chapter 19 history

Bartolome de Las Casas (1484-1566):

Bartolome de Las Casas was a Dominican friar who supported the peaceful conversion of the Native American population of the Spanish colonies as opposed to forced labor and he advocated Indian rights.

decline in population

Population decline occurred in all of the American peoples. The small numbers of natives remaining were then more vulnerable to further disruption.

form/aspects of spainish rule

Spain ruled its empire with the use of letrados, lawyers. The mass of colonial law was codified in 1681 as the Recopilacion. The Council of the Indies governed the colonies from Spain through two viceroys. Their domains were further divided into 10 judiciaries each: the audiencias. The Catholic Church was a major component of rule. The religious orders were responsible for conversion and education, and sometimes for the protection of natives. The role of the orders was later assumed by the secular church hierarchy, controlled by the Spanish crown.

spain's hold on colonies trade with others and war

Spain's hold on its colonies was threatened by piracy and the competition of other European nations. Spanish oversight of its colonial systems flagged, leading to corruption and loss of revenue. The War of the Spanish Succession, resolved by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, opened the Spanish trading empire to France and England.

Comunero Revolt (1781):

The Comunero Revolt Was one of the popular revolts against Spanish Colonial rule in New Granada (Colombia) in 1781. It was suppressed as a result of divisions among rebels.

Which Indian institutions were retained by the Spanish in Mexico and Peru to serve European administrative purposes?

The Indian nobility were retained by the Spanish in Mexico and Peru to serve European administrative purposes. The Indian nobility remained to serve as middlemen between the tax and labor demands of the new rulers and the majority of the population.

portugal 1st in brazil

The Portuguese first reached South America in 1500, at Brazil, but the territory was ignored for decades. Portuguese nobles were granted captaincies, nearly autonomous domains. They were followed by Jesuits, and a series of coastal settlements grew up.

de la Cruz, Sor Juana Inés

Author, poet, and musician of New Spain; eventually gave up secular concerns to concentrate on spiritual matters.

Mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought benefit mother country

Galvez, Jose de

(1720-1787) Spanish minister of the West Indies and chief architect of colonial reform; moved to eliminate Creoles from upper bureaucracy of the colonies; created intendants for local government.

Amaru, Tupac, II

(1738-1781) Mestizo leader of Indian revolt in Peru; supported by many among lower social classes; revolt eventually failed because of Creole fears of real social revolution

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Portugal and Spain, declaring that newly discovered lands to the west of an imaginary line in the Atlantic Ocean would belong to Spain and newly discovered lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal.By the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Spain and Portugal divided their conquests.

Mulatto

A person of mixed African and European ancestry

Mestizo

A person of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry.

Why was the discovery of mercury in Peru critical to the colonial economy?

After the 1580s silver mining depended on the process of amalgamation with Mercury to extract silver from the Ore bearing Rock. The Spanish discovery of a mountain of mercury at Huancavelica in Peru aided American silver production.

Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile

Along with Isabella of Castile, monarch of largest Christian kingdoms in Iberia; marriage to Isabella created united Spain; responsible for reconquest of Granada, initiation of exploration of New World.

spain's monolpoly and control on trade

Although industries such as woolen cloth production made the colonies more self-sufficient, mining dominated the economy. Spaniards had the monopoly on trade with Spanish America. All trade passed through Seville, with its consulado, or merchant guild. Spain kept other nations out of its commercial sphere with armed galleons and the use of fortified ports such as Havana. In spite of the great wealth flowing into Spain, much of it flowed out to the rest of Europe. In any case, the revenue from taxation was greater.

amigos del pais:

Amigos del pais were clubs and associations dedicated to improvements and reform in Spanish colonies. They flourished during the 18th century and called for material improvements rather than political reform.

Council of the Indies

Body within the Castilian government that issued all laws and advised king on all matters dealing with the Spanish colonies of the New World.

What undercut the position of the Brazilian sugar plantation economy?

By the 1680s The Dutch, English, and French had established their own Plantation colonies in the Caribbean and were producing sugar with slave laborers. This competition which led to a rising price for slaves and a falling price for sugar undercut the Brazilian sugar industry.

mexico city

Capital of New Spain; built on ruins of Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.

consulado:

Consulado was the merchant guild of Serville. Consulado enjoyed virtual monopoly rights over goods shipped to America and handled much of the silver received in return.

Creoles:

Creoles were whites born in the New World. They dominated local Latin American economies and ranked just beneath peninsulares.

What were the advantages the Spanish enjoyed over the Indians?

Diseases weakened the number of Indians left alive, so there could be little resistance or rebellion. The Spanish had the use of firearms and superior steel weapons. There were internal divisions among the Indians which made conquest easier. The Spanish were able to use horses and the natives had no similar animal.

culture and intellectual opportunities

European culture and thought was imported and disseminated largely through the Church. Even offices of the Inquisition were established. Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz represents the intellectual possibilities of colonial life in the seventeenth century.

gold rush in brazil

European political developments were echoed in the colonies. Competition in Europe was also played out in the colonies. However, Portugal's hold on Brazil was extended when Paulistas explored the interior. Gold strikes in the region of Minas Gerais led to a gold rush. Massive importation of slaves led to their making up half of the population. By the mid-18th century, Brazil was the world's greatest gold producer. Mining led to further development of the interior, and destruction of more native populations. Rio de Janeiro became the colony's capital.

caribbean

First area of Spanish exploration and settlement; served as experimental region for nature of Spanish colonial experience; encomienda system of colonial management initiated here.

Hispaniola

First island in Caribbean settled by Spaniards; settlement founded by Columbus on second voyage to New World; Spanish base of operations for further discoveries in New World.

haciendas:

Haciendas were the rural estates in Spanish colonies in the New World. It produced agricultural products for consumers in America. It was the basis of wealth and power for local aristocracy.

Huancavelica:

Huancavelica was the location of the greatest deposit of mercury in South America. It aided in American silver production and it linked with Potosi

Iberian Peninsula changed

Iberian traditions were transferred to conquered lands, including slaveholding and the patriarchal family. Portugal and Spain created centralized colonial governments, dependent on professional bureaucrats and the clergy.

Describe the nature of the economy in Spanish America.

In many places communities are required to send groups of laborers to work on state projects or in labor gangs for mining or agriculture and this forced labor was called the mita. Although they were paid a wage for this work there are many abuses in the system and by the seventeenth Century many Indians left their villages to avoid the labor and tax obligations. They preferred to work for Spanish landowners or to seek employment in the cities. Although the majority of the people were engaged in agriculture the whole Spanish commercial system was based on mining. Mining was extremely important.

biggest revenue producer

In terms of revenue, mining was the most important colonial enterprise. The looted gold from the first decades of conquest was followed across the Atlantic by newly-mined gold and silver.

agriculture

Indian traditional agriculture continued, along with the Spanish haciendas, rural estates. On the latter, crops such as sugar were grown for export.

mita

Labor extracted for lands assigned to the state and the religion; all communities were expected to contribute; an essential aspect of Inca imperial control.

galleons

Large, heavily armed ships used to carry silver from New World colonies to Spain; basis for convoy system utilized by Spain for transportation of bullion.

Moctezuma II

Last Aztec emperor, overthrown by the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes.

Coronado, Francisco Vázquez de

Leader of Spanish expedition into northern frontier region of New Spain; entered what is now United States in search of mythical cities of gold.

Cortes, Hernan

Led expedition of 600 to coast of Mexico in 1519; conquistador responsible for defeat of Aztec Empire; captured Tenochtitlan

letrados:

Letrados were university-trained lawyers from Spain in the New World. They were the juridical core of Spanish colonial bureaucracy and they exercised both legislative and administrative functions.

potosi and mexico produce silver

Mexico and Peru held the greatest stores of silver. At Potosi in modern Bolivia, and Zacatecas in Mexico, mining communities developed. Modernization of silver extraction, using mercury from Huancavelica, greatly increased silver exports. The mining industry led to the growth of other domestic industries such as cloth/textiles.

Paulistas:

Paulistas were backwoodsmen from Sao Paulo in Brazil. They penetrated Braziliian interior in search of precious metals and slaves during the 17th century

peninsulares:

Peninsulares were people living in the new world Spanish colonies but were born in Spain.

zambo

People of mixed Native American and African descent.

revolts

Population growth in Latin America went along with exploitation of new areas and a higher volume of exports to Europe. Latin American society, disrupted by the reforms of the Bourbons and Pombal, was in ferment. The Comunero Revolt of 1781 nearly ended colonial rule in New Granada. The native rising of Tupac Amaru in Peru took three years to suppress. Brazil, on the other hand, experienced no major revolts. Deep divisions in colonial society made unified protests unlikely

Cabral, Pedro Alvares

Portuguese leader of an expedition to India; blown off course in 1500 and landed in Brazil

Potosi:

Potosi was a mine located in upper Peru (modern day Bolivia). It was the largest of New World silver mines and it produced 80% of all Peruvian silver.

Marquis of Pombal

Prime minister of Portugal from 1755 to 1776; acted to strengthen royal authority in Brazil; expelled Jesuits; enacted fiscal reforms and established monopoly companies to stimulate the colonial economy.

Recopilación (1681):

Recopilación was a body of laws collected in 1681 for possessions in the New World. It was the basis of law in the Indies.

Minas Gerais

Region of Brazil located in mountainous interior where gold strikes were discovered in 1695; became location for gold rush.

War of Spanish Succession

Resulted from Bourbon family's succession to Spanish throne in 1701; ended by Treaty of Utrecht in 1713; resulted in recognition of Bourbons, loss of some lands, grants of commercial rights to English and French.

Juan de Sepulveda

Spaniard who supported the Spanish Empire's right of conquest and colonization in the New World. He also argued in favor of the Christianize of Native Americans.

Valdivia, Pedro de

Spanish conquistador; conquered Araucanian Indians of Chile and established city of Santiago in 1541.

charles III

Spanish enlightened monarch; ruled from 1759 to 1788; instituted fiscal, administrative, and military reforms in Spain and its empire.

biggest portugal commodity, hierarchy, ruler, and how Portugal different than spain

Sugar cane was by far the greatest commodity, demanding large amounts of capital and labor. A model plantation colony, Brazilian society started with white planters at the top, and ended with slaves. A governor-general represented Portuguese rule. Unlike Spanish America, Brazil was only part of the vast Portuguese empire. Its dependence on Portugal was great, and the colony was slow to develop it own cultural life.

Describe the state of the Portuguese and Spanish American colonies by the middle of the 18th century.

The American colonies of Spain and Portugal were experiencing considerable growth in population and productive capacity. This increase resulted from declining mortality rates, increasing fertility rates, increasing immigration from Europe, and thriving slave trade. The opening of new areas to development and Europe's increasing demand for American products accompany the population growth.

bourbon reforms good and bad

The Bourbon reforms of Charles III (r. 1759-1788) and his successors revived Spanish control of the colonies. The reforms did not recast the colonial structure but sought to make it more effective. Jose de Galvez investigated the administration of Mexico before taking over as minister of the Indies. He created a system of intendants (provincial governors) that made the administration more effective. The loss of Florida and Havana led Spain to strengthen the colonial militia. Grants of monopolies increased the government's control over key commodities. Trade was opened to other nations, leading to a boom in some areas, such as the Buenos Aires ranching industry. However, some areas suffered economic decline. In the long run, the reforms led to widespread dissatisfaction as groups, such as the creoles, lost their place in the government.

Where in the Americas did the Spanish first create the models that were applied throughout their possessions in the New World?

The Caribbean experience served Spain as a model for its actions elsewhere in the Americas.

Iberian Peninsula conquest

The Christian conquest of the Iberian Peninsula shaped the monarchies of Spain and Portugal. Spain, formed by the unification of Aragon and Castile, emerged as a militantly Christian state. Persecution of the peninsula's Jews and Muslims followed.

Why were the encomienda's discontinued by the 1540's and all but gone by the 1620's?

The Spanish Crown, unwilling to see a new nobility arise in the new world among the conquerors with their grants of Indian serfs, moved to end the institution in the 1540s. The crown limited the inheritability of encomiendas and prohibited the right to demand certain kinds of labor from the Indians. Although the encomiendas continue to exist in marginalized regions of the empire they were all but gone in the 1620s .

What was the primary difference between the Spanish and Portuguese empires?

The Spanish empire was almost exclusively in the Americas (except for the Philippines) while the Portuguese empire included colonies and outposts in Asia, Africa, and Bazil.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494):

The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in 1494 between Castile and Portugal. It clarified spheres of influence and rights of possession in the New World. It reserved Brazil and all newly discovered lands east of Brazil to Portugal and granted all lands west of Brazil to Spain.

How did American precious metals negatively affect the Spanish economy?

The arrival of American treasure also contributed to a sharp rise in prices and a general inflation first in Spain and then throughout Western Europe during the 16th century. The government wound up bankrupt because of the silver. A lot of it had to be paid out as war expenses and seemingly endless supply of silver stimulated bankers to lend to Spain and its falling credit.

How was the commercial experience of the Portuguese extended to the Americas?

The commercial experience of the Portuguese extended to the Americas with the Portuguese experience in Africa and their involvement in slave trading. The use of slave trading and slave labor extended to the Americas.

the conqueors

The conquest of the Americas was undertaken by individuals under royal authority. Hernan Cortes succeeded in taking Tenochtitlan and killing Moctezuma II. Spanish New Spain took the place of the Aztec confederacy. To the south, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca, whose capital at Cuzco fell in 1533. Pedro de Valdivia founded the city of Santiago, Chile in 1541. Francisco Vasquez de Coronado led an expedition into what is today the southwestern United States

What was the negative impact of the discovery of gold on Portugal?

The discovery of gold opened the interior to settlement once again with disastrous effects on the indigenous population and with the expansion of slavery. Much of the Brazilian gold flowed from Portugal to England to pay for manufactured goods and to compensate for trade imbalance. After the 1760s the supply of gold began to dwindle. Portugal was again in a difficult position; it had become an economy dependent on England in some ways. Portugal failed to develop internal industries because the supply of gold allowed the Portuguese because the supply of gold allowed Portugal to purchase goods from other European countries.

encomenderos:

The encomenderos was the holder of a grant of Indians who were required to pay a tribute or provide labor. The encomendero was responsible for their integration into the church.

encomienda:

The encomienda was a grant of Indian laborers made to Spanish conquerors and settlers in Mesoamerica and South America. This was the basis for the earliest forms of coerced labor in Spanish colonies.

1st phase of conquest and its framework

The first phase of conquest—from 1492 to 1570—saw the establishment of the administrative framework. Encomiendas, grants of Indian workers, were given to settlers. From 1570 to 1700, the framework was fleshed out as institutions took shape.The Spanish experience in establishing control of the Caribbean islands was formative. Hispaniola (1493), Puerto Rico (1508), and Cuba (1511) were settled by encomenderos. The Spanish developed a pattern of colonial urban design, and political institutions such as governorships. By the 1520's, a shift to ranching and sugar plantations had taken place, with devastating results for the native populations.

Impact of Enlightenment on America

The intellectual climate of the Enlightenment had its impact on the colonies. Clubs of amigos del pais met to discuss reform.

men who conquered and their advantages

The men who undertook these expeditions came from a variety of backgrounds and hoped to become wealthy. Their superior military technology, disease, and existing division within the native empires led to their success.

questions from conquest

The morality of destroying Indian societies was questioned by many. Yet it was justified by most on the basis of natural inferiority. Bishop Bartolome de Las Casas was one of the most outspoken critics of abuses. Yet by the time he gained a hearing, the conquests were essentially accomplished.

sociedad de castas:

The sociedad de castas Was an American society based on racial origins. It had Europeans or whites at the top, black slaves or Native Americans at the bottom, and mixed races in the middle.

The tremendous decline in the Indian population in Mexico was matched by the rapid increase in what?

The tremendous decline in the Indian population in Mexico was matched by the rapid increase in European livestock (cattle, sheep, and horses).

What accounted for the general failure of 18th century colonial revolutions against Spanish and Portuguese rule?

The various racial and social groups, fearful of unsettling the social hierarchy, failed to act together to unseat the colonial governments.

social hierachy

Three groups came together to form the complex Latin American society. Miscegenation (mixing of races) produced mestizos, who were neither native nor Spanish. The sociedad de castas—society of castes—used race, wealth, occupation, and place of birth to determine a person's place in society. Attempts to sort out the new categories had practical implications, as legal restrictions were applied to different groups. Although at the top of the hierarchy, whites were also subdivided into Spanish-born Peninsulares and those born in the colonies: Creoles. Considerations such as age, class, and gender carried over from Iberian traditions.

similar reforms in Portugal by who and what they like

Under Marquis of Pombal (Prime Minister 1755-1776), similar reforms were carried out in Brazil. He followed the English model of mercantilism, to make good the revenue loss due to declining gold production. He granted monopolies to develop agriculture, and the region of the Amazon in particular. To populate the area, he encouraged mixed marriages. His reforms were only partially successful.

How did Caribbean cities differ from those of Europe?

Unlike cities in Europe, Spanish American cities usually were laid out according to a grid plan or checkerboard form. These cities had the town hall, major church, and governor's palace in the Central Plaza. The Spaniards applied Roman models and rational town planning ideas to the new situation.

viceroyalties:

Viceroyalties were two major divisions of Spanish colonies in the New World. One was based in Lima and the other in Mexico City and both were direct representatives of the king.

viceroys

Viceroys were senior government officials in Spanish America. They ruled as direct representatives of the king over the principal administrative units or viceroyalties. They were usually high-ranking Spanish nobles with previous military or governmental experience. The Portuguese also used viceroys who resided in Goa for their possessions in the Indian Ocean and then after in the mid-seventeenth century for their colony in Brazil.

forced labor?

While the enslavement of Indians was generally stopped by about 1550, forced labor was common. For political reasons, the practice of granting encomiendas was stopped by the 1620's. The practice of mit'a, or forced labor, in Peru, used Indians for mining and other state projects. In spite of widespread economic changes, indigenous culture showed great continuity.

maroon

an african slave who escaped captivity mated with an indian and formed an independent settlement somewhere else

Rio de Janeiro

brazilian port close to mines of minas gerais importance grew with gold strikes became colonial capital

audiencia

royal court of appeals est. in spanish colonies: there were 16: part if colonial administrative system: staffed by professional magistrates

new spain

spanish colony adminstrative unit including Central America Mexico and SE and SW of present US

Captainicies

strips of land along the Brazilian coast granted to minor portuguese nobles for developement: enjoyed limited success in developing the colony