Chapter 13: Reformation and Religious Warfare in the 16th Century

1)Edward VI and 2)"Bloody Mary"

1) *After Henry VIII (England) passed away, Henry's sickly son that he had with his third wife, ... (1547-1555) rose to power. Because ... was only nine years old at the time of his accession to throne, the real control to England passed to a council of regency. During ... reign, Archbishop Cranmer and other inclined toward Protestant doctrines were able to move the Church of England in a more Protestant direction.* New acts of Parliament instituted the right of the clergy to marry, the elimination of images, and the creation of a revised Protestant liturgy that was elaborated in a new prayer book and liturgical guide known as the Book of Common Prayer. These rapid changes in doctrine and liturgy aroused much opposition and prepared the way for reaction that occurred when Mary, Henry's first daughter by Catherine of Aragon, came to the throne. 2)This woman (1553-1558) was a Catholic who fully intended to restore England to the Roman Catholic fold. But her restoration of Catholicism, achieved by the joint action of the monarch and Parliament, aroused opposition. There was widespread antipathy to ... unfortunate marriage to Philip II, son of Charles V and the future king of Spain. Philip was strongly disliked in England, and ... foreign policy of alliance with Spain aroused further hostility, especially in France after the Hundred Years' War. The burning of more than three hundred Protestant heretics aroused further ire against ... As a result of her policies, ... managed to achieve the opposite of what she had intended: England was more Protestant by the end of her reign than it had been at the beginning. When she came to power, Protestantism had become identified with the church destruction and religious anarchy. Now people identified it with English resistance to Spanish interference. This woman's death in 1558 ended the restoration of Catholicism in England.

1)Huguenots and 2)Saint Bartholomew's Day

1) Religion was the engine that drove the French civil wars of the sixteenth century. Concerned by the growth of Calvinism, the French tried to stop its spread by persecuting Calvinists but had little success. ..., as the French Calvinists were called, came from all levels of society: artisans and shopkeepers hurt by rising prices and a rigid guild system, merchants and lawyers in provincial towns whose local privileges were tenuous, and members of the nobility. Possibly 40 to 50 percent of the French nobility became ..., including the house of Bourbon, which stood next to the Valois in the royal line of succession and ruled the southern French kingdom of Navarre. The conversion of so many nobles made the ... a potentially dangerous political threat to monarchial power. Though the Calvinists constituted only about 10 percent of the population, they were a strong-willed and well-organized minority. 2)The wars erupted in 1562 when the powerful duke of Guise massacred a peaceful congregation of ...1) at Vassy. In the decade of the 1560s, the ...1) held their own. Though to small a group to conquer France, their armies were so good at defensive campaigns that they would not be defeated either, despite the infamous ...2) massacre. The massacre of ...1) in August 1572 occurred at a time when the Catholic and Calvinists parties had apparently been reconciled through the marriage of the sister of the reigning Valois king, Charles IX and Henry of Navarre, the Bourbon rule of Navarre.

Book of Common Prayer

After Henry VIII (England) passed away, the son of his third wife, Edward VI (1547-1555) rose to power. Because Edward was only nine years old at the time of his accession to throne, the real control to England passed to a council of regency. During Edward's reign, Archbishop Cranmer and other inclined toward Protestant doctrines were able to move the Church of England in a more Protestant direction. *New acts of Parliament instituted the right of the clergy to marry, the elimination of images, and the creation of a revised Protestant liturgy that was elaborated in a new prayer book and liturgical guide known as the ... These rapid changes in doctrine and liturgy aroused much opposition and prepared the way for reaction that occurred when Mary, Henry's first daughter by Catherine of Aragon, came to the throne.*

Elizabeth I of England

After the death of Queen Mary in 1558, her half-sister ...(1558-1603) ascended the throne of England. During ... reign, England rose to prominence as the relatively small island kingdom became the leader of the Protestant nations of Europe, laid the foundations for a world empire, and experienced a cultural renaissance. The daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, ... had had a very difficult early life. During Mary's reign, she had been imprisoned for a while and learned early to hide her true feelings from both private and public sight. Intelligent, cautious, and self confident, she moved quickly to solve the difficult religious problem she had inherited from Mary, who had become extremely unpopulated when she tried to return England to the Catholic fold. ... religious policy was based on moderation and compromise. One of ... greatest challenges came from her Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was next in line for the English throne. Mary was ousted from Scotland by rebellious Calvinists in 1568 and fled for her life in England. There ... placed her under house arrest and for fourteen years tolerated her involvement in a number of ill-planned Catholic plots to kill Elizabeth and replace her on the throne with the Catholic Mary. Finally, in 1587, after Mary became embroiled in a far more serious plot, ... had her cousin beheaded to end the threats to her regime.

Spanish Armada

After years of resisting the idea of invading England as impractical, Philip Ii of Spain was finally persuaded to do so by advisors who assured him that the people of England would rise against their queen when the Spaniards arrived. Moreover, Philip was easily convinced that the revolt in the Netherlands would never be crushed as long as England provided support for it. In any case, a successful invasion of England would mean the overthrow of heresy and the return of England to Catholicism, surely an act in accordance with the will of God. Accordingly, Philip ordered preparations for a fleet of warships that would rendezvous with the army of the duke of Parma in Flanders and escort his troops across the English Channel for the invasion. The ... proved to be a disaster. The Spanish fleet that had finally set sail had neither the ships nor the troops that King Philip II had planned to send. Philip was under the impression that God would aid them in their battle and sailed across the English Channel in hopes for a miracle to occur. The hope-for miracle never materialized. The Spanish fleet battered by a number of encounters with the English, sailed back to Spain by a northward route around Scotland and Ireland. Although the English and Spanish would continue their war for another sixteen years, the defeat of the ... guaranteed for the time being that England would remain a Protestant country.

Christian Humanism

Also known as Northern Renaissance humanism. Like their Italian counterparts,... cultivated a knowledge of the classics. In returning to the writings of antiquity, northern humanist focused on the sources of early Christianity, Holy Scriptures and the writings of such church fathers as Augustine, Ambrose, and Jerome. In these early Christian writings, they discovered a simple religion that they came to feel had been distorted by the complicated theological arguments of the Middle Ages. The most important characteristics of northern humanism was its reform program. Convinced of the ability of human beings to reason and improve themselves, the humanists felt that through education in the sources of Classical, and especially Christian, antiquity, they could instill a true inner piety or an inward religious feeling that would bring about a reform of the church and society. For this reason humanists supported schools, brought out new editions of classics, and prepared new editions of the Bible and writings of the church fathers. These humanists believed that to change society, they must first change the human beings that compose it.

Peace of Augsburg

An end to religious warfare in Germany came in 1555 with the ... which marked an important turning point in the history of the Reformation. The division of Christianity was formally acknowledged, with Lutheranism granted equal legal standing with Catholicism. Moreover, the peace settlement accepted the right of each German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects (but not the right of the subjects to choose their religion). Charles V's (of Spain) hope for a united empire had been completely dashed, and the ideal of medieval Christian unity was irretrievably lost.

Francis Xavier

Another prominent Jesuit activity was the propagation of the Catholic faith among non-Christians. This man (1506-1552), one of the original members of the Society of Jesus, carried the message of Catholic Christianity to the East. After converting tens of thousands in India, he traveled to Malacca and the Moluccas before reaching Japan in 1549. He spoke highly of the Japanese: "They are a people of excellent morals - good in general and not malicious." Thousands of Japanese, especially in the southernmost islands, became Christians. In 1552, ... set out for China but died of fever before he reached the mainland.

Marburg Colloquy

By 1528, Zwingli's reform movement faced a serious political problem as the forest cantons remained staunchly Catholic. Zurich feared that they would ally with the Habsburgs. To counteract this danger, Zwingli attempted to build a league of evangelical cities by seeking an agreement with Luther and the German reformers. An alliance between them seemed possible, since the Reformation had spread to the southern German cities, especially Strasbourg, where a moderate reform movement containing characteristics both Luther's and Zwingli's movements had been instituted by Martin Bucer (1491-1551). Both the German and the Swiss reformers realized the need for unity to defend against imperial and conservative opposition. Protestant political leaders, especially Landgrave Philip of Hesse, fearful that Charles V would take advantage of the division between reformers, attempted to promote an alliance of the Swiss and German reformed churches by persuading the leaders of both groups to attend a conference at Marburg to resolve their differences. Able to agree on virtually everything else, the gathering splintered over the interpretation of the Lord's Supper. Zwingly believed that the scriptural words "This is my body" and "This is my blood" should be taken symbolically, not literally. To Zwingli, the Lord's Supper was only a meal of remembrance, and he refused to accept Luther's insistence on the real presence of the body and blood of Jesus "in, with, and under the bread and wine." The ... of 1529 produced no agreement and no evangelical alliance. It was a foretaste of the issues that would divide one reform group from another and lead to the creation of different Protestant groups.

Catholic Reformation

By the mid-sixteenth century, Lutheranism had become established in parts of Germany and Scandinavia, and Calvinism in parts of Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, and Eastern Europe. In England, the split from Rome had resulted in the creation of a national church. The situation in Europe did not look favorable for Roman Catholicism. But constructive, positive forces for reform were at work within the Catholic Church, and by the mid-sixteenth century, they came to be directed by a revived and reformed papacy, giving the church new strength. The revival of Roman Catholicism is often called the ... although some historians prefer the term Counter-Reformation, especially for those elements of the ... that were directly aimed at stopping the spread of Protestantism. Eventually, in the course of the ... the Catholic Reformation, the Catholic Church reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings and practices while rejecting the principles and practices advocated by the Protestant reformers.

Henry VIII's Wives

Catherine of Aragon was divorced by this man because she had failed to produce a male heir. ... fell in love with Ann Boleyn and he relied on Pope Clement to annul his marriage and was willing to convert religions to do so. Ann was beheaded after ... tired of her on the charge of adultery. Next he married Jane Seymour who died twelve days after producing ... with a male heir. Then he married Anne of Cleves, a German princess, but divorced her after seeing her in person. After he married Catherine Howard, who he had beheaded after she committed adultery. Lastly he married Catherine Parr who outlived him.

Salvation by Faith

Catholic doctrine has emphasized that both faith and good works were required for a Christian to achieve personal salvation. But Martin Luther disagreed and came up with the idea of ... was the belief that humans are saved not through their good works but through faith in the promises of God, made possible by the sacrifices of Jesus on the cross. This doctrine of salvation or justification by grace through faith alone became the primary doctrine of the Protestant Reformation.

1)Pluralism and 2)Absenteeism

Corruption in the Catholic Church was another factor that spurred people to want reform. No doubt the failure of the Renaissance paper to provide spiritual leadership had affected the life of all Christendom. The papal court's preoccupation with finances had an especially strong impact on the clergy. So did the economic changes of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The highest positions among the clergy were increasingly held by either nobles or the wealthy members of the bourgeoisie. Moreover, to increase their revenues, high church officials (bishops, archbishop, and cardinals) took over more than one church office. This so called ...1) led in turn to ...2): church officeholders ignored their duties and hired underlings who sometimes lacked the proper qualifications. Complaints about the ignorance and ineptness of parish priests became widespread in the fifteenth century.

The Battle of Lepanto

Driven by a heritage crusading fervor, the Spanish had little difficulty seeing themselves as a nation of people divinely chose to save Catholic Christianity from the Protestant heretics. Philip II, the "Most Catholic King," became the champion of Catholicism throughout Europe, a role that led to spectacular victories and equally spectacular defeats for the Spanish king. Spain's leadership of a holy league against Turkish encroachments in the Mediterranean, especially the Muslim attack on the island of Cyprus, resulted in a stunning victory over the Turkish fleet in the ... in 1571. Philip's greatest misfortunes came from his attempt to crush the revolt in the Netherlands and his tortured relations with Queen Elizabeth of England.

The Edict of Worms

Emperor Charles was outraged at Martin Luther's audacity and gave his opinion that "a single friar who goes counter to all Christianity for a thousand years must be wrong." By the ... Martin Luther was made an outlaw within the empire. His works were to be burned, and Luther himself was to be captured and delivered to the emperor. Instead, Luther's prince, the Elector of Saxony, sent him into hiding at the Wartburg Castle, where he remained for nearly a year.

1)Johann Tetzel and 2)Indulgences

In 1517 , Pope Leo X had issued a special jubilee ...2) to finance the ongoing construction of Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome. ...1) a rambunctious Dominican, hawked the ...2) in Germany with the slogan "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the should from purgatory springs. ...2) were a free pass to sin sold by the Roman Catholic Church. ...2) also had the ability to lessen or remove the amount of time a deceased relative spent in purgatory.

Charles V

In 1519, Charles I, king of Spain and grandson of Emperor Maximilian, was elected Holy Emperor as ... and ruled over and immense empire, consisting of Spain and its overseas possessions, the traditional Austrian Habsburg lands, Bohemia, Hungary, the Low Countries and the kingdom of Naples in southern Italy. The extent of his possessions was reflected in the languages he used: "I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse." Politically, ... wanted to maintain his dynasty's control over his enormous empire; religiously, he hoped to preserve the unity of the Catholic faith throughout his empire. Despite ... strengths, his empire was overextended, and he spent a lifetime in futile pursuit of his goals. Four major problems- the French, the papacy, the Turks, and Germany's internal situation- cost him both his dreams and his health. At the same time, the emperor's problems gave Luther's movement time to grow and organize before facing the concerted onslaught of the Catholic forces.

Act of Supremacy

In 1534, Parliament completed the break of the Church of England with Rome by passing the ... which declared that the king was "taken, accepted, and reputed the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England." This meant that the England monarch now controlled the church in all matters of doctrine, clerical appointments, and discipline. In addition, Parliament passed the Treason Act, making it punishable by death to deny that the king was the supreme head of the church.

Council of Trent

In 1542, Pope Paul III took the decisive step of calling for a general council of Christendom to resolve religious differences created by the Protestant revolt. It was not until March 1545, however, that a group of cardinals, archbishops, bishops, abbots, and theologians met in the city of Trent on the border between Germany and Italy and initiated the ... But a variety of problems, including an outbreak of plague, war between France and Spain, and the changing of popes, prevented the council from holding regular annual meetings. Nevertheless, the ... met intermittently in three major sessions between 1545 and 1563. Moderate Catholic reformers hoped that comprises would be made in in formulating doctrinal definitions that would encourage Protestants to return to church. Conservatives, however, favored an uncompromising restatement of Catholic doctrines in strict opposition to Protestant positions. After a struggle, the latter group won. The final doctrinal decrees of the ... reaffirmed Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant beliefs. Scripture and tradition were affirmed as equal authorities in religious matters; only the church could interpret scripture. Both faith and good works were declared necessary for salvation. The seven sacraments, the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, and clerical celibacy were all upheld. Belief in purgatory and in the efficacy of indulgences was affirmed, although the hawking of indulgences was prohibited. Of the reform decrees that were passed, the most important theological seminaries in every diocese for the training of priests. After the ..., the Roman Catholic Church possessed a clear body of doctrine and a unified church under the acknowledged supremacy of the popes, who had triumphed over bishops and councils. The Roman Catholic Church had become on denomination among many with an organizational framework and doctrinal pattern that would not be significantly altered for four hundred years.

Puritans

In addition to abolishing saints' days and religious carnivals, some Protestant reformers even tried to eliminate customary forms of entertainment. The ... (as English Calvinists were called), attempted to ban drinking in taverns, dramatic performances, and dancing. Dutch Calvinists denounced the tradition of giving small presents to children on the feast of Saint Nicholas, in early December. Many of these Protestant attacks on popular culture were unsuccessful, however. The importance of taverns in English social life made it impossible to eradicate them, and celebrating at Christmas time persisted in the Dutch Netherlands.

Anabaptists, Munster

In the 1530s, the city of Münster, in Westphalia in northwestern Germany near the Dutch border, was the site of an Anabaptist uprising that determined the fate of Dutch Anabaptist. Seat of a powerful Catholic prince bishop, Münster had experienced sever economic disasters, include crop failure and plague. Although converted to Lutheranism in 1532, Münster experienced a more radical mass religious hysteria that led to legal recognition for the Anabaptists. Soon Münster became a safe haven for Anabaptists from the surrounding neighborhood, especially the more wide eyed variety known as Melchiorites, who adhered to a vivid millenarianism. By the end of February 1534, these millenarian Anabaptists had taken control of the city, driven out everyone they considered godless or unbelievers, burned all books except the Bible, and proclaimed communal ownership of all property. Eventually, the leadership of this New Jerusalem fell into the hands of one man, John Leiden, who proclaimed himself king of the New Jerusalem. As king, he would lead the elect from Münster out to cover the entire world and purify it of evil by the sword in preparation from Jesus's Second Coming and the creation of a New Age. In this new kingdom, John of Leiden believed, all goods would be held in common and the saints would live without suffering. But it was not to be. As the Catholic prince bishop of Münster gathered a large force and laid siege to the city, the new king repeatedly had to postpone the ushering forth from Münster. Finally, after many inhabitants had starved, a joint army of Catholics and Lutherans recaptured the city in June 1535 and executed the radical Anabaptist leaders in gruesome fashion. The New Jerusalem had ceased to exist.

The Peasants' War

Luther's greatest challenge in the mid 1529s, however, came from the ... Peasant dissatisfaction in Germany stemmed from several sources. Many peasants had not been touched by the gradual economic improvement of the early sixteenth century. In some areas, especially southwestern Germany, influential local lords continued to abuse their peasants and new demands for taxes and other services caused them to return for a wish to "the good old days". Social discontent soon became entangled with religious revolt as peasants looked to Martin Luther, believing that he would support them. It was not Luther, however, but one of his ex followers, the radical Thomas Müntzer, himself a pastor, who enflamed the peasants against their rulers with his fiery language: "Strike while the iron is hot!" Revolt first erupted in southwestern Germany in June 1524 and spread northward and eastward. Luther reacted quickly and vehemently against the peasants. In his pamphlet "Against the Robbing and Murderous Hordes of Peasants", he called on the German princes to "smite, slay, and stab" the stupid and stubborn peasantry. Luther, who knew how much his reformation of the church depended on the full support of the German princes and magistrates, supported the rulers, although he also blamed them for helping to cause the rebellion by their earlier harsh treatment of the peasants. To Luther, the state and its leaders were ordained by God and given the authority to maintain the peace and order necessary for the spread of the Gospel. It was the duty the princes to put down all revolts. By May 1525, the German princes had ruthlessly suppressed the peasant hordes. By this time, Luther found himself ever more dependent on state authorities for the growth and maintenance of his reformed church.

Ninety-Five Theses

Martin Luther was greatly distressed by the sale of indulgences, certain that people who relied on these pieces of paper to assure themselves salvation were guaranteeing their internal damnation instead. Angered, he issued his ... His theses were a stunning indictment of the abuses in the sale of indulgences. To Luther, they were simply a response to what he considered Johann Tetzel's blatant abuses in selling indulgences. Thousands of copies of a German translation of the ... were quickly printed and were received sympathetically in a Germany that had a long tradition of dissatisfaction with papal policies and power.

Jesuits

Of all the new religious orders, the most important was the Society of Jesus, known as the ..., who became the chief instrument of the Catholic Reformation. The Society of Jesus was founded by a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), whose injuries in battle cut short his military career. Loyola gathered together a small group of individuals who were eventually recognized as a religious order, the Society of Jesus, by a papal bull in 1540. The new order was grounded on the principles of absolute obedience to the papacy, a strict hierarchal order for the society, the use of education to achieve its goals, and a dedication to engage in "conflict for God." The ... organization came to resemble the structure of a military command. A two year novitiate weeded out all but the most dedicated adherents. Executive leadership was put in the hands of a general, who nominated all-important positions in the order and was to be revered as the absolute head of the order. Loyola served as the first general of the order until his death in 1556. A special vow of absolute obedience to the pope made the ... an important instrument for papal authority. The ... pursued three major activities. They established highly disciplined schools, borrowing freely from humanists schools for their education methods. To the ..., the thorough education of young people was crucial to combating the advance of Protestantism. Another prominent ... activity was the propagation of the Catholic faith among non-Christians. The ... were also determined to carry the Catholic banner and fight Protestantism. ... missionaries succeeded in restoring Catholicism to parts of Germany and Eastern Europe. Members included Francis Xavier, responsible for the conversion of multiple Japanese, and Matteo Ricci, responsible for the conversion of multiple Chinese.

John Calvin

Of the second generation of Protestant reformers, one stands out as the systematic theologian and organizer of the Protestant movement - ... (1509-1564). This man received a remarkably diverse education in humanistic studies and law in his Native France. He was also influenced by Luther's writings, which were being circulated and read by French intellectuals as early as 1523. In 1533, ... experienced a religious crisis that determined the rest of his life's work. This man's conversion was solemn and straightforward. He was so convinced of the inner guidance of God that he became the most determined of all the Protestant reformers. After his conversion and newfound conviction, ... was no longer safe in Paris, since King Francis I periodically persecuted Protestants. Eventually, ... made his way to Basel, where in 1536 he published the first edition of the "Institutes of the Christian Religion", a masterful synthesis of Protestant thought that immediately secured his reputation as one of the new leaders of Protestantism. On most important doctrines, ... stood very close to Luther.e adhered to the doctrine of justification by faith alone to explain how humans achieved salvation. ... also placed much emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God or the "power, grace, and glory of God." One of the ideas derived from his emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God - predestination - gave a unique cast to ... teachings, although Luther too believed in this principle. To ..., the church was a divine institution responsible for preaching the word of God and administering the sacraments. This man achieved a major success in 1541 when the city council accepted his new church constitution, known as the Ecclesiastical Ordinances. This document created a church government that used both clergy and laymen in service of the church.

Transubstantiation

Regarding the Lord's Supper, Luther denied the Catholic doctrine of ... which taught that the substance off the bread and wine consumed in rite is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Jesus. Yet he continued to insist on the real presence of Jesus' body and blood in the bread and wine given as a testament to God's forgiveness of sin.

The Protestant Minister and Family

Since the Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy had been scrapped, Luther came to rely on the princes or state authorities to organize and guide the new Lutheran reformed churches. He had little choice. Secular authorities in Germany as elsewhere, were soon playing an important role in church affairs. By 1530, in the German states that had converted to Lutheranism, both princes and city councils appointed officials who visited churches in their territories and regulated matters of worship. The Lutheran churches in Germany (and later in Scandinavia) quickly became territorial or state churches in which the state supervised and disciplines church members. As part of the development of these state-dominated churches, Luther also instituted new religious services to replace the Mass. These featured a worship service consisting of a vernacular liturgy that focused on Bible reading, preaching the word of God, and song. Following his own denunciation of clerical celibacy, Luther married a former nun, Katherina von Bora, in 1525. His union provided a model of married and family life for the new Protestant minister. The traditional role of husbands was to be the ruler and the wife was to be the obedient servant whose chief duty was to please her husband. (not sure about this definition at all)

The Sacraments

The ... were a Catholic's chief means of receiving God's grace. These included marriage, baptism and confession.

Saint Teresa of Avila

The Catholic Reformation revived the best features of medieval Catholicism and then adjusted them to meet new conditions, as is most apparent in the revival of mysticism and monasticism. The emergence of a new mysticism, closely tied to the traditions of Catholic piety, was especially evident in the life of the Spanish mystic ... (1515-1582). A nun of the Carmelite order, ... experienced a variety of mystical visions that she claimed resulted in the ecstatic union of her soul with God. But ... also believed that mystical experience should lead to an active life of service on behalf of her Catholic faith. Consequently, she founded a new order of barefoot Carmelite nuns and worked to foster their mystical experiences.

Protestant Education

The Reformation had an important effect on the development of Education in Europe. Renaissance humanism had significantly altered the content of education, and Protestant educators were very successful in implementing and using humanist methods in Protestant secondary schools and universities. Unlike the humanist schools, however, which had mostly been for an elite, the sons and a few daughters of the nobility and wealthier bourgeoisie, Protestant schools were aimed at a much wider audience. Protestantism created an increased need for at least a semiliterate body of believers who could read the Bible. While adopting the Classical emphasis of humanist schools, Protestant reformers broadened the base of the people being educated. Convinced of the need to provide the church with good Christians and good pastors as well as the state with good administrators and citizens, Martin Luther advocated that all children should have the opportunity of an education provided by the state. To that end, he urged the cities and villages of Saxony to establish schools paid for by the public. Luther's ideas were shared by his Wittenberg coworker Philip Melanchthon, whose education effort earned him the title Praeceptor Germaniae, the Teacher of Germany. In his scheme for education in Germany, Melanchthon divided students into three classes or divisions based on their age and capabilities. Following Melanchthon's example, the Protestants in Germany were responsible for introducing the gymnasium, or secondary school, where the humanist emphasis on the liberal arts based on instruction in Greek and Latin was combined with religious instruction. Most famous was the school in Strasbourg founded by Johannes Sturm in 1538, which served as a model for other schools. John Calvin's Genevan Academy, founded in 1559, was organized in two distinct parts. The "private school" or gymnasium was divided into seven classes for young people who were taught Latin and Greek grammar and literature as well as logic. In the "public school," students were taught philosophy, Hebrew, Greek, and theology. The Genevan Academy, which eventually became a university, came to concentrate on preparing ministers to spread the Calvinist view on the Gospel.

Ignatius Loyola

The Society of Jesus was founded by a Spanish nobleman, ... (1491-1556), whose injuries in battle cut short his military career. This man experienced a spiritual torment similar to Luther's but, unlike Luther, resolved his problems not by a new doctrine but by decision to submit his will to the will of the church. Unable to be a real soldier, he vowed to be a soldier of God. Over a period of twelve years, ... prepared for his life of prayer, pilgrimages, going to school, and working out a spiritual program in his brief but powerful book, The Spiritual Exercises. This was a training manual for spiritual development emphasizing exercises by which the human will could be strengthened and made to follow the will of God as manifested through his instrument the Catholic Church. This man gathered together a small group of individuals who were eventually recognized as a religious order, the Society of Jesus, by a papal bull in 1540. This man served as the first general of the order until his death in 1556. .

Millenarianism

The belief that the end of the world was at hand and that they would usher in the kingdom of God with Münster as the New Jerusalem.

Predestination

The belief, associated with Calvinism, that God, as a consequence of his foreknowledge of all events, has predetermined those who will be saved (the elect) and those who will be damned. Calvin identified three tests that might indicate possible salvation: an open profession of faith, a "decent and godly life", and participation in the sacraments of baptism and communion.

Philip II

The greatest advocate of militant Catholicism in the second half of the sixteenth century was King ... of Spain (1556-1598), the son and heir of Charles V. ... reign ushered in an age of Spanish greatness, both politically and culturally. The first major goal of ... was to consolidate and secure the lands he inherited from his father. These included, Spain, the Netherlands, and possessions in Italy and the New World. For ..., this meant strict conformity to Catholicism, enforces by aggressive use of the Spanish Inquisition, and the establishment of strong, monarchial authority. The latter was not an easy task because ... had inherited a government structure in which each of the various states and territories of his empire stood in an individual relationship to the king. This man did manage, however, to expand royal power in Spain by making the monarchy less dependent of traditional less landed aristocracy. .. tried to be the center of the whole government and supervised the work of all departments, even down to the smallest details. Unwilling to delegate authority, he failed to distinguish between important and trivial matters and fell weeks behind on state correspondence, where he was inclined to make marginal notes and even correct spelling. One of ... aims was to make Spain a dominant power in Europe. To a great extent, Spain's preeminence depended on a prosperous economy fueled by its importation of gold and silver from its New World possessions, its agriculture, its commerce, and its industry, especially in textiles, ink and leather goods. ..., the "Most Catholic King," became the champion of Catholicism throughout Europe, a role that led to spectacular victories and equally spectacular defeats for the Spanish king.

1)Henry IV and 2)Edict of Nantes

The massacre of Huguenot in August 1572 occurred at a time when the Catholic and Calvinists parties had apparently been reconciled through the marriage of the sister of the reigning Valois king, Charles IX and Henry of Navarre (aka ...1), the Bourbon rule of Navarre. After Henry III was assassinated in 1589 by a monk who was repelled by the spectacle of a Catholic king cooperating with a Protestant, ...1) claimed the throne. Henry of Navarre knew that he would never be accepted by Catholic France, so he took the logical way out and converted back to Catholicism. With his coronation in 1594, the French Wars of Religion came to an end. Nevertheless, the religious problem persisted until the ...2) was issued in 1598. The ...2) acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France but guaranteed the Huguenots the right to worship in selected places in every district and allowed to retain a number of fortified towns for protection. In addition, Huguenots were allowed to enjoy all political privileges, including the holding of political offices. Although the ...2) recognized the rights of the Protestant minority and ostensibly the principle of religious toleration, it did so only out of political necessity, not out of conviction.

Priesthood of All Believers

The word of God as revealed in the Bible was sufficient authority in religious affairs. A hierarchal priesthood was thus unnecessary since all Christians who followed the word of God were their own priests, constituting a ... Even though Luther considered a true church to be an invisible entity, the difficulties of establishing a reformed church led him to believe that a tangible, organized church was needed.

Oratory of Divine Love

This ... , first organized in Italy in 1497, was not a religious order but an informal group of clergy and laymen who worked to foster reform by emphasizing personal spiritual development and outward acts of charity. The "philosophy of Christ" advocated by Christian humanist Erasmus, was especially appealing to many of them. The oratory's members included a number of cardinals who favored church reform. A Spanish archbishop, Cardinal Ximenes, was especially active in using Christian humanism to reform the church and had a number of religious writings translated into Spanish.

The New World

This is the Americas and the term is especially used during a time of exploration by the Europeans. The term originated in the early sixteenth century after Europeans made landfall in what would later her called the Americas in the Age of Discovery, expanding the geographical horizon on classical geographers, who had though of the world as consisting of Africa, Europe and Asia (collectively now referred to as the Old World). To a great extent, Spain's preeminence depended on a prosperous economy fueled by its importation of gold and silver from its ... possessions, its agriculture, its commerce, and its industry, especially in textiles, ink and leather goods. (not sure about this definition)

Desiderius Erasmus

This man (1466-1536) was the most influential of all the Christian humanists, who formulated and popularized the reform program of Christian humanists. He was born in Holland and was educated at one of the schools of the Brothers of the Common Life. He wandered to France, Italy, Germany, and Switzerland, conversing everywhere in the Classical Latin that might be called his mother tongue. He wrote the "Handbook of the Christian Knight", printed in 1503, which reflected his preoccupation with religion. He called his conception of religion "the philosophy of Christ" by which he meant that Christianity should be a guiding philosophy for the direction of daily life rather than the system of dogmatic beliefs and practices that the medieval church seemed to stress. Because ... thought that the standard Latin edition of the Bible, known as the vulgate, contained errors, so he edited the Greek text of the New Testament and published it along with a new Latin translation in 1516. He also wrote "Annotations", a detailed commentary on the Vulgate Bible itself. He also wrote "The Praise of Folly" in 1509. In his day, his work on the New Testament was considered his most outstanding achievement.

Thomas More

This man (1478-1535) was the son of a London lawyer, who received the benefits of a good education. Although trained in the law, he took an avid interest in the new Classical learning and became proficient in both Latin and Greek. Like the Italian humanists, who believed in putting their learning at the service of the state, ... embarked on a public career that ultimately took him to the highest reaches of power as lord chancellor of England. His career in government service, however, did not keep ... from from the intellectual and spiritual interests that were so dear to him. He was well acquainted with other English humanists and became an intimate friend of Erasmus. He made translations from Greek authors and wrote both prose and poetry in Latin. A devout man, he spent many hours in prayer and private devotions. Contemporaries praised his household as a shining model of Christian family life. This man's religious devotion and belief in universal Catholic Church ultimately proved even more important than his service to the king, however. While in office, ... intolerance of heresy lead him to advocate persecution of those who fundamentally change the Catholic Church. Moreover, always the man of conscience, ... willingly gave up his life opposing England's break with the Roman Catholic Church over the divorce of King Henry VIII. This man also wrote "Utopia" in 1516.

Ulrich Zwingli

This man (1484-1531) was a product of the Swiss forest cantons. The precocious son of a relatively prosperous peasant, the young ... eventually obtained both bachelor of arts and master of arts degrees. During his university education at Vienna and Basil, ... was strongly influenced by Christian humanism. Ordained a pries in 1506, he accepted a parish post in rural Switzerland until his appointment as a cathedral priest in Great Minster of Zürich in 1518. Through his teachings ... began the Reformation in Switzerland. This man's preachings of the Gospel caused such unrest that in 1523 the city council held a public disputation or debate in the town hall. The disputation became a standard way of spreading the Reformation to many cities. It gave an advantage to reformers, since they had the power of new ideas and Catholics were not used to defending their teachings. This man's party was accorded the victory. Over the next two years, evangelical reforms were promulgated in Zurich by a city council strongly influenced by ... This man looked to the state to supervise the church. Relics were abolished; all paintings and decorations were removed from the churches and replaced by whitewashed walls. The Mass was replaced by a new liturgy consisting of Scripture reading, prayer, and sermons. Music was eliminated from the service as a distraction to the pure word of God. Monasticism, pilgrimages, veneration of the saints, clerical celibacy, and the pope's authority were all abolished as remnants of papal Christianity. This man's movement soon spread to other cities in Switzerland, including Bern in 1528 and Basel in 1529.

Martin Luther

This man was born ing Germany on November 10, 1483. His father wanted him to be a lawyer, so he enrolled in the University of Erfurt, where he received his bachelor's degree in 1502. Three years later, after becoming a master in the liberal arts, he began to study law. But ... was not content, not in small part due to his long standing religious inclinations. That summer, while returning to Erfurt after a brief visit home, he was caught in a vicious thunderstorm and vowed that he survived unscathed, he would become a monk. He then entered the monastic order of the Augustinian Hermits in Erfurt, much to his father's disgust. In the monastery, ... focused on his major concern the assurance of salvation. The traditional beliefs and practiced of the church seemed unable to relieve his obsession with this question. He spent hours confessing his sins, but was always doubtful. To help overcome his difficulties, his superiors recommended that the monk study theology. He received his doctorate in 1512 and became a professor of theology. Somewhere between 1513 and 1516, through the study of his Bible, he arrived at an answer to his problem. The answer he came up with is know as Salvation by Faith.

Erasmus' Praise of Folly

This was written by Desiderius Erasmus in 1509. To Erasmus, the reform of the church meant spreading an understanding of the philosophy of Jesus, providing enlightened education in the sources of early Christianity, and making common sense criticisms the abuses in the church. In this writing, Erasmus engaged in humorous yet effective criticism of the most corrupt practices of his own society. He was especially harsh on the abuses within the ranks of the clergy. This is one of the most famous pieces of literature produced in the sixteenth century.

Thomas More's Utopia

This was written by Thomas More in 1516 and is his most famous work and one of the most controversial works of his age. This literary masterpiece is an account of the idealistic life and institutions of the community of... (Greek for "nowhere"), an imaginary island in the vicinity of the recently discovered New World. It reflects More's own concern with the economic, social, and political problems of his day. He presented a new social system in which cooperation and reason replaced power and fame as the proper motivating agents for human society. This type of society, therefore, was based on communal ownership rather than private property. All residents of... worked nine hours a day, regardless of occupation, and were rewarded according to their needs. Possessing abundant leisure time and relieved of competition and greed, citizens of... were free to live wholesome and enriching lives.

Thomas a Kempis' Imitation of Christ

This work was written by ... who wrote that "truly, at the day of judgement we shall not be examined by what we have read, but what we have done; not how well we have spoken, but how religiously we have lived."

Union of Utrecht

To counter the Union of Arras ( the souther provinces formed a Catholic union in 1579 and accepted Spanish control), William of Orange organized the seven northern, Dutch speaking states into a Protestant union - ... - determined to oppose Spanish rule. This caused the Netherlands to now be divided along religious, geographical, and political lines into two hostile camps. These "United Provinces" soon emerged as the Dutch Republic, although the Spanish did not formally recognize them as independent until 1648.