chapter 1 psychology, PSY 101: Week 1, Chapter 1, chapter 2: Research Methods, Chapter 2 - Scientific Research, PSY 101: Chapter 2, PSY 101 : Chapter 3, Chapter 3 - Nervous System, chapter 3: Biological Psychology, chapter 4: sensation & perception,...

Functionalism

- created by William James (but influenced by Darwin) - function of mental experiences (identified by what they do, rather than what their made of)

Wundt

- developed introspection/ structuralism - looked into mental experiences (thoughts, images, feelings)

how can we tell where a sound is coming from

- difference in loudness of sound arriving at each ear - difference in timing of the sound arriving at each ear

Empirical Methods

- early psychologists would use this - gaining knowledge by direct/indirect observations

carpentered-world hypothesis

"angles in" looks like a near corner "angles out" looks like a far corner - lines look the same to the retina -so the brain assumes that because "angles out"is "further way" in space so it must be longer

Behaviourism

- created by John b Watson - acquired through conditioning - relate _______ (responses) to events in the environment (stimuli)

What is Snakes and Spiders an example of?

Evolutionary Theory

What can the firing rate of neurons be effected by

- effected by our world around us -specific colours - orientation of lines - response to things like a glass table on a water bottle

Evolutionary Psychology

- explains mental traits (memory, language) as adaptations - return to functionalism

Extraordinary claims

- go against sense -controversial - we should only claims that can be supported by data - extraordinary claims need extraordinary evidence

Why are experiments the most useful tool for hypothesis testing

- if you have constructed a well-controlled experiment, then you can be confident about cause

Sound waves measured in

-described in terms of frequency - how often these peaks are shown - measured in hertz = number of cycles per seconds

Optic ataxia

-dorsal-> parietal lobe damage can't use vision to guide movements

Why is measuring the absolute threshold challenging

-lapses in attention - background noise - uncertainty, lying response bias -demand characteristics

Stage 2 of sleep cycle

-still sensitive to events in the external world -sleep spindles and k-complexes - heart rate slows, body temperature decreases, eye movement cease - some level of consciousness

perceptions

-the organization and interpretation of sensations - brain makes sense of "raw data" - influenced by knowledge of the world, expectation, context -limited attention

criticisms of evolutionary psychology

-untestable - post hoc explanations (after the fact)

Scientific Method

-use to generate predictions about how come aspects of the world works ex. giraffes have long necks to reach food

visual agnosia

-ventral-> temporal lobe damage the inability to recognize objects by sight

sleep spindles and K complexes what stage of sleep

2

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that now evoked a conditional response

Skinner Box

A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.

hypothesis

A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our theory is correct - if is not supported, then your work might need to be refined ex. tall people get paid more

temporal lobe

Auditory cortex Wernicke area A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

Overreliance on anecdotes

Anecdotes are often not representative Can't tell us about cause and effect Difficult to verify

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information from other neurons

Stage 3 &4

Deep sleep, sleep walking

convergent validity

Extent to which several measures all converge on the same conclusion

Neurotransmitters vs hormones

Neurotransmitters in nervous system, -carries through nerves -faster -brief effects hormones in the endocrine system. -carried through the blood stram -slower -long lasting

Sleep

SCN sends signals to the pineal gland, which increases the production of the hormone melatonin as light decreases (melatonin makes you sleepy)

Proof not Evidence

Scientific knowledge is rarely if ever conclusive

NOVA video: files

Sehgal showed effects of sleep deprivation by putting _____ in a deprivator all night; then next day they sleep all day to catch up on sleep (connect between sleep and memory); discovered that a single mutation in a gene causes symptoms resembling jet lag in files

Stage 1

Sudden jerks & bizarre images

Population

The entire group of objects or individuals (usually impossible to fully measure)

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated

learning style

an individual's preferred or optimal method of acquiring new information

family study

analysis of how characteristics run in intact families

twin study

analysis of how traits differ in identical versus fraternal twins

adoption study

analysis of how traits vary in individuals raised apart from their biological relatives

scientific skepticism

approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them

dissociation theory

approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated

sociocognitive theory

approach to explaining hypnosis based on people's attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and responsiveness to waking suggestions

Causation Fallacy

assuming that because two things are correlated that one caused the other (ex. students that drink have lower GPA)

Top down processing

beliefs and expectations about the whole used to process parts; past experience/ knowledge; driven by expectations about how the world is organized; perception directs cognition

What is pseudoscience?

beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method

sympathetic division

The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats. - flight or fight things that are not necessary are turned off - thinking digestion - pupils dilate to take in as much light as possible -heart rate/ breathing rate increased ->body get prepared for work

Phrenology

The study of the conformation of the skull based on the belief that it is indicative of mental faculties and character. -has no evidence to back it up

Non-shadowed Info

_______ is poorly processed in dichotic listening, since only basic info recalled (like if the speaker is male/ female); but still notice if your name in spoken

Physical Energy

a light source emits electromagnetic radiation that travels as a wave

operational definition

a working definition of what a researcher is measuring -thoughts -feeling -memory ex- social media makes people anxious test on a scale of one to ten or measure HR

plasticity

ability of the nervous system to change

depth perception

ability to judge distance and three-dimensional relations

Perception of Depth

ability to use visual cues in order to perceive 3-dimensional characteristics of an object; images on retina are 2-D

sensory adaptation

activation is greatest when a stimulus is first detected

Thalamus (part of Limbic System)

acts as a switch board, sends info to forebrain for more processing

Warning signs of pseudoscience

ad hoc immunizing Lack of self correction over reliance on ancedots

Introspection

experimental self observation (make observations biased on personal interpretation or previous experience)

Experimenter Expectancy Effect

experimenter acts in ways that influences results that are consistent with expectations (solution: make experimenter blind to which group participants are in)

scientific theory

explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world

Sleep Deprivation

extended ______ can have severe physical and psychological consequences; cold can occur with loss of sleep

validity

extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure

Interrater Reliability

extent to which two or more raters agree (consistent between people?)

internal validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study

external validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

Structural Plasticity

forming new connections (synaptogensis), and getting rid of ones not using (pruning)

frontal lobe

forward part of cerebral cortex responsible for motor function, language, memory, and planning

forebrain (cerebrum)

forward part of the brain that allows advanced intellectual abilities

myelin sheath

glial cells wrapped around axons that act as insulators of the neuron's signal

nocebo effect

harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm

Awake/ Alert Brain

has fast frequency and small (amplitude) alpha waves (8-13Hz); brain waves get slower (frequency) and larger (amplitude) during sleep cycle compared to this

dream continuity hypothesis

hypothesis that there is continuity between sleeping and waking experiences and that dreams can mirror life circumstances

trichromatic theory

idea that color vision is based on our sensitivity to three primary colors

gate control model

idea that pain is blocked or gated from consciousness by neural mechanisms in spinal cord

statistically significant

if more then 5 out of 100 - when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low

basal ganglia

involved in control of voluntary movement -rich in dopamine

Basal Ganglia (subcortical structures)

involved in control of voluntary movements (rich in dopamine)

Amygdala (part of Limbic System)

involved in fear response

Cerebellum

involved in sense of balance and learning motor skills

informed consent

informing research participants of what is involved in a study before asking them to participate

conditioned stimulus (CS)

initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response due to association with an unconditioned stimulus

Cochlea

inner ear; vibrations converted to a neutral signal in the cochlea; fluid filled coil contains receptors for hearing

Absolute Threshold (sight)

intensity level at which a person detects the presence of a stimulus (50% of time); is an example of psychophysics is analyzing the dimmest light people can see; people have an __________ : lowest intensity detected

Grob et al : psiloybin effects

interest in therapeutic value of ______; one challenge: ______ found that 31% of reported extreme fear and paranoia even in a controlled, emotionally supportive environment

Structuralists

interested in measuring the limits of conscious experience ex. what the quietest sound you can hear?

terminal buttons

located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons

receptor site

location that uniquely recognizes a neurotransmitter

Eliasson et al, GPA Study

looked at sleep patterns in college students; asked questions such as 'what time do you wake up?' 'How much sleep do you get?; relates to the MEQ

temporal lobe

lower part of cerebral cortex that plays roles in hearing, understanding language, and memory

absolute threshold

lowest level of a stimulus needed for the nervous system to detect a change 50% of the time

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

magnetic fields to visualize brain structure

Nerve Cells

makes up the nervous system, which is a complex communication network

Overuse of ad hoc immunizing

making up new details to protect one's claim

pituitary gland

master gland that, under the control of the hypothalamus, directs the other glands of the body

inferential statistics

mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population

retina

membrane at the back of the eye responsible for converting light into neural activity

threshold

membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential

basilar membrane

membrane supporting the organ of Corti and hair cells in the cochlea

introspection

method by which trained observers carefully reflect and report on their mental experiences

Eardrum

middle ear; vibration of the eardrum amplified by the three tiny bones

median

middle score in a data set; a measure of central tendency

Sympathetic Division

mobilizes the body for emergencies (fight or flight response - sweating, goosebumps, pupils dilate)

Aversion Therapy

modify problematic behaviour by pairing it with an unpleasant factor; used with chronic alcoholics; ex. give a person emetic - substance that causes vomiting (unconditioned stimulus); feeling nauseous (unconditional response); hope to stop by associating drinking to nausea

aversion therapy

modify problematic behaviour by pairing it with an unpleasant stimulus - often uses an emetic UCS - mostly used with chronic alcoholics

Linear Perspective

monocular cues: linear perspective: lines converge in the distance; eventually meeting at a vanishing point

Motion Parallax

monocular cues: objects at diff distances move across retina at diff rates; some objects that are closer appear to move faster than objects further away

why are we drawn to pseudoscience?

need to have a cause for things that are unexplainable need to find patterns in random data

neuron

nerve cell specialized for communication

optic nerve

nerve that travels from the retina to the brain

peripheral nervous system

nerves in the body that extend outside the central nervous system PNS

peripheral nervous system

nerves outside the brain and spinal cord

autonomic nervous system

nerves that connect the heart, blood vessels, muscles and glands - involuntary functions -- heartbeat, digestion, perspiration

Autonomic Nervous System

nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, (involuntary), muscles and glands - critical to survival (digestion/heartbeat)

Somatic Nervous System

nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors

somatic nervous system

nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors -two way street

Peripheral Nervous System

nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord, and they connect the central nervous system to limbs and organs

Plasticity

nervous system's ability to change, unique experiences can change brain structure

interneuron

neuron that sends messages to other neurons nearby

Brain Waves

neurons always firing; differ in frequency (Hz = # of peaks per second) and amplitude (peak height)

Stimulus

neurons spontaneously fire, the rate at which neurons fire may change in response to something happening in the world

dishabituation

occurs with new stimulus

pheromone

odorless chemical that serves as a social signal to members of one's species

Post Hoc

one event is said to be the cause of a later event simply because it occurred earlier

Necker Cube

bistable two dimensional figure of a cube that can be seen from different perspectives; illustrates sensation and perception

Psychophysics

branch of psych that deals with the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experience

Psychophysics

branch of psychology that deals with the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experience - sets of methods for quantifying what people are able to detect

Dendrites

branch-like fibres in neurons that RECEIVE info

nerves

bundles of axons

Psychobabble

buzzwords taken from psychological terminology but used out of context -be skeptical of a claim if a person can not explain it laymen's terms

multiply determined

caused by many factors

hallucinogenic

causing dramatic alterations of perception, mood, and thought

Soma

cell body where info is received (chemically) and results in changes

glial cell

cell in nervous system that plays a role in the formation of myelin and the blood-brain barrier, responds to injury, removes debris, and enhances learning and memory

mirror neuron

cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated when an animal performs an action or observes it being performed

feature detector cell

cell that detects lines and edges

opponent process

cells in retina, thalamus and occipital cortex increase activation for one member of a pair and decrease activation for the other member

Neurons

cells in the nervous system that receive and transmit info

neuron

cells in the nervous system that receives and transmit information -massively connected to each other neuron "fires" - all or nothing (action potential)

fovea

central portion of the retina

Cognitive Psychology

challenges behaviourism by focusing on inner thoughts (decision making depends on how people evaluate them)

learning

change in an organism's behavior or thought as a result of experience

evaluative conditioning

changes in whether you like something resulting from it being paired with a another positive or negative stimulus

Evaluative Conditioning

changes in whether you like something resulting from it being paired with another positive/negative stimulus (ex. ads with famous people)

accommodation

changing the shape of the lens to focus on objects near or far

endorphin

chemical in the brain that plays a specialized role in pain reduction

neurotransmitter

chemical messenger specialized for communication from neuron to neuron

hormone

chemical released into the bloodstream that influences particular organs and glands

Neurotransmitters

chemicals that transmit info from one neuron to another

Lateralization

cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other

hue

color of light

Spotlight metaphor

compares attention to a beam of light that can be focused on particular locations in the visual field; ALSO a metaphor for consciousness that focuses on its selectiveness and limited capacity

what is the nervous system

complex communications network

timbre

complexity or quality of sound that makes musical instruments, human voices, or other sources sound unique

top-down processing

conceptually driven processing influenced by beliefs and expectancies

demand characteristics

cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypotheses

circadian rhythm

cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24-hour basis in many biological processes

sleep apnea

disorder caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep, resulting in daytime fatigue

narcolepsy

disorder characterized by the rapid and often unexpected onset of sleep

parasympathetic nervous system

division of autonomic nervous system that controls rest and digestion

correlation-causation fallacy

error of assuming that because one thing is associated with another, it must cause the other

ad hoc immunizing hypothesis

escape hatch or loophole that defenders of a theory use to protect their theory from falsification

ad hoc immunizing

escape hatch or loophole that defenders of a theory use to protect their theory from falsification - making up new details - be sceptical

fitness

organisms' capacity to pass on their genes

law of Closure (gestalt)

organize perception into wholes rather than parts

Law of closure

organize perception into wholes rather then parts -simplify -

midbrain

part of the brain stem that contributes to movement, tracking of visual stimuli, and reflexes triggered by sound

Hippocampus

part of the brain that plays a role in spatial memory

cornea

part of the eye containing transparent cells that focus light on the retina

lens

part of the eye that changes curvature to keep images in focus

central nervous system

part of the nervous system containing the brain & spinal cord that controls the mind & behavior CNS

automatic nervous system

part of the nervous system controlling the involuntary actions of our internal organs & glands, which (along eight the limbic system) participates in emotion regulation

somatic nervous system

part of the nervous system that conveys information between the CNS and the body, controlling and coordinating voluntary movement

Wenicke's area

part of the temporal lobe involved in understanding speech

blind spot

part of the visual field we can't see because of an absence of rods and cones

variable-ratio schedule (VR)

pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a specific number of responses on average, with the number varying randomly

fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

pattern in which we provide reinforcement following a regular number of responses

variable-interval schedule (VI)

pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once during an average time interval, with the interval varying randomly

fixed-interval schedule (FI)

pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once following a specified time interval

schedules of reinforcement

pattern of reinforcing a behavior

Scalloping

pattern of response, seen on a cumulative record, that is produced by a fixed-interval schedule; there is a pause after reinforcement, then a few probe responses, and finally an increasingly accelerated rate of response until reinforcement

Attention

paying _______ refers to focusing selectively on some things while largely ignoring others

Bottom-up processing

perceiving parts and using them to create a whole; driven by the physical input contacting the physical receptors (brain shows up edges quickly); perception is constructed by cognition

Heritability

percentage of the variability in a trait across individuals that is due to genes

subliminal perception

perception below the limen or threshold of conscious awareness

illusions

perception in which the way we perceive a stimulus doesn't match its physical reality

illusory correlation

perception of a statistical association between two variables where none exists

Extra sensory perception (ESP)

perception of events outside the known channels of sensation

Frequency Theory

perception of pitch corresponds to the frequency or rate at which the basilar membrane vibrates

self-report

personality, preferences, opinion and attitudes ex giving rating, (how well does the following statement apply to you

Place Theory

perception of pitch corresponds to the place of vibration along basilar membrane (high pitch towards opening of cochlea/ low pitch towards the end)

frequency theory

perception of pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates

place theory

perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions, or places, along the basilar membrane -high pitch towards the opening of the cochlea; low pitch towards the end - brain make a decision if it is high or low -

Ventral Stream

perception pathway; after visual cortex info sent here for further processing; temporal lobe; identifying what

experimenter expectancy effect

phenomenon in which researchers' hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study

Way of brain mapping

phrenology lesioning EEG imaging -Ct -PET -MRI -fMRI TMS

stimulus generalization

process by which conditioned stimuli similar, but not identical, to the original conditioned stimulus elicit a conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

process by which organisms display a less pronounced conditioned response to conditioned stimuli that differ from the original conditioned stimulus

habituation

process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli

selective attention

process of selecting one sensory channel and ignoring or minimizing others

opponent process theory of colour vision

process that certain cells in the visual pathway increase their activation levels to one colour and decrease their activation colours to another colour - red vs green -yellow vs blue - black vs white - one cell is using yellow, black and green you can't see white, red and blue

bottom-up processing

processing in which a whole is constructed from parts

Parietal Cortex

processing sensory info (touch, temp, pain), spatial awareness and number processing

bottom-up processing

processing that is driven by the physical input contacting the sensory receptors - you start with the components of form, such as lines, edges and corners and build them perception of squares, stop signs, and ice cream cones"

Freud: Day Residue

proposed that people fulfill wishes in dreams; dreams about stuff that happened in day; dreams showed unconscious thoughts (criticism: dreams are not always about sex/ violence)

Rosalind Cartwright

proposes a problem-solving view as a reason for dreaming - they not constrained by realism or logic and offer a unique and creative place to work out problem solving - anecdotal evidence

Opponent Process Theory of Colour Vision

proposes that certain cells in visual pathway increase/decrease their activation levels to certain colours (ex. black vs green/ can explain why we don't experience blueish yellow)

signal detection theory

provides a set of statistical procedures for removing response bias from threshold estimates

Signal Detection Theory

provides set of statistical procedures for removing bias from threshold estimates; ex. one measure involves subtracting false positives from true positives

anorexia nervosa

psychiatric condition marked by extreme weight loss and the perception that one is overweight even when one is massively underweight

Recognizion

one way to sense different basic features and integrate them into a perceptual whole

Skinner's Box

operant chamber, has a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a reward of food or water, or consequence of a shock; IV - type of reinforcement/ schedule of reinforcement; DV - number of responses/ resistance to extinction

Shaping by Successive Approximations

operant conditioning involves learning new voluntary responses; skinner used ________; reinforces closer and closer approximations of a desired response; ex. training a dog

double dissociation in brain-damaged patients

optic ataxia (where) visual agnosia (what)

synapse

space between two connecting neurons through which messages are transmitted chemically

sense receptor

specialized cell responsible for converting external stimuli into neural activity for a specific sensory system

place theory

specific place along the basilar membrane matches a tone with a specific pitch, FOR HIGH PITCHED SOUNDS 5,000-20,000 hz

Broca's Area (frontal lobe)

speech production

synaptic vesicle

spherical sac containing neurotransmitters

REM sleep

stage of sleep during which the brain is most active and during which vivid dreaming most often occurs

non-REM (NREM) sleep

stages 1 through 4 of the sleep cycle, during which rapid eye movements do not occur and dreaming is less frequent and vivid

sleep paralysis

state of being unable to move just after falling asleep or right before waking up

deja vu

strong feeling of familiarity regarding a new experience

pitch

subjective perception of frequency - low frequency- low pitch - high frequency- more peaks

Pitch

subjective perception of sound wave; low pitch - low frequency, and high pitch - high frequency

Colour or Hue

subjective perception of wavelength (short - violet, long - red)

Sample

subset of population that is being studied to make inferences about population

psychoactive drug

substance that contains chemicals similar to those found naturally in our brains that alter consciousness by changing chemical processes in neurons

renewal effect

sudden reemergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the conditioned response was acquired

spontaneous recovery

sudden reemergence of an extinct conditioned response after a delay in exposure to the conditioned stimulus

night terrors

sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiring, and confusion followed by a return to a deep sleep

brain wave

summed activity of neurons are measured by EEG - brain waves differ in frequency and amplitude - pass through 5 stages whose brain waves are distinguishable from awake brain waves

"proof"

talk of "proof" instead of evidence -scientist never say they proved something

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

tech that allows for temporary excitement or deactivation of activity in specific part of brain (sends electrical pulses)

Electro-myography (EMG)

technique for evaluating and recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

biological clock

term for the area of the hypothalamus that's responsible for controlling our levels of alertness

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

technique that applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull that can either enhance or interrupt brain function

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

technique that measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

technique that uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure

functional MRI (fMRI)

technique that uses magnetic fields to visualize brain activity using changes in blood oxygen level

Informed Consent

tell participants what they are getting into beforehand

informed consent

tells participates what they are getting in to beforehand

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

response set

tendency of research participants to distort their responses to questionnaire items

Hypothesis

testable prediction about how the world will behave if theory is correct

hypothesis

testable prediction derived from a scientific theory

Selective Attention Test

testing the process of directing our awareness to relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant stimuli in the environment

Limbic System (subcortical structures)

thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala

negative reinforcement

removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior

functionalism

school of psychology that aimed to understand the adaptive purposes of psychological characteristics

behaviorism

school of psychology that focuses on uncovering the general laws of learning by looking largely at observable behavior

cognitive psychology

school of psychology that proposes that thinking is central to understanding behavior

psychoanalysis

school of psychology, founded by Sigmund Freud, that focuses on internal psychological processes of which we're unaware

science vs. intuition

science is not about math or beakers or microscopes - systematic approach to evidence - a set of attitudes and skills designed to prevent us from fooling ourselves - scientist are humans: prone to bias, self deception

Psychology

scientific study of mind, brain and behaviour (why do people do the things they do?)

Confirmation Bias

search for, interpret, favor and recall info in a way that supports one's prior beliefs (used when people want a certain idea to be true)

Adrenaline

secretion by adrenal glands which boosts energy production in muscles

Cortisol

secretion by adrenal glands which regulates blood pressure and cardiovascular function

Psychoactive Drugs

selectively alter neurotransmitter activity in the brain; block reuptake; mimic neurotransmitter produced internally (ex. opiodis mimic body's own natural pain killers called endorphins)

fetishism

sexual attraction to nonliving things

right visual field

simulates left eyes and brain

left visual field

simulates right eyes and brain

Hypothalamus (part of Limbic System)

sits underneath thalamus and regulates constant internal body states (triggers fight or flight)

pariental lobe

somatosensory cortex processes information about touch and sensory spatial awareness and number processing

Limits to Classical Conditioning

some responses are voluntary; some responses are influenced by what follows

confirmation bias

the tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them

opponent-process theory

theory that we perceive colors in terms of three pairs of opponent colors: either red or green, blue or yellow, or black or white

Process of accommodation

this becomes harder with age, as lens become less flexible/ muscles become weaker

THE CAT

this shows an issue that if by analyzing just edges/ lines we should not recognize bottom up processing (we see the cat)

semicircular canals

three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance

thichromatic theory

three types of cones with sensitivities to different wavelengths

independent variable

type of reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement

parietal lobe

upper middle part of the cerebral cortex lying behind the frontal lobe that is specialized for touch and perception

Dichromatic Colour Blindness

vision have only two types of cones which are able to perceive colour; ex blindness to green or red (this is evidence for the trichromatic theory of colour vision)

occipital lobe

visual cortex visual processing

Occipital Lobe

visual cortex (processing visual info)

sleepwalking

walking while fully asleep

naturalistic observation

watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation high in external validity

Little Albert

watson's real life classical conditioning; shows that irrational fears may develop through classical conditioning

operational definition

a working definition of what a researcher is measuring

hyperopia

farsightedness cornea too flat or eyes too short can't see up close light is focused behind the retina

What is the absolute refractory period?

fastest rate neurons fire limits the rate at which a neurons can fire -they could fire because of sounds, feeling

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

Amygdala

part of limbic system that plays key roles in fear, excitement, and arousal

brain stem

part of the brain between the spinal cord & cerebal cortex that contains the midbrain, pons & medulla

Hypothalamus

part of the brain responsible for maintaining a constant internal state

pons

part of the brain stem that connects the cortex with the cerebellum

dendrite

portion of neuron that receives signals

axon

portion of neuron that sends signals

Electro-oculogramh (EOG)

records eye movement

Electro-myograph (EMG)

records muscle activity

hindbrain

region below the midbrain that contains the cerebellum, pons, and medulla

primary sensory cortex

regions of the cerebral cortex that initially process information from the senses

association cortex

regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate simpler functions to perform more complex functions

Pupil

regulates amount of light passing into eyes; ex when you enter a dark room your pupils dilate so more light can enter, while your pupils contract in bright rooms

pupil

regulates amount of light passing into the eye - pupils dilates in dark room to get as much light as possible

Hypothalamus

regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior

Medulla

regulates heart rate, breathing, vomiting, sneezing

shaping by successive approximations

reinforce closer and closer approximation of a desired response

fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement after a set amount of time every 20 sec

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement after a set number of non-reinforced responses every 10th time

varible-interval schedule

reinforcement after a variable amount of time - every 15 or 23 or 22 sec

variable- ratio schedule

reinforcement after a variable number of non-reinforced responses -every 10 or 21 or 32

EMG reading during REM

study showed that lucid dreaming is a real phenomenon; people able to blink three times and count to 10 in REM sleep

Brightness

subjective perception of amplitude - low amplitude = dull - high amplitude = bright

Loudness

subjective perception of amplitude - low amplitude- quiet - high amplitude - loud

Colour or hue

subjective perception of amplitude - short wavelength = violet - long wavelength = red

Brightness

subjective perception of amplitude (low amplitude - dull light, high amplitude - bright light)

Loudness

subjective perception of amplitude; low amplitude - quiet, and high amplitude - loud

transduction

the process of converting an external energy or substance into electrical activity within neurons

Correlation isn't Causation

* many observe relationships between two variables * this doesn't mean that the relationship is casual (direct) * the relationship may be an artifact of a variable that precedes it ex. living near parks and gardens raise QI -maybe rich people live near parks and they can get a better education

Skinner's Box (Operant Chamber)

- Pigeon presses keys for food/water (type of reinforcement) - relates to gambling in humans

Inattantional blindness

- The eyes see it but the brain doesn't process it - the brain not the eye - shows that perception depends on attention

behaviourists

- all behaviour explainable as learned responses to stimuli in our environment - aimed to understand universal learning principles - behaviour is certain - you don't need to know whats going on in the head -ex dog sit because they think they are going to get a reward

Confirmation Bias safe guard

- being aware of thinking challenges - be aware of your bias - using critical and scientific thinking - have these attitudes - using research method that control for short comings

Why do we need sleep? (Evolutionary perspective)

- conserving energy, staying away from predators

Why do we need sleep? (research)

- research shows improved ability to recall info, learn a new task and gain insight on problems - sleeping on a problem (wait and relax)

What is psychology?

- scientific study of the mind, brain, behaviour -psychologist make inference about mind and behaviour

Behavourism

- should study observable behaviour - behaviours are learned

sound waves

- successive pressure disturbances in some medium - ex stuck tuning stick

evolutionary psychology

- tailor over 1000's of years to fit early ancestor's environment - thinking about the mind / behaviour due to evolution - people lived in very different environments -snakes and spiders fears --> way back then it was a real fear -the idea that fear is pasted down genetically

Legal implications of free will vs determinism debate

- the order of thoughts - freewill-> want to do something -> do it - determinism-> do it -> take note that you did it

Structuralism

- the study of the elements of consciousness - structure of mental experiences - wundt wanted a 'formula' faded due to subjectiveness

confirmation bias

- we tend to biased to things we believe to be true ( may discord info that doesn't agree with it)

Psychoanalysis

-"free association" (1st thing that comes to mind and sensor) - hypnosis -dreams

What is the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve?

-A curve showing the percentage of studied/arbitrary information remembered over time. -Proves rapid memory loss on learned information -100%--> 40% retention within 60 minutes! - studied 3 letter letter words (not real words) and seen how much he could remember

when can Deception be used in an experiment

-couldn't have done the study without it - doesn't negatively affect the rights of participant - research doesn't involve medical or therapeutic interventions they can withdraw at any point and debriefing: inform participants what the study was about

Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)

.05; sedative and depressive effects; slowed thinking; impaired concentration, walking and muscular coordination; unconsciousness

order of the sleep cycle

1-2-3-4-3-2-REM repeats about 4-5 per night - 90mins each

3 pitfalls of experiment design

1. placebo effects 2. experimenter expectancy effect 3. demand characteristics

What are the two defining features of an experiment

1. researcher can manipulate at least one variable -ex. drug experiment- control group and experimental group 2. Random assignment to one group or the other -mix it up (males and females)

Limitations to Classical conditioning

1. some responses are voluntary 2. some responses are influenced by what follows

2 types of plasticity

1. structural plasticity- forming new connections and getting rid of old ones you aren't using (pruning) 2. Synaptic plasticity- is the strengthening of existing synaptic connections-> potentiation -cell that wire together fire together -biological basis of memory -ex learning and practicing how to play the guitar

Why does it matter that neurotransmitters regulate behaviour

1. under/over activity of neurotransmitters associated with certain psychological disorder -depression associated with low serotonin level 2. drugs can impact behaviour (positively and negatively) influencing neurotransmitter activity

National Cannabis Survey (2016)

18% of Canadians 15 or older used cannabis in the pst 15 months; 6.1% uses cannabis daily

Trichromatic theory of Colour Vision

3 types of receptors with differing wavelengths: short - blue, medium - green, long - red

Number Reduction Task

8-digit series of 1s, 4s, and 9s; Rules: if 2 digits are the same, respond with that digit and if 2 digits are diff, respond with the remaining; end of experiment, the percentage of subjects who saw hidden rule is calculated (sleep group vs no-sleep group)

The Equity Potentiality Assumption

?

Agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

multiple sclerosis

A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech

Replicability

A finding must be capable of being duplicated by independent researchers following the same "recipe."

normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph. - most people get somewhere in the middle

Synapse

A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next (terminal buttons triggers the release of neurotransmitters)

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Nature vs. Nurture

Behaviours attributable to genes vs. environment

NOVA video: video games

Bob Sickle makes participants play ______ before falling asleep; he says you will see the _____ if you wake up the participant promptly, b/c brain reviews what you learnt and is studying it

Strength

Consistency with which changes in x are associated with changes in y

Between Subjects Design

DIFFERENT people for each level of independent variable

True negative (correct rejection)

Deny hearing a sound that wasn't there

false negative (miss)

Deny hearing a sound when it was present

Ruling out Rival Hypotheses

Findings consistent with several hypotheses require additional research to eliminate other explanations

Hall

First psych lab in USA (1882)

Wundt

First psychology laboratory (1879)

lens

Focuses light rays to fall on the retina curvature if the lens adjusts (accommodates) -> closer object = fattens further object = flattens - when the lens can't accommodate - the body does ex old people reading a book, holding it far away

Mirror Neurons

Frontal/ parietal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells

endocrine system

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells

Amplitude

Height of a wave

Parsimonious

Identifying the simplest and most accurate explanation (Occam's Razor: crop circles - pranksters or aliens?👽 )

experimental group

In an experiment, the group of participants that received the manipulation

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Debriefing

Inform Participants what study was about (inform if deception was used)

pseudosymmetry

May create a false sense of scientific controversy Imbalance in the quality of information but seems like balanced coverage

Sharpening

May exaggerate a claim

Median

Middle number in set of scores

Fear Learning

Mineka and Ohman propose that humans have an evolved ability for _____ (preparedness); activated by threats to our ancestors survival (involves amygdala)

Leveling

Minimize less central (but important) details "It out-performed other pills- leaves out that the other pills are placebos"

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature: a behaviours attributes to genes (evolution) Nurture: a behaviours attributes to environment (behaviourism) - is not much of a debate now. its a combo of both

Lack of self-correction

Never adjusts claims when contrary evidence is provided (astrology - Neptune)

Hindbrain

Oldest evolution, basic survival functions (medulla, reticular activating system, cerebellum)

Law of Effect

Operant Conditioning: Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favourable consequences become more likely, and that behaviours followed by unfavourable consequences become less likely (behaviours which have positive outcomes tend to be repeated)

Least helpful for quickly escape an alligator

Oxytocin- sleepy & lovey & interpersonal trust & calm(correct answer) Cortisol- helps regulates your body to get it back to homeostasis, produced after adrenaline to make sure it doesn't go over board (wrong answer)

Ebbinghaus

Pioneered study of memory by using nonsense words (forgetting curve)

He has never hiked a mountain but has a fear of them. What evolutionary predisposition best explains this phobia

Preparedness

Sending neuron

Presynaptic neuron

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur - almost no muscle tension - brain wave resembles a waking brain -random brain activity from the hindbrain

Within Subject Design

SAME people for each level of independent variable

Occam's Razor

Simpler explanations are more likely to be true than complex ones

Occam's Razor

Simpler explanations are more likely to be true than complex ones.

Wavelength

The distance between two corresponding parts of a wave

Mode

The value that occurs most frequently in a given data set.

Scientific Method Circle

Theory--> hypothesis-->research--> observation

Whats the central question in psychology?

Why do people do what they do? -individual difference -behaviour is multiply determined (no single explanation)

NOVA video: rats

Wilson implants 'mind readers' in rats; when awake rats are put in a maze and their neurons are recorded; same neuron recording found in sleep (saw maze in dream)

Operational Definition

Working definition of what your measuring (ex for memory, measure time it takes to forget random words)

Myelin Sheath

Wrapped around the axon and is a fatty substance that acts as insulation (which speeds up transmissions)

What should psychologist study?

Wundt- mental experiences -thought - feeling -memory often relied on being sensitive to and recording one's own mental experience (introspection- hyper aware of own thought process

stem cell

a cell, often originating in embryos, having the capacity to differentiate into a more specialized cell

Learning

a change in an animals behaviour or thought as a result of experience (does not need to be practical, or involve school/ other people)

learning

a change in an behaviour or thought as a result of experience - doesn't need to - involve facts or school -involve people -be practical or useful

Pseudoscience

a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method

synesthesia

a condition in which people experience cross-modal sensations

Inattentional blindness

a failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention; shows that attention limits perception

Epigenetics

a field that examines how environmental influences affect the expression of genes

evolutionary psychology

a field that strikes to explain psychological traits as naturally selected adaptations

synaptic cleft

a gap into which neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal

test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions ex. rating looks. see if they are the same

Phenotype

a person's observable characteristics (controlled by environment)

Operant conditioning

a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

computed tomography (CT)

a scanning technique using multiple X-rays to construct three-dimensional images

Afterimage

a sensation experienced after a stimulus is removed - should see afterimage in opposing colours - Green/black/yellow receptors are tired out; while red/white/ blue released from inhibition

correlation coefficient

a statistic that indicates whether two variables are relates in a systematic way; number between -1 and +1 -direction and strength of correlational coefficient

sample

a subset of the population that is studied to make inferences about the population

Sound Waves

a successive pressure disturbance in some medium (usually air)

dichotic listening

a task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear -task is to shadow or repeat aloud, one message while ignoring the other - dichotic- divided into 2 - poor processing of the non-shadow message

Dream Interpretation

a technique used in psychoanalysis in which the content of dreams is analyzed for disguised or symbolic wishes, meanings, and motivations

Position Emission Tomography (PET)

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

Manifest Content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (actual plot of dream)

Latent Content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (hidden message)

Dorsal Stream

action pathway; after visual cortex info sent here for further processing; parietal cortex; knowing where

Curvature of Lens

adjusts automatically; for closer object it fattens, further object - flattens; this allows more focus on objects to ensure focal point of light rays are on the back of eye (retina)

Hormones

affect biological function and behaviour (carried through bloodstream/ longer effects)

Correlation research

aim is to examine the link/co-relationship between two variables. (x and y)

structuralism

aimed to identify the basic elements of psychological experience

Correlational Research

aims to specify the relationship between two variables

transcrianial magnetic stimulation

allow for temporary excitement or deactivation in specific part of the brain o electrical impulse to the brain temporary knocks it out virtual lesion

psychoactive drugs

alter neurotransmitter activity in the brain - blocking reuptake - mimicking neurotransmitters produced internally

loudness is to

amplitude or heigh of sound wave

Tritone Paradox/ Shepard Tone Illusion

an auditory illusion in which a sequentially played pair of Shepard tones separated by an interval of a tritone, or half octave, is heard as ascending by some people and as descending by others (brain chooses what to listen to)- same clip

reflex

an automatic motor response to a sensory stimulus

Electro-oculogram (EOG)

an electrical potential from the eyes, recorded by means of electrodes placed on the skin around them; detects eye movements

reinforcer

an event that increases or strengthens the behaviour that it follows

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels

Biological Clock

an internal control of natural cycles; corrects itself with reference to environmental cues but can function without

Freudian Slip

an unintentional error regarded as revealing subconscious feelings

Dement and Kleitman (1957)

analyzed brain waves; showed that they vary in predictable ways

resistance to extinction

animals continues to respond after reinforcement is removed

variable

anything that can vary

statistics

application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data

Receptor

are in eyes, ears, skin, nose and tongue; receive raw data that is then sent to the brain

interrated reliability

are measurements between people fairly consistent?

Memories

are strengthened or consolidated by REM sleep; days events are replayed in our heads; important stuff kept - unimportant discarded

activation synthesis model

argue that, as it does when it is awake, the brain attempts to "make sense" or "construct a story" out of random brain activity during dreams - result of a dream - provides explanation for why dreams are so weird

Activation Synthesis Model

argues that, as it does when awake, the brain attempts to make sense or construct a story out of random brain activity during REM; dreams are a result; explains why dream are random/ weird

myelin sheath

around the axon of some neurons is a fatty substance that acts as insulation, speed up transmission along the axon -insulates so the axon travel efficiently

if a correlation is negative what happens to x and y

as x increase, y decreases as x decreases, y increases -looks like the chart is going down

Beauregard and Paquette (2006)

asked 15 nuns to relive their most intense state of union they felt with God and their most intense state of union they felt with another human; used fMRI to measure brain activity

metaphysical claim

assertion about the world that is not testable

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Sclerosis

associated with loss of myelin and is the stiffening of a tissue (motor generative tissue)

McGurk Effect

audio of one sound paired with video of another- third sound is perceived

McGurk Effect

audio of one sounds paired with video of another; third sound is perceived; ex. man saying far and bar, same audio but what you hear depends on how you see his lips moving

Temporal Lobe

auditory cortex (processing auditory info), Wernicke's Area (speech comprehension)

unconditioned response (UR)

automatic response to a UCS

Unconditioned Response (USR)

automatic response to a UCS (in pavlov's experiment: drooling since it is a reflex)

unconditioned response (UCR)

automatic response to a non neutral stimulus that does not need to be learned

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

automatic response transferred ti a neutral stimulus

Classical Conditioning

automatic response transferred to a neutral stimulus

Mean

average

Standard Deviation

average amount that a individual data point differs than the mean

mean

average; a measure of central tendency

occipital lobe

back part of cerebral cortex specialized for vision

frued

behaviour is governed by unconscious thought - what we are motivated

Free Will vs. Determinism

behaviours caused by conscious control (freely) vs. unconscious control (external factors)

Behaviourism

behaviours learned (nurture); should study observable behaviour (not what's in your head)

Hot Hand Fallacy

belief that a person who has experienced success has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts (mistaken beliefs in streaks)

Illusory Correlation

belief that two variables are correlated when their are not (used when people need to find meaning or confirmation bias)

naive realism

belief that we see the world precisely as it is

Awake brain waves

beta waves - small amplitude -high frequency - alpha waves

Retinal disparity

binocular cues: closer an object is, the greater the difference/ disparity between 2 retinal images

circardian rhythm

biological activities that rise and fall in a 24-hour cycle - circa= about - diem = 1 day - aligned to environmental cues - body temperature - jet lag - biological clock corrects itself with reference to environmental cues but can function

Circadian Rhythm

biological activities that rise and fall in a 24-hour cycle; aligned with environmental cues (light) ; are internally produced (jet lag, shift work)

Cognitive neuroscience

biological processes that underlie cognition (focus on the neural connections in the brain involved in mental processes: blood flow/activity)

cochlea

bony, spiral-shaped sense organ used for hearing

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord - carries motor commands from brain to body; sensations from body to brain

reticular activating system (RAS)

brain area that plays a key role in arousal

cerebellum

brain structure responsible for our sense of balance

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

Punishment

can be disciplinary (weakening behaviour), but does not always have to be; negative reinforcement and ____ is not the same thing

Waves

can differ in amplitude and wavelength (1nm = one billionth of a meter); measured by scientific instruments

Rosalind Cartwright

canadian psychologist; says that people dream about problems in their waking life; because dreams are not constrained by logic/ realism, they offer a unique place for working out problems (anecdotal evidence: # of famous solutions to scientific problems solved in sleep)

falsifiable

capable of being disproved

functionalMRI

captures regional changes in blood flow over time (compares brain activity under different conditions)

PET

captures regional changes in glucose over time

Naturalistic Observations

careful examination of behaviour without intervening directly with research subjects (observing human behaviour in real world)

naturalistic observation

careful observations of behaviour without intervening directly with research subjects ex. smiling on the baseball cards

four types of research designs

case study experimental design naturalistic observation correlational design

Safeguards

critically thinking/ scientific thinking (used to not be bias)

Neurotransmitters

chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another - arrival of an action potential at the terminal buttons triggers the neurotransmitter release - the neurotransmitter molecules "bind" to receptors in the post-synaptic neuron - the molecules that don't bind are sponged backup by the pre-synaptic neuron

pupil

circular hole through which light enters the eye

Falsifiability

claims capable of being disproved (warning sign: ad hoc immunizing)

binocular cues

clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes - ex retinal disparity- closer an object is, the greater the difference between the two retinal images

Binocular Cues

clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes; depth cues that require both eyes

monocular cues

clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone - ex motion parallax - objects at different distances move across the retina at different rate -->we are moving on a train - pass light post (fast), pass mountain (slowly)

Monocular Cues

clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone; depth cues that require one eye

Extinction

condition response slowly fading away; in classical conditioning: CS no longer paired with UCS; in operant conditioning: experimenter stops reinforcing; resistance to ______: animal continues to respond after reinforcement is removed

shaping

conditioning a target behavior by progressively reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target

parasympathetic division

conserves energy, promotes house-keeping functions during rest - slowing HR - reducing BP -constricting pupils

Parasympathetic Division

conserves the body's resources (homeostasis - slowing heart rate, reducing blood pressure)

Evolutionary Perspective on Sleep

conserving our energy, staying away from predators; research shows improved ability to recall info, learn a new task and gain inside on problems (Wagner et al: sleeping on a problem)

Reliability

consistency of measurement

reliability

consistency of measurement

Reliability

consistency of measurements

strength of correlation

consistency with which changed in x are associated with changes in y -value between -1 and +1

Forebrain

consists of cerebral cortex and several subcortical structures (underneath the cortex)

Simon and Chabris (1999)

created a test that tells you to count basketballs and see if you notice a gorilla walking by; found that 73% of participants failed to spot the gorilla (Selective Attention Test)

neurogenesis

creation of new neurons in the adult brain

lesion

damage to a part of the brain -usually local, lesions can tell us something about localization of function

Lensions

damage to part of brain tells us something about localization of functions (stroke, tumour, injury)

rapid eye movement (REM)

darting of the eyes underneath closed eyelids during sleep

freud

day residue - proposed people fulfilled wishes in dreams - dream about what happened during the day - people can fill those urges in dreams

Antagonist

decrease receptor site activity & act as fake neurotransmitters

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

decrease the likelihood of neuron firing

Depressants

decreased activity of the CNS, initial high followed by sleepiness, slower thinking, impaired concentration; ex: alcohol, barbiturates, Quaaludes, Valium

existence proof

demonstration that a given psychological phenomenon can occur

Existence proof

demonstration that a given psychological phenomenon can occur (concrete proof)

physical dependence

dependence on a drug that occurs when people continue to take it to avoid withdrawal symptoms

manifest content of dreams

details of the dream itself

sensation

detection of physical energy by sense organs, which then send information to the brain

higher-order conditioning

developing a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus by virtue of its association with another conditioned stimulus

Cerebral Cortex

develops more slowly (outer layer)

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain (uses electrodes attached to the scalp - brainwaves)

Binaural Cues

difference in the loudness of sound arriving in each ear, and difference in the timing of the sound arriving at each ear

Phrenology

different parts of the brain correspond to different aspects of intelligence/personality (ex. bumps on skull means bigger brain)

between-subjects design

different people for level of the IV - drug trail

insomnia

difficulty falling and/ or staying asleep

latent inhibition

difficulty in establishing classical conditioning to a conditioned stimulus we've repeatedly experienced alone, that is, without the unconditioned stimulus

evolutionary psychology

discipline that applies Darwin's theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior

Prefrontal Cortex (frontal lobe)

discision making and planning

Hubel and Wiesel (1962)

discovered feature detector cells-cells in brain that are sensitive to primitive features; research done by implanting wire into visual cortex of cats and showed that their cells are only sensitive to vertical lines (evidence for bottom up processing

Pavlov's Dogs

dogs learned or were conditioned to associate the sound of a tone with food

Optic Ataxia

dorsal damage; where you can not use vision to guide movements

Psychedelics

dramatically altered perception, mood and thoughts, ex: marijuana, LSD, ecstasy

Why do we Dream? (theories of REM)

dreaming as a wish fulfillment; activation - synthesis theory; neurocognitive theory

Dopamine

drive

Antagonist

drug that blocks neurotransmitter activity (poison curare paralyzes by blocking acetylcholine)

sedative

drug that exerts a calming effect

hypnotic

drug that exerts a sleep-inducing effect

stimulant

drug that increases activity in the central nervous system, including heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure

Agonist

drug that mimic neurotransmitter activity (ex. L-DOPA acts like dopamine for Parkinson's pts)

Antagonist

drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters

resting potential

electrical charge difference (-60 millivolts) across the neuronal membrane, when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited

action potential

electrical impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters

Light source

emits electromagnetic radiation that travels as a wave -waves can differ in amplitude and wave length

limbic system

emotional center of brain that also plays roles in smell, motivation, and memory

Early Psychology wanted more ___________

empirical methods (systematic approach ) - interested in insights from other sciences (med) -do we inherit the person we become or are we shaped into the person

Population

entire group about which one wants to make predictions

random selection

every person in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

Filter Metaphor

everything you experience is filtered through and what you concentrate on; looks at what we what to care about

preparedness

evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others owing to their survival value

lucid dreaming

experience of becoming aware that one is dreaming

lucid dreaming

experience of becoming aware that you are dreaming

Lucid Dreaming

experience of dreaming - aware that you are dreaming; opens of possibility of controlling our dreams

near-death experience (NDE)

experience reported by people who've nearly died or thought they were going to die

decline effect

fact that the size of certain psychological findings appears to be shrinking over time

inattentional blindness

failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere

mystical experience

feelings of unity or oneness with the world, often with strong spiritual overtones

Behavioural Genetics

field that aims to 'tease apart' genetic influences on behaviour (nature) from behaviour learned from our environment (nurture)

Ruling out rival hypotheses

find consistent with several hypothesis need research to rule out certain ones - ackwowledge it - take the steps to rule it out

Replicability

findings must be capable of being duplicated

Balwin

first psych lab in Canadian (1891)

cochlea

fluid- filled coiled in the inner ear that contains the receptors for healing

Lens

focuses light rays to fall on retina; flexible/ attached to muscles that adjust shape of lens (if muscles stretch lens = lens becomes flat

What does paying attention mean

focusing selectively on some things while largely ignoring others

classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)

form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response

Free Will vs. Determination

free will- behaviours freely selected - conscious control over behaviours Determinism- behaviours cause by factors outside our control of our control - behaviours are generated automatically ex. rat presses lever to get food is it doing because of freewill or is guided by some other motive

pitch is to

frequency of sound wave

outer ear (pinna)

funnel sound waves to the middle ear

thalamus

gateway from the sense organs to the primary sensory cortex

Griffiths et al : psiloybin study

gave people psiloybin (magic mushrooms) ; 15 months later 58% reported life changing mystical experience

recessive gene

gene that is expressed only in the absence of a dominant gene

dominant gene

gene that masks other genes' effects

whats the disadvantage to. a case study

generalizability - one serial killers reason won't apply to serial killer

Genotype

genetic info inherited from parents

Genotype

genetic information inherited

gene

genetic material composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

placebo effect

getting better just because you expect to get better to fix this- get rid of expectations and don't tell them if they are placebo or the real drug

Placebo Effect

getting better just because you expect to get better (solution: eliminate expectations by making participants blind)

Presbyopia

gradual loss of your eyes' ability to focus on nearby objects (old age)

extinction

gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus

insight

grasping the underlying nature of a problem

scatterplot

grouping of points on a two-dimensional graph in which each dot represents a single person's data

Infant Experiments

habituation; dishabituation; in ______ you can measure heart rate, when measuring the time an infant spends watching a video (since infants are not able to verbally communicate)

Lang et al (1975) : drunk aggression experiment

had 4 male groups drink gin & tonics or just tonics; confederate (person in on the experiment) told to make fun of participants to provoke them - then participants had to deliver shocks; findings: those who expected they drank alcohol delivered stronger shocks (more aggressive)

Tolman (1930s) : Rats in a Maze

had three groups of rats run through a maze once a day; Group A received food reward at the end of maze (they gradually improved); Group B never received a reward (improved very little); Group C received food reward starting on the 11th day (improved rapidly slightly better than Group A)

Pope et al (2001) : Weed Study

had three kinds of users abstain from cannabis use for a month; current users, former users, and controls (smoked no more than 50 times in their life); cognitive tests at day 0,1,7, 28, - controls do better on memory test scores

Seligman's 'Steak Bearnaise' Incident

he happened to have steak with béarnaise sauce the night he got violently ill; his entire workplace got stomach flu but he still could not stand the thought of béarnaise sauce for the next ten years (could be instinctive drift or classical conditioning)

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

latent content

hidden meaning of a dream

latent content of dream

hidden meaning of a dream

the brain can be divided into three parts

hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain hindbrain to forebrain basic to complex automatic to conscious control

variability

how spread out the scores are they also can be shown in a bar graph with a standard error bars (larger braket the more variability)

Random Sampling/ Selection

how you draw the sample of people for your survey (not biased)

Falsifiability

if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong - claims must be capable of being disproved - scientist don't want to invest time into things that can not be proven right or wrong

If a correlation is positive whats happens to x and y

if x increase so does y x decreases so does y - looks like the chart is going up

positron emission tomography (PET)

imaging technique that measures consumption of glucose-like molecules, yielding a picture of neural activity in different regions of the brain

Serotinin

impluse

placebo effect

improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

control group

in an experiment, the group of participants that does not receive the manipulation

Case Study

in dept investigation of a study (advantage - existence proof, disadvantage - generalizability)

suprachiasmatic nucleus

in hypothalamus; regulates the circadian rhythm - biological clock -SCN sends signals to the pineal gland, which increases the production of the hormone melatonin as light decreases

case study

in-depth investigation of an individual subject

color blindness

inability to see some or all colors

afferent nerves

incoming nerves, carry information from sensory receptor in the skin, muscles and joints to the central nervous system - the frog I just touched was cold

Afferent Nerves

incoming, carry info from sensory receptors in skin, muscles and joints to CNS

Agonist

increase receptor site activity & reduce our emotional response to painful stimuli by binding with opioid receptors & mimicking endorphins

Stimulants

increased activity of the CNS; sense of alter ness, well-being, energy; ex: tobacco, cocaine, caffeine, amphetamine

excitatory postsynaptic potential

increases the likelihood it will fire an action potential

top-down processing

influence of context (past experiences) - processing that is driven by beliefs and expectations about how the world is organized

Reinforcer

is something that increases the likelihood that a specific behaviour or response will occur; ex. an event that increases or strengthens the behaviour that follows it (operant conditioning)

brain stem

is the junction where the spinal cord meets the brain -includes the hindbrain and the midbrain -midbrain receives auditory and visual input -helps coordinate reflexive movement

range

is the simplest measure of variability, but can be deceptive

primary reinforcer

item or outcome that naturally increases the target behavior

Psychobabble

jargon used to create impression of truths (implies that writer lacks experience)

Brain Stem

junction where spinal cord meets brain (midbrain/ hindbrain)

Correlation is not Causation

just because two variables correlate strongly does not mean that one caused the other

Reticular Activating System

keeps you alert and awake

dichromatic color blindness

lack function of red or green cones -rarely blue

Broca's area

language area in the prefrontal cortex that helps to control speech production

Response Bias (threshold estimation)

lapses in attention, background noise, blinking, lying can all impact research; solution to ______ is to sometimes deliver a stimulus and sometimes don't

corpus callosum

large band of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

conditioned response (CR)

learned reaction to a CS

Conditioned Response (CR)

learned response to a UCR (in pavlov's experiment: drool); UCR and ____ often the same but do not have to be; ___ are not permanent

obervational learning

learning by observing others - doesn't have to be separates from classical and instrumental conditioning - can be indirectly conditioned by someone else's conditioning

observational learning

learning by watching others

Conditioning

learning connections between behaviours and events; when x happens, I should do y; when I do X, Y happens after

conditioning

learning connections between events and behaviour - ex when X happens, I should do Y - ex when I do X, Y happens after

operant conditioning

learning controlled by the consequences of the organism's behavior

operant conditioning

learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences

Operant Conditioning

learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences; method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behaviour

acquisition

learning phase during which a conditioned response is established

latent learning

learning that's not directly observable

Corpus Callosum

left and right hemispheres of the cortex separated by this

Visual Fields (visual cortex)

left visual field stimulates receptors cells of right side of both eyes then is processed in right hemisphere (vice vera for right visual field)

Biology of Sleep

light info sent from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus; biological clock

Stage 1

light sleep, alpha waves (8-13 Hz) then theta waves (4-7); just dozing off; hypnagogic imagery (flashes of light); mycologic jerks (flail out)

Law of similarity

like things tend to get grouped together -we see rows of dots

Absolute Refractory Period

limits the rate at which a neuron can fire

linear perspective

lines converge in the distance

3 main types of central tendencies

mean median mode

3 measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

reuptake

means of recycling neurotransmitters

descriptive statistics

means of summarizing and organizing data - for an experiment, they describe how it is distributed ex take IQ test of 100 people-- its the summary of the 100 people

Descriptive Statistics

means of summarizing data (describe how scores are distributed)

variability

measure of how loosely or tightly bunched scores are

Variability

measure of how much the scores in a data set differ

Test-retest Reliability

measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals (are they consistent?)

central tendency

measure of the "central" scores in a data set, or where the group tends to cluster

range

measure of variability that consists of the difference between the highest & lowest scores

standard deviation

measure of variability that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean

LaBerge

measured EEG while lucid dreamers counted to 10 while awake and dreaming; interval initiated by eye movements (similar between awake and sleep); chin muscle activity measured

External Validity

measures generalize to real world (ex. watching real workers for an experiment)

what hormone increases after dark

melatonin

cognitive map

mental representation of how a physical space is organized

Why focus selectivity

mental resources are limited -so we make choices about which parts of the environment to process more deeply

Focus Selectively

mental resources are limited, not possible to pay attention to everything which is why you ______

heuristic

mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world

Gambling

most forms of this rely on VR schedule; pigeons; variable ratio

mode

most frequent score in a data set; a measure of central tendency

Gestalt Psychologists (1920s)

most well known for their top down ideas about visual perception; basic idea: we tend to order of experiences that is regular; biased to perceive whole objects rather than parts

frontal lobe

motor cortex prefrontal cortex broca's area A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

CT

multiple x-rays used to construct 3-d image of the brain

What is wavelength measured in?

nanometers 1 nanometers = one billion of a meter

what are the 2 biggest debates in psychology

nature vs nurture and freewill vs determinism

Myopia

nearsightedness cornea too steep or eyes too long can't see far light is focused in front of the retina

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

neurotransmitters that DECREASE the likeihood of the post synaptic neuron

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

neurotransmitters that INCREASE the likeihood of the post synaptic neuron (voluntary movements - acetylcholine in motor neurons)

secondary reinforcer

neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforcer

psychological dependence

non-physiological dependence on a drug that occurs when continued use of the drug is motivated by intense cravings

dependent variable

numbers of responses - resistance to extinction

descriptive statistics

numerical characterizations that describe data

Law of Similarity (gestalt)

objects that are similar tend to be grouped together

partial reinforcement

occasional reinforcement of a behavior, resulting in slower extinction than if the behavior had been reinforced continually

Observational Learning

occurs as a result of observing the experience of others; does not have to be separate from classical/ instrumental conditioning; can be indirectly conditioned by someones conditioning (ex. friend good with sales people)

genotype

our genetic makeup

phenotype

our observable traits

Proprioception

our sense of body position

vestibular sense

our sense of equilibrium or balance

audition

our sense of hearing

olfaction

our sense of smell

gustation

our sense of taste

somatosensory

our sense of touch, temperature, and pain

consciousness

our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental perspectives

reinforcement

outcome or consequence of a behavior that strengthens the probability of the behavior

punishment

outcome or consequence of a behavior that weakens the probability of the behavior

Pinna

outer ear; funnel sound waves to the middle ear

cerebral cortex

outermost part of forebrain, responsible for analyzing sensory processing and higher brain functions

efferent nerves

outgoing nerves, carry motor commands from the central nervous system to muscles - I am going to touch that frog

Efferent Nerves

outgoing, carry motor commands from the central nervous system to the muscles

phantom pain

pain or discomfort felt in an amputated limb

medulla

part of brain stem involved in basic functions, such as heartbeat and breathing

motor cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for body movement

Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire

people differ in their circadian rhythms; chronotype: behavioral manifestation of underlying circadian rhythms of physical processes; _____ shows if you are morning person or evening (teens more 'evening people' adults 'morning people')

Psychoanalysis (Freud)

people possess unconscious thoughts, desires, memories (influences behaviour)

Phenotype

physical characteristics of an organism

Stimulus

physical energy; is 'raw data' about outside world

Motor cortex (frontal lobe)

planning/ coordinating movements

Hippocampus (part of Limbic System)

plays a central role in forming memories

cerebral ventricles

pockets in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which provide the brain with nutrients and cushion against injury

Receiving neuron

postsynaptic neuron

positive reinforcement

presentation of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior

Mineka and Ohman (2002) : fears easily conditioned

presented pictures of 3 types of CS; neutral stimuli - mushroom/ flowers, phobic stimuli - snakes/ spiders, modern fear-relevant stimuli - guns/ knives; CS paired with UCS (electric shock); found that phobic stimuli elicited rapid conditioning, larger fear responses, greater resistance to extinction

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

previously neutral stimulus that evokes a conditioned response (in pavlov's experiment: tone)

law of effect

principle asserting that if a stimulus followed by a behavior results in a reward, the stimulus is more likely to give rise to the behavior in the future

natural selection

principle that organisms that possess adaptations survive and reproduce at a higher rate than do other organisms

random selection

procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

split-brain surgery

procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizures

Behavourism

psychology should only study observation behaviour -should relate behaviours (responses) to events in the environment

Self-report measures

questionnaires and surveys that ask about personality, preferences, opinions and attitudes

REM sleep

random brain activity originating in the hindbrain (internally or externally generated); sent to emotion, memory, and sensory processing centres of the brain (kinda occurs when awake)

Superstition

random reinforcement produces superstitious behaviour; Rafael Nadal has a checklist before every game; Dawkins says that pigeons look over their shoulder in hopes of getting the food

random assignment

randomly sorting participants into two groups

REM

rapid side to side cycle about 4-5 times per night; 90 mins per cycle; _____ sleep gets longer and non-______ sleep gets shorter

frequency theory

rate at which neurons fire the action potential reproduces the pitch, FOR LOW PITCHED SOUNDS up to 100 hz

Reuptake

reabsorption of a neurotransmitter after its performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse

Midbrain

receives auditory and visual input (ex. reflexive movements when hearing loud sound)

cones

receptor cells in the retina allowing us to see in color

rods

receptor cells in the retina allowing us to see in low levels of light

Cones

receptors for daylight, fine detail and colour vision

rods

receptors for night and peripheral vision - stimulation of rods and cones converted to neutral signals that are sent to the brain via the optic nerve -chain reaction where it gets converted to a brain signal

Cons

receptors in retina for daylight, fine detail and colour vision

Rods

receptors in retina for night and peripheral vision

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

recording of the brain's electrical activity at the surface of the skull

Electro-encephalograph (EEG)

records brain activity

Habituation

reduced response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly

habituation

reduced response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly

tolerance

reduction in the effect of a drug as a result of repeated use, requiring users to consume greater quantities to achieve the same effect

Hemispheric Specialization

refers to the control of distinct neurological functions by the right and left hemispheres of the brain

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs, resulting in faster learning but faster extinction than only occasional reinforcement

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

cognitive neuroscience

relatively new field of psychology that examines the relation between brain functioning and thinking

Mueller Lyer Illusion

rely on size cues from previous experience with corners and rooms; lines look the same length on retina but brain assumes that one is further put because it angles out

false positive (false alarm)

report hearing a sound that isn't present

true positive (hit)

report hearing a sound when it is present

Dreams (psychoanalysis)

represents wishes, unconscious desires, and conflicts to uncover emotions

experiment

research design characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable high in internal validity

case study

research design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period

correlational design

research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

basic research

research examining how the mind works

applied research

research examining how we can use basic research to solve real-world problems

stimulus gerneralization

responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established CS

Stimulus Generalization

responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an estimated CS

conditioned response (CR)

response previously associated with a non-neutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning

Challenges to Behaviorism in 1950

reward and punishment depend on how people evaluate things - people criticized - you can't put aside through that lead people's decisions

levels of analysis

rungs on a ladder of analysis, with lower levels tied most closely to biological influences and higher levels tied most closely to social influences

basilar membrane

runs the length of the cochlea, has tiny hairs protruding from it

Basilar Membrane

runs the length of the cochlea; has tiny hairs protruding from it

within-subjects design

same people for each level of the IV

Generalizability

sample represents the performance of larger population under similar conditions

Afterimage

sensation experienced after a stimulus is removed

out-of-body experience (OBE)

sense of consciousness leaving our body

Opiates

sense of euphoria; decreased pain; ex: heroin, morphine, codeine

taste bud

sense receptor in the tongue that responds to sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami, and perhaps fat

Central sulcus (frontal lobe)

separates frontal and parietal lobes

perceptual set

set formed when expectations influence perceptions

pseudoscience

set of claims that seems scientific but isn't

critical thinking

set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion

hypnosis

set of techniques that provides people with suggestions for alterations in their perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Volley theory

sets of neurons fire at highest rate slightly out of sync with each other to reach overall rates of 100-5000 hz

Covergent Validity

several measures converge on the same topic (ex. studying self-esteem, a researcher shows similar constructs, such as self-worth, confidence)

acuity

sharpness of vision

Albert Bandura: Bobo Doll

showed that children imitated adults aggressive behaviour; best conditions for observational learning are those with positive characteristics

Garcia et al. : taste

showed that taste aversions more easily conditioned than others; occurs when an animal associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance; generally, taste aversion is developed after ingestion of food that causes nausea, sickness, or vomiting

Range

simple way to measure variability but can be deceptive

chromosome

slender thread inside a cell's nucleus that carries genes

Stage 3 - 4

slow sleep/ delta wave sleep; deepest stage of sleep; needed to feel refreshed in morning; suppressed by alcohol

stages 3-4 of sleep cycle

slow wave or delta wave sleep -deepest stage of sleep - needed to feel refreshed in the morning -suppressed by alcohol

skinner box

small animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviors to be recorded unsupervised

just noticeable difference (JND)

small difference that can be detected

absolute threshold issue with response bias

solution- sometimes deliver a stimulus, sometimes don't -true positive, false positive, false negative, true negative

Weber's Law

states that JND is a constant proportion of the magnitude of a standard stimulus; lawful relationship between context and detection threshold; ex. in a dark room one candle makes a big difference compared to a bright room

Correlational Coefficient

statistic that indicates whether two variables are related in a systematic way (number is between -1 and +1, relates to direction and strength)

Stage 2

still sensitive to events in the external world; sleep spindles and K-complexes; sudden high frequency burst and single spindle spike in amplitude; heart rate slows; body temp decreases; eye movements crease

Sensation

stimulation of the sense or organs - stimulus (physical energy) is "raw data" about the outside world - received by specialized "receptor" cell in eye, ears, skin, nose and tongue - "raw data" sent to the brain

Sensation

stimulation of the sense organs

binocular depth cues

stimuli that enable us to judge depth using both eyes

monocular depth cues

stimuli that enable us to judge depth using only one eye

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits an automatic response

Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that evokes an automatic response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that evokes an automatic response (in pavlov's experiment: the food b/c the dog does not need to learn that it needs food)

discriminative stimulus

stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement

Synaptic Plasticity

strengthening of existing synaptic connections (potentiation)

basal ganglia

structures in the forebrain that help to control movement

prefrontal lobotomy

surgical procedure that severs fibers connecting the frontal lobes of the brain from the underlying thalamus

which mode of thinking relies on heuristics

system 1: intuitive thinking

endocrine system

system of glands and hormones that controls secretion of blood-borne chemical messengers

Science vs. Intuition

systematic approach to evidence vs. understanding immediately without conscious reasoning

axon

tail- like part of a neuron that sends information to other neurons

Axons

tail-like fibres of neuron that SENDS info

parallel processing

the ability to attend to many sense modalities simultaneously

manifest content

the actual plot of the dream - what happened

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Dichotic Listenting

the auditory process that involves listening with both ears; to test: wear headphones and and listening to the words you hear in each ear (may be told to focus on one ear and shadow - repeat what you hear)

standard deviation

the average amount that an individual data point differs from the mean

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

illusory correlation

the belief that 2 variables are correlated when they in fact they are not -maybe confirmation bias -maybe trying to find meaning in chaotic world ex. seeing weird thing happen because you are aware and waiting for something weird to happen

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience -brain is constantly changing 1. unique experience can change brain structure -ex brain controlling left hand in violinist is bigger 2. areas of the brain can be repurposed -auditory cortex for deaf individuals is used for touch and vision

perception

the brain's interpretation of raw sensory inputs

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the automatic nervous system engaged during a crisis or after actions actions requiring flight or flight

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

consciousness

the feeling of what it's like to subjectively experience something - feel cold (thought goes into head-> grab coat) - level of awareness

Consciousness

the feeling of what it's like to subjectively experience something (ex: feeling cold); awareness of internal and external events

webber's law

the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity

Just noticeable difference (JND)

the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected; can present people with pairs of light to find JND; not easy tho since threshold depends on context

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus - people won't be able to see it till they can

Perception

the organization and interpretations of sensations; brain makes sense of raw data and is influenced by knowledge of world, expectations, context etc

reticular activating system

the part of the brain that is involved in attention, sleep, and arousal

Concordance

the probability that a pair of individuals will both have a certain characteristic, given that one of the pair has the characteristic (inherited trait)

perceptual constancy

the process by which we perceive stimuli consistently across varied conditions

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

psychology

the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior

just noticeable difference (JND)

the smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect

Levels

the specific values that the experimenter chooses for a factor (in drug experiment - two levels: placebo and real drug)

cognitive neuroscience

the study between mind and brain -EEG -MRI

psychophysics

the study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics

patternicity

the tendency to perceive meaningful patterns in their absence

Computerized Tomography (CT)

the use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a "slice" through the body

cerebral cortex

the wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain and several subcortical structures -newest part developed slowly

terror management theory

theory proposing that our awareness of our death leaves us with an underlying sense of terror with which we cope by adopting reassuring cultural worldviews

signal detection theory

theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions

neurocognitive theory

theory that dreams are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about

activation-synthesis theory

theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story

Carpentered World Hypothesis

theory to Muller Illusion; groups exposed to rectangular environments should be more susceptible to size‐depth geometric illusions; ex. study shows American children are more susceptible than children

past life regression therapy

therapeutic approach that uses hypnosis to supposedly age-regress patients to a previous life to identify the source of a present-day problem

Free Association (psychoanalysis)

therapist asks person to freely share thoughts, words/anything that come to mind to release repressed emotions

Weber's Law

there is a constant proportional relationship between the JND and original stimulus intensity

Vibrations

these are sent from middle ear bones are creates wave of fluid that travels along cochlea; waves then stimulate hair cells; the stimulation is converted to neural signals and sent to the Brian

Extraordinary Claims

these are unprecedented, counter-intuitive claims that need lots of support (crazyyy theories, out of the worldddd theories)

People with Mystical Experiences

these people claim to have a sense of unity of oneness with the world, transcendence of space/ time, feelings of wonder and awe

Stage 1 of sleep cycle

theta waves - just dozing off - hypnagogic imagery - myclonic jerks - you are not aware if you are asleep or awake

Pilcher & Walters

they randomly assigned student to sleep-deprived and normal-sleep groups; cognitive tests were analyzed on how well they were able to concentrate the next day

spinal cord

thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and the body

law of proximity

things that are close together are grouped together

Law of Proximity (gestalt)

things that are close together get grouped together

variables

things that can be measured that can take on different values -eye colour - height - salary

Variables

things to be measured that can take on different values (ex. height, salary, eye colour)

trichromatic theory of color vision

three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different wavelengths - short = blue - medium = green - long = red - perceptions of colours in the brain depends on activation levels of each repetors

absolute refractory period

time during which another action potential is impossible; limits maximal firing rate

dark adaptation

time in dark before rods regain maximum light sensitivity

Organ of Corti

tissue containing the hair cells necessary for hearing

retina

tissue lining the inside back of the eye that contains receptors for seeing

Retina

tissue lining the inside of the back of the eye that contains the receptors for seeing

adrenal gland

tissue located on top of the kidneys that releases adrenaline and cortisol during states of emotional arousal

Hypnosis (psychoanalysis)

trancelike mental state where people expressed increased attention, concentration, and suggestibility to uncover repressed emotions

indentical twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms 100% of genes shared

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. 50% of gene shared

cerebral hemispheres

two halves of the cerebral cortex, each of which serve distinct yet highly integrated functions

Fixed-ratio Schedule (FR)

type of partial reinforcement that offers a set number of non-reinforced variables (produce more rapid responding than interval schedules)

Fixed-interval Schedule (FI)

type of partial reinforcement: reinforcement after a set amount of time (tend to pause after each reinforcement)

Variable-interval Schedule (VI)

type of partial reinforcement: reinforcement after a variable amount of time (tend to be more resistant to extinction than fixed schedules)

Variable-ratio Schedule (VR)

type of partial reinforcement: when reinforcement occurs after a variable number of non-reinforced variables

blind

unaware of whether one is in the experimental or control group

Libet's Free Will Experiment

unconscious brain activity before people reported conscious intention to make a decision

Miligram Experiment

unethical experiment which made participants administer electrical shocks when other person answers wrong

experimenter expectancy effect

unintentionally act in ways that influence experimental results so we get results consistent with our exceptions - confirmation bias ex. old people's words and normal unscramble- walk down the hall and time it. - solution- do a double-blind procedure: the experimenter nor the participants know what group they are in--> you won't be able maniptu

Control Condition of Beauregard's Mystical Experience study

union with humans did look different when reliving mystical experience; activity in 12 brain areas was specific to mystical experience

withdrawal

unpleasant effects of reducing or stopping consumption of a drug that users had consumed habitually

inferential statics

used law of probability to interpret data and draw conclusions - way of deciding whether there are fewer than 5 chances in 100 that your data are due to chance

Inferential Statistics

used laws of probability to interpret data and draw conclusions

Scientific Theory

used to generate predictions (hypotheses) about how aspects of the world work

Electro-encephalogram (EEG)

useful in studying normal brain functions such as sleep and consciousness; records brain activity; groups of neurons tend to fire at same rate/time - ____ not sensitive enough to pick up on individual neurons

Over-reliance on anecdotes

using personal experiences or an isolated example instead of compelling arguments (weight lose ads)

independent variable

variable that an experimenter manipulates

dependent variable

variable that an experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation produces an effect

independent variable

variable that is manipulated by the experimenter - the actual values are often called levels -ex group one takes 1 daily and the other group takes to a daily and one group take a placebo

Mystical Experiences

variation in consciousness that doest have to have a circadian rhythm; once in a life time experience in consciousness; can have lasting/ lifelong expressions

individual differences

variations among people in their thinking, emotion, personality, and behavior

Visual Agnosia

ventral damage; inability to recognize objects

Muller-Lyer Illusion

vertical lines are the same length

struck tuning fork

vibration is a succession of compression (squishing together) and rarefaction (stretching apart) of the air molecules surrounding the tines of the tuning fork - air molecules are disturbed by the tuning fork

Struck Tuning Fork

vibration is a succession of compressions (squishing together); then rarefactions occur as waves stretching apart of the air molecules surrounding the tines of the tuning fork

middle ear

vibration of the eardrum amplified by 3 tiny bones

inner ear

vibrations converted to neural signals in the cochlea

ventral stream

what -perception pathway -identfing a water bottle

Dependant Variable

what is being measured to determine how much effect Independent Variable has (outcome variable)

Functionalism

what is the purpose of mental experience -purpose in a darwinian sense (animals adapt and natural selection) -Example: how did having thing like memory and language help our early ancestors survive and produce offspring

Structuralism

what is the structure of mental experiences

Dependent Varible (DV)

what the research measure to determine how much effects the IV - you can have more then one IV and then one DV - outcome variable rating between 1-10

replicability

when a study's findings are able to be duplicated, ideally by independent investigators

instinctive drift

when innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning - shows that behaviour is not all learned (nurture) some is innate (nature)

Instinctive Drift

when innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning; shows that behaviours are not all learned (nurture), some are innate (nature)

double-blind

when neither researchers nor participants are aware of who's in the experimental or control group

demand characteristics

when participants guess what the study is supposed to be about and change their behavior in the expected direction Solution: cover story for the purpose of deception; includes "distractions" from your point of interest ex. people climbing up the stairs with rocks in bag and is asked how long they thought it took to get up

Demand Characteristics

when participants guess what the study is supposed to be about and change their behaviour to fit in with the study (solution: use deception to distract them from purpose of study)

Statistical Significance

when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low

Double Dissociation

when two related mental processes are shown to function independently of each other; this shown in brain-damage patients

Confounding variables

when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects -length - material -thickness

Dorsal stream

where - action pathway - where our arm is in space

central tendency

where the peak is

Central Tendency

where the peak is (also refers to mean, median, mode)

Synapse

where the terminal button meets the dendrites of another neuron -they don't actually touch

steak bearnaise

you eat food feel sick - the flu or food poising don't like the food anymore

lack of self correction

• Never adjust claims when contrary evidence is published unlike science which weeks out incorrect claims eventually. Proponents cling to claims stubbornly - astrology: didn't update the chart when new planets were discovered