causes nausea, sickness, or vomiting
Range
simple way to measure variability but can be deceptive
chromosome
slender thread inside a cell's nucleus that carries genes
Stage 3 - 4
slow sleep/ delta wave sleep; deepest stage of sleep; needed to feel refreshed in morning; suppressed by alcohol
stages 3-4 of sleep cycle
slow wave or delta wave sleep -deepest stage of sleep - needed to feel refreshed in the morning -suppressed by alcohol
skinner box
small animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviors to be recorded unsupervised
just noticeable difference (JND)
small difference that can be detected
absolute threshold issue with response bias
solution- sometimes deliver a stimulus, sometimes don't -true positive, false positive, false negative, true negative
Weber's Law
states that JND is a constant proportion of the magnitude of a standard stimulus; lawful relationship between context and detection threshold; ex. in a dark room one candle makes a big difference compared to a bright room
Correlational Coefficient
statistic that indicates whether two variables are related in a systematic way (number is between -1 and +1, relates to direction and strength)
Stage 2
still sensitive to events in the external world; sleep spindles and K-complexes; sudden high frequency burst and single spindle spike in amplitude; heart rate slows; body temp decreases; eye movements crease
Sensation
stimulation of the sense or organs - stimulus (physical energy) is "raw data" about the outside world - received by specialized "receptor" cell in eye, ears, skin, nose and tongue - "raw data" sent to the brain
Sensation
stimulation of the sense organs
binocular depth cues
stimuli that enable us to judge depth using both eyes
monocular depth cues
stimuli that enable us to judge depth using only one eye
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that elicits an automatic response
Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that evokes an automatic response
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that evokes an automatic response (in pavlov's experiment: the food b/c the dog does not need to learn that it needs food)
discriminative stimulus
stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement
Synaptic Plasticity
strengthening of existing synaptic connections (potentiation)
basal ganglia
structures in the forebrain that help to control movement
prefrontal lobotomy
surgical procedure that severs fibers connecting the frontal lobes of the brain from the underlying thalamus
which mode of thinking relies on heuristics
system 1: intuitive thinking
endocrine system
system of glands and hormones that controls secretion of blood-borne chemical messengers
Science vs. Intuition
systematic approach to evidence vs. understanding immediately without conscious reasoning
axon
tail- like part of a neuron that sends information to other neurons
Axons
tail-like fibres of neuron that SENDS info
parallel processing
the ability to attend to many sense modalities simultaneously
manifest content
the actual plot of the dream - what happened
positive punishment
the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
Dichotic Listenting
the auditory process that involves listening with both ears; to test: wear headphones and and listening to the words you hear in each ear (may be told to focus on one ear and shadow - repeat what you hear)
standard deviation
the average amount that an individual data point differs from the mean
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
illusory correlation
the belief that 2 variables are correlated when they in fact they are not -maybe confirmation bias -maybe trying to find meaning in chaotic world ex. seeing weird thing happen because you are aware and waiting for something weird to happen
Plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience -brain is constantly changing 1. unique experience can change brain structure -ex brain controlling left hand in violinist is bigger 2. areas of the brain can be repurposed -auditory cortex for deaf individuals is used for touch and vision
perception
the brain's interpretation of raw sensory inputs
Thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the automatic nervous system engaged during a crisis or after actions actions requiring flight or flight
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
consciousness
the feeling of what it's like to subjectively experience something - feel cold (thought goes into head-> grab coat) - level of awareness
Consciousness
the feeling of what it's like to subjectively experience something (ex: feeling cold); awareness of internal and external events
webber's law
the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity
Just noticeable difference (JND)
the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected; can present people with pairs of light to find JND; not easy tho since threshold depends on context
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus - people won't be able to see it till they can
Perception
the organization and interpretations of sensations; brain makes sense of raw data and is influenced by knowledge of world, expectations, context etc
reticular activating system
the part of the brain that is involved in attention, sleep, and arousal
Concordance
the probability that a pair of individuals will both have a certain characteristic, given that one of the pair has the characteristic (inherited trait)
perceptual constancy
the process by which we perceive stimuli consistently across varied conditions
negative punishment
the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
psychology
the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior
just noticeable difference (JND)
the smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect
Levels
the specific values that the experimenter chooses for a factor (in drug experiment - two levels: placebo and real drug)
cognitive neuroscience
the study between mind and brain -EEG -MRI
psychophysics
the study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics
patternicity
the tendency to perceive meaningful patterns in their absence
Computerized Tomography (CT)
the use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a "slice" through the body
cerebral cortex
the wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain and several subcortical structures -newest part developed slowly
terror management theory
theory proposing that our awareness of our death leaves us with an underlying sense of terror with which we cope by adopting reassuring cultural worldviews
signal detection theory
theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions
neurocognitive theory
theory that dreams are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about
activation-synthesis theory
theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story
Carpentered World Hypothesis
theory to Muller Illusion; groups exposed to rectangular environments should be more susceptible to size‐depth geometric illusions; ex. study shows American children are more susceptible than children
past life regression therapy
therapeutic approach that uses hypnosis to supposedly age-regress patients to a previous life to identify the source of a present-day problem
Free Association (psychoanalysis)
therapist asks person to freely share thoughts, words/anything that come to mind to release repressed emotions
Weber's Law
there is a constant proportional relationship between the JND and original stimulus intensity
Vibrations
these are sent from middle ear bones are creates wave of fluid that travels along cochlea; waves then stimulate hair cells; the stimulation is converted to neural signals and sent to the Brian
Extraordinary Claims
these are unprecedented, counter-intuitive claims that need lots of support (crazyyy theories, out of the worldddd theories)
People with Mystical Experiences
these people claim to have a sense of unity of oneness with the world, transcendence of space/ time, feelings of wonder and awe
Stage 1 of sleep cycle
theta waves - just dozing off - hypnagogic imagery - myclonic jerks - you are not aware if you are asleep or awake
Pilcher & Walters
they randomly assigned student to sleep-deprived and normal-sleep groups; cognitive tests were analyzed on how well they were able to concentrate the next day
spinal cord
thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and the body
law of proximity
things that are close together are grouped together
Law of Proximity (gestalt)
things that are close together get grouped together
variables
things that can be measured that can take on different values -eye colour - height - salary
Variables
things to be measured that can take on different values (ex. height, salary, eye colour)
trichromatic theory of color vision
three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different wavelengths - short = blue - medium = green - long = red - perceptions of colours in the brain depends on activation levels of each repetors
absolute refractory period
time during which another action potential is impossible; limits maximal firing rate
dark adaptation
time in dark before rods regain maximum light sensitivity
Organ of Corti
tissue containing the hair cells necessary for hearing
retina
tissue lining the inside back of the eye that contains receptors for seeing
Retina
tissue lining the inside of the back of the eye that contains the receptors for seeing
adrenal gland
tissue located on top of the kidneys that releases adrenaline and cortisol during states of emotional arousal
Hypnosis (psychoanalysis)
trancelike mental state where people expressed increased attention, concentration, and suggestibility to uncover repressed emotions
indentical twins
twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms 100% of genes shared
fraternal twins
twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. 50% of gene shared
cerebral hemispheres
two halves of the cerebral cortex, each of which serve distinct yet highly integrated functions
Fixed-ratio Schedule (FR)
type of partial reinforcement that offers a set number of non-reinforced variables (produce more rapid responding than interval schedules)
Fixed-interval Schedule (FI)
type of partial reinforcement: reinforcement after a set amount of time (tend to pause after each reinforcement)
Variable-interval Schedule (VI)
type of partial reinforcement: reinforcement after a variable amount of time (tend to be more resistant to extinction than fixed schedules)
Variable-ratio Schedule (VR)
type of partial reinforcement: when reinforcement occurs after a variable number of non-reinforced variables
blind
unaware of whether one is in the experimental or control group
Libet's Free Will Experiment
unconscious brain activity before people reported conscious intention to make a decision
Miligram Experiment
unethical experiment which made participants administer electrical shocks when other person answers wrong
experimenter expectancy effect
unintentionally act in ways that influence experimental results so we get results consistent with our exceptions - confirmation bias ex. old people's words and normal unscramble- walk down the hall and time it. - solution- do a double-blind procedure: the experimenter nor the participants know what group they are in--> you won't be able maniptu
Control Condition of Beauregard's Mystical Experience study
union with humans did look different when reliving mystical experience; activity in 12 brain areas was specific to mystical experience
withdrawal
unpleasant effects of reducing or stopping consumption of a drug that users had consumed habitually
inferential statics
used law of probability to interpret data and draw conclusions - way of deciding whether there are fewer than 5 chances in 100 that your data are due to chance
Inferential Statistics
used laws of probability to interpret data and draw conclusions
Scientific Theory
used to generate predictions (hypotheses) about how aspects of the world work
Electro-encephalogram (EEG)
useful in studying normal brain functions such as sleep and consciousness; records brain activity; groups of neurons tend to fire at same rate/time - ____ not sensitive enough to pick up on individual neurons
Over-reliance on anecdotes
using personal experiences or an isolated example instead of compelling arguments (weight lose ads)
independent variable
variable that an experimenter manipulates
dependent variable
variable that an experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation produces an effect
independent variable
variable that is manipulated by the experimenter - the actual values are often called levels -ex group one takes 1 daily and the other group takes to a daily and one group take a placebo
Mystical Experiences
variation in consciousness that doest have to have a circadian rhythm; once in a life time experience in consciousness; can have lasting/ lifelong expressions
individual differences
variations among people in their thinking, emotion, personality, and behavior
Visual Agnosia
ventral damage; inability to recognize objects
Muller-Lyer Illusion
vertical lines are the same length
struck tuning fork
vibration is a succession of compression (squishing together) and rarefaction (stretching apart) of the air molecules surrounding the tines of the tuning fork - air molecules are disturbed by the tuning fork
Struck Tuning Fork
vibration is a succession of compressions (squishing together); then rarefactions occur as waves stretching apart of the air molecules surrounding the tines of the tuning fork
middle ear
vibration of the eardrum amplified by 3 tiny bones
inner ear
vibrations converted to neural signals in the cochlea
ventral stream
what -perception pathway -identfing a water bottle
Dependant Variable
what is being measured to determine how much effect Independent Variable has (outcome variable)
Functionalism
what is the purpose of mental experience -purpose in a darwinian sense (animals adapt and natural selection) -Example: how did having thing like memory and language help our early ancestors survive and produce offspring
Structuralism
what is the structure of mental experiences
Dependent Varible (DV)
what the research measure to determine how much effects the IV - you can have more then one IV and then one DV - outcome variable rating between 1-10
replicability
when a study's findings are able to be duplicated, ideally by independent investigators
instinctive drift
when innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning - shows that behaviour is not all learned (nurture) some is innate (nature)
Instinctive Drift
when innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning; shows that behaviours are not all learned (nurture), some are innate (nature)
double-blind
when neither researchers nor participants are aware of who's in the experimental or control group
demand characteristics
when participants guess what the study is supposed to be about and change their behavior in the expected direction Solution: cover story for the purpose of deception; includes "distractions" from your point of interest ex. people climbing up the stairs with rocks in bag and is asked how long they thought it took to get up
Demand Characteristics
when participants guess what the study is supposed to be about and change their behaviour to fit in with the study (solution: use deception to distract them from purpose of study)
Statistical Significance
when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low
Double Dissociation
when two related mental processes are shown to function independently of each other; this shown in brain-damage patients
Confounding variables
when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects -length - material -thickness
Dorsal stream
where - action pathway - where our arm is in space
central tendency
where the peak is
Central Tendency
where the peak is (also refers to mean, median, mode)
Synapse
where the terminal button meets the dendrites of another neuron -they don't actually touch
steak bearnaise
you eat food feel sick - the flu or food poising don't like the food anymore
lack of self correction
• Never adjust claims when contrary evidence is published unlike science which weeks out incorrect claims eventually. Proponents cling to claims stubbornly - astrology: didn't update the chart when new planets were discovered