Child and Adolescent Development Final

What is the difference between the way that high vs. low social status children use aggression? What is hostile attributional bias?

"popular" children use more proactive and instrumental aggression. proactive- to gain something Victimized children of lower social status use more reactive and hostile aggression

How do our friendships change as we move into adolescence? What do we base our friendships off of?

11-14 years: Emergence of "peer collectives" and cliques. Cliques are small groups (4-8) of adolescents with shared interests and values. In childhood and adolescence, friendships/cliques are very homogenous-- demographics, orientation to school, orientation to culture, involvement in antisocial activity.

What is aggression? What is the difference between hostile and instrumental aggression? What are the three different "modes" of aggression—be able to provide an example of each.

AGGRESSION: behavior done intentionally to hurt someone else. Aggression can be: hostile- done for the sake of harming someone, instrumental- done to accomplish some other goal, physical, verbal, relational.

What is the difference between moral competence and moral performance?

MORAL COMPETENCE: ability to produce moral behavior. MORAL PERFORMANCE: producing those behaviors in real situations (dependent on motivation and incentives) How would you define moral behavior? What overarching rule might you use to define moral behavior? What Causes moral performance- Bandura: self regulation is the key to positive moral behavior(not just abstract reasoning) and Eisenberg: empathy (and other prosocial feelings) contribute to positive moral development.-- these two things are what causes moral behavior. We can know what is right, but not do it.

What are some big issues/criticisms of Kolberg's theory?

Post-conventional reasoning is rare (doesn't exist in all cultures), human life is given ultimate value, gender differences exist in responses and development (morality of justice vs. care), moral reasoning doesn't match moral behavior.

What is an "internal working model?" How does the internal working model influence later development in friendships and romantic relationships? Does infant attachment style perfectly predict attachment style in adulthood? Why or why not?

Internal Working Model: can I trust you to come back, do I deserve to be loved? do I expect acceptance or rejection?--Relationship with parents creates a model for future relationships.

What happens to parental relationships in adolescence? What do we fight with parents about at this age?

Very little emotional distance between parents and young children. Secure/ insecure attachments have a major impact on the parental relationship. Most conflict revolves around daily tasks or culture(clean your room, don't wear that top) or violations of expectations not major differences in core values.

What are some big changes in short-term and working memory through childhood?

digit span develops from infancy through adolescence.

How is our environment influenced by our genetics? What is the "epigenetic view"?

heredity <---------> environment

What are the key reflexes of infancy? Which reflexes persist? When do primitive reflexes begin to disappear?

infants are born with 2 types of reflexes: 1. survival reflexes- breathing, sucking, swallowing, blinking, rooting(an infant who is touched on the cheek will turn in that direction and search for something to suck). 2. primitive reflexes- Babinski (Fanning and curling of the toes), swimming, grasping, stepping. Survival reflexes continue into adulthood

What are some key concerns with media exposure in adolescence? Why is adolescence media use to hard to study? How does social media effect mental health? What is objectification? Why does it matter?

objectification, self esteem issues

What are the characteristics of the sensorimotor stage? How do thinking and experimentation change from 0-24 months?

0-2 years. Children learn about their environment by using their senses. children learn to coordinate motor and sensory information. 0-1 months: reflex activity, little to no planning, uses instinct, my hands move. 1-4 months: primary circular reactions- motor habits emerge, discovery of self; I can wave my hands and watch them. 4-8 months: secondary circular reactions- motor movements effect the world; I can use my arms to shake a rate and it makes a funny noise.6 months: object permanence; things exist even when I can't see them. 8-12 months: coordination of secondary reactions; first intentional planning occurs; I can move this book out of the way to get a rattle so I can shake it. properties of objects aren't fully understood. In the past, I've found this object in spot A, this is an object that can be found there. 12-18 months: tertiary circular reactions- active experimentation, trial and error; what will happen if i drop this rattle, no longer make A not B errors- searches more effectively for objects. *18-24 months: symbolic problem solving- mental experimentation, less need for trial and error; I could use this toy to get that rattle closer to me so I can play with it.

What are the AAP's suggestions for media use in childhood?

1. Be a role model, 2. balance use with non-use-- no solo screen time, have non media activities. 3. before 18 months, ZERO screen time is best, can't connect media to the 3D world, monitored video-chatting (ex. FaceTime) is only exception. 4. Use evidence based products when you can. 5. Avoid media as a way to calm down/ deal with negative emotions.

How does morality develop? What biological/cognitive factors affect it? What social factors affect it? What can parents do? What skills can they teach to improve moral reasoning and behavior? Does punitive parenting help? What are moral exemplars?

1. Biological/Physical: able to think about other's thinking, able to control one's impulses and regulate emotions and desires. 2. Social/ Emotional: social interactions teach us that hurting others feels terrible, moral exemplars provide examples of what "moral action" looks like and how it effects society. 3. Parenting and Moral Education: conversations about morality, challenging questions about morality, service learning/character education, "positive parenting". Skills that can be taught to improve moral reasoning and behavior-- Teach self regulation: talk about emotions/ managing them, providing "cooling off" time. Teach morality: serve as an exemplar of prosocial behavior, have discussions about moral dilemmas.

What are some historical perspectives on the study of human development?

1.Plato-300BC: adults are able to reason and children are not. 2.Rosseau: children grow less self-centered and move more or other focused as they move towards adulthood.

Provide an example of a biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional developmental change

1.biological- physical growth and development, including bodily changes and the sequencing. 2. cognitive- this includes perception, language, learning, and thinking. 3. psychosocial- this included emotions, personality, and the growth of interpersonal relationship.

When do toddlers begin to demonstrate "self recognition?" What is our silly operationalization of this as developmentlists? How does self-recognition change in early childhood? Middle childhood? How does self-concept look different across cultures?

18 months: self recognition- rouge test (I can recognize myself in a mirror). 4-5 years: extended self recognition- recognize the self outside of the present, recognize physical, psychosocial and behavioral dimensions of self. Middle childhood: recognize that we are different across contexts, false behaviors (be a "different" self) to improve image. Children and adolescents may be a different version of themselves in different situations-- this results from an underdeveloped self-concept.

When do children begin to show emotions that involve self-recognition? What emotions are those? How do those emotions change in middle childhood?

18 months: self recognition-- rouge test ( I can recognize myself in a mirror), 4-5 years: extended self recognition (recognize the self outside of the present).-- recognize physical, psychological and behavioral dimensions. Middle childhood-- recognizes that we are different across contexts, false behaviors (be a "different" self) to improve image.

What are the characteristics of the preoperational stage? Identify and define some key deficits in preoperational thinking.

2-7 years old. Children begin to represent the world symbolically (in their heads). language develops (words as symbols). symbolic play emerges (let's pretend). thinking is mostly intuitive. children come to understand that a model of a room can symbolize. deficits in pre operational stage: 1. animism, 2. artificialism, 3. appearance vs. reality. Lack of conservation- can't "decenter" their thinking to think about multiple dimensions of a task at once, dont understand that objects properties dont change just because appearances does. Egocentrism- preschoolers only think about the world from their own prospective, can't think about the thinking/ perspectives of others. Theory of Mind- the ability to think about the thoughts or desires of another person. children begin to think about the desires, needs, and internal experiences of others.

How do we interact with peers in our first year of life? What is parallel play? How does play change in the second year of life (12-24 months?) What new social skills do we learn in Toddlerhood? What is cooperative play? What is Complex social pretend play? What does friendship look like in the preschool years? Middle childhood?

6-12 months: Begin interacting, engage in "parallel play". Parallel play is side by side play with little interaction. By age 1, infant will begin to monitor the behavior of the playmate. 12-18 months: engage in "simple pretend play", complex interactions like sibling, talking, and sharing during play. By 18 months, interactions become coordinated (turn taking, focusing on the same task). 18-24 Months: Emergence of complementary and Reciprocal play, action based role reversal games (chase, peek-a-boo, "fetch"), sharing but not yet cooperating to achieve a goal. 2 1/2 years: Emergence of "Cooperative Social Pretend Play", taking on "pretend" roles but not yet planning or sharing the meaning with others, cooperative( working towards a common goal) but not yet explicit-like a baby improv. 3 1/2 years: Emergence of "Complex Social Pretend Play", active planning of pretend play, assigning of roles and script, renegotiation of scripts ("No not like that, you're the baby, I'm the mommy"). 3-6 Years: children may have preferred playmates but play is generally open to everyone, flexible, permeable boundaries of "friendship". 6-10 years: Children begin to form formal peer groups/dyads and friendships, "best friending", based on similarities (sex, social status, interests), friends interact regularly, establish norms and hierarchy. 11-14 years: Emergence of "peer collectives" and "cliques"/ cliques are small groups (4-8) of adolescents with shared interests and values

What are the characteristics of the concrete operational stage? What is transitivity? Reversability?

7 to 11 years old. children develop logical thinking. children can manipulate symbols of objects in their heads (reverse actions). children can mentally organize objects based on multiple characteristics(decenter). "Theory of Mind" continues to develop once perspective taking comes online. children become skilled at thinking about the desires/needs and internal experiences of others. develop social cognition- more than one way to look at a problem. more than one meaning to a word.

What are the characteristics of the formal operational stage? Be able to define hypothetical and abstract thinking.

Adolescence and beyond. teens become rational and systematic in their thinking. teens thinking can transcend the situation. teens can think hypothetical and abstractly. Meta cognition- thinking about your own thinking. adolescents learn to use a strategy to remember, decide whether or not they understand, think about how to explain something to others; but increases self consciousness. Egocentrism- adolescents think that they are special, unique, and interesting. Thinking in multiple dimensions- there can be multiple factors that effect a problem. Critical thinking- new abilities make them more skilled at asking questions and poking holes in arguments

How does aggression change as we move through infancy, toddlerhood, and childhood (more hostile or instrumental? More physical or emotional?)

Aggression in Infancy: 1 year olds will use instrumental physical aggression, this behavior gets more common through the "terrible 2s". Aggression in Preschooler: preschool aged children learn to share, cooperate, and manage negative emotions. physical instrumental aggression declines, verbal instrumental aggression appears. Aggression in childhood: physical aggression is less common in middle childhood. Instrumental aggression declines but hostile aggression becomes more common. Aggression in adolescence: hostile aggression peaks in early adolescence (11-13) and declines through the high school years. Physical and verbal aggression decline. Relational aggression becomes the primary form of aggression (gossip, exclusion) in adolescence.

How is attachment measured in toddlerhood? What are Ainsworth's attachment types? Can you explain how each might respond to the strange situation?

Ainsworth's Strange Situation- mother and child play together, mother leaves (child behavior is observed), mother returns (child behavior is observed). Types: Secure Attachments- explores situation, may be upset by separations, warm greetings on return, seeks comfort, outgoing with strangers when mother is present. "Anxious-Avoidant" Attachment- little distress when separated, ignore mother on return, often sociable with strangers, but may ignore or avoid them. "Anxious-Resistant" Attachment- little exploration, want to be close, very distressed upon separation, ambivalent one return, want to be close, but will resist physical contact, wary of strangers even when mother is present. Disorganized/ Disoriented Attachment- most insecure, confusion about whether to approach or avoid the mother when reunited.

What are some examples of observational learning and operant conditioning? When do infants develop these skills?

At 1 week old- infants will watch and mimic a model doing things in the infants behavioral repertoire. Mimicry is immediate. 8-12 months- infants will mimic novel behavior(mimicry is delayed). 14-26 months- infants can emulate behavior (copy previously seen behavior without the model present). OPERANT CONDITIONING: Our behavior operates on the environment. Do something- consequence- dont do it again.

What types of emotions do babies show at birth? At one year?

At birth infants can show/ experience: interest, distress, disgust, contempt. By 2-7 months infants have mastered the 6 "basic human emotions"- disgust, fear, joy, anger, sadness, and surprise. By 12-24 months infants begin to express "complex emotions" that require the perspective of another/ the self

How does culture interact with parenting style?

Authoritarian parents are more common among lower SES and minority families. Authoritarian parenting is worse for white adolescents. Can be a protective factor for Asian-American adolescents and families in dangerous areas (interpreted differently).

How do boys and girls see sex differently?

BOYS: separate intimacy and sexuality, view sexual experience as "recreation", likely over report sexual activity. GIRLS: integrate with capacity for intimacy, romance, love, friendship, more conflicted about sexual activity and consequences.

How do our proportions change as we age?

Body changes in portion during times of growth: 1, growth is cephalocaudal- starts in head and moves downward. 2. growth is proximodistal- starts at center and moves outward.

How does gender makeup of a friendship group change through childhood and adolescence? Who leads this change?

Boys and girls separate their playgroups in middle childhood. Interaction between boys and girls increases through adolescence. Attractive teens are "social leaders" and begin the movement towards mixed gender groups.

What is constructivism? What are assimilation and accommodation and how to they relate to children's schemes? How do these relate to cognitive equilibrium?

CONSTRUCTIVISM: a child who gains knowledge by acting or otherwise operating on objects and events to discover their properties. ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION: Notes: new information that "fits" into my existing scheme can be "assimilated" into my scheme. new information that doesn't "fit' into my existing scheme requires that i accommodate by changing my scheme. Textbook: assimilation is the process of interpreting new experiences by incorporating them into existing schemes. Accommodation- the process of modifying existing schemes in order to incorporate or adapt to new experiences.

What key roles do families play in the lives of children and adolescence? How do these change as we move through childhood?

Families are our primary socializers in early life. As we move through childhood and adolescence, we rely on them less.

What is cross-sectional research? What is longitudinal research? What is a sequential design? Give an example of each

CROSS SECTIONAL: 1 person vs. 1 person Textbook Definition: a research design in which subjects from different age groups are studied at the same point in time. LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH: same person over time. Textbook definition: a research design in which one group of subjects is studied repeatedly over a period of months or years. SEQUENTIAL DESIGN: two age groups vs. those same kids annually for any amount of time. Textbook definition: a research design in which subjects from different age groups are studied repeatedly over a period of months or years; usually shorter than a longitudinal study.

How does encoding change through childhood? How do memory strategies effect our encoding? How does expertise effect our encoding?

Children are less effective encoders than adults because they use bad strategies. Gain new encoding strategies- semantic encoding is based on meaning. verbatim encoding is based on sensory information. Semantic Encoding. Verbatim Encoding

What was Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory?

Children develop in cultural context. children learn from culture about: values(important/good), beliefs(what is true), problem solving strategies(how we do things). children are born with "tools of intellectual adaption" (ex. memory).

How does infants visual perception develop through the first year (e.g, depth, hidden objects, etc)

DEPTH PERCEPTION: At birth- size constancy, objects stay the same size, they look bigger up close and smaller far away. At one to three months- movement cues (motion parallel), objects that are close move fast and objects that are far away move slowly. At three months- binocular cues (retinal disparity), objects that are far away look the same to both retinas, objects that are close look very different. at six to seven months- pictorial cues, the "closer" edge of an object will look larger, the thing that is "on top" is the closest. At two months- infants show interest in the visual cliff. we can manipulate the stimuli to narrow on different dimensions of depth perception. by the time they mastered crawling, infants show fear of the visual cliff (6.5 months). INTERMODAL PERCEPTION: some senses integrated in the first days of life- reach for seen objects and expect to feel them, look in the direction of sounds and expect to see the source. complex integration develops over the first months of life. 1-4 months: matching oral to visual sensation. 4-6 months: matching tactile and visual sensation.

Briefly describe Bronfenbrennor's ecological systems model. (Understand the gist of this model (i.e. You will not need to know the names of each circle)

Developmental occurs in familial, social, cultural, and historical context. To study development we must consider: the individual, the contexts, and the interactions between individual and context and between contexts. Microsystem: activities/interactions in the immediate surroundings. Mesosystem: connection between microsystems (homes, schools, etc.). Ecosystem: contexts children are not a part of but which may influence development. Macrosystem: cultural, subcultural, or social class context in which other systems are imbedded. Chronosystem: changes in the child or any of the other systems can affect the direction of development.

What were the big goals of early developmentalists like Freud, Piaget, and Erikson? What did they have in common? How have the goals of developmentalists shifted in recent years?

Developmentalists want to: 1. describe how people change over time. 2. understand mechanisms for how people change over time. 3. maximize potential for well being by supporting positive development. Frued- unconscious internal conflicts. Erikson- psychosocial conflicts. Piaget- experimentation with the world. Vygotsky- scaffolded interactions. Skinner- punishment and reinforcement. Bandura- interaction of the individual with the environment. Modern Developmentalist: 1. Brofenbrennor- development occurs in a BIO-PSYCHO-SOCIAL

What is neural pruning? How does it relate to myelination and synaptogenesis?

During early childhood and middle adolescence, the brain is pruned of the connections it doesn't use.

What is EQ? How does thinking/talking about others emotions help children? How can books and other media promote EQ?

Emotional Intelligence-- EQ. EQ predicts work place success in adults, predicts social success in children, socially competent children have more friends and more successful. What predicts EQ? talking with kids about emotions and healthy strategies for managing their own emotions, teaching kids to talk about their own feelings (have more words to name them), asking kids to think about and talk about how others might feel, more conversations about emotions and how to manage them predicts better EQ.

What is emotional regulation? What are some early forms of emotional regulation? How do these skills develop? What can adults do to improve these skills?

Emotional regulation- strategies for managing emotions or adjusting emotional arousal to an appropriate level of intensity. Infants learn to "self-sooth" to deal with emotions, turning/ moving away from what is unpleasant thumb sucking, chewing on things, rocking-- getting attention from caregivers. Toddlers learn to direct their environment to make it more to their liking, have adult fix what is wrong, distract the self with something else. Express emotions to attract attention/ support, around 3 we become capable of "disguising" emotions. Preschoolers learn to talk about reframe their emotions, using emotions to fuel/ motivate discussion and using "I feel" statements, reinterpreting emotions as opportunities to learn( ex: guilt means I shouldn't do that again, sympathy means I should try to help.).

What is identity? When does the "identity crisis" occur? Is it really as bad as Erikson made it out to be? What is Marcia's model of identity? Define each of the 4 statuses and understand how they're related to one another. Does identity develop all at once? Is identity fully developed by the end of adolescence?

Erikson- identity depends on mutual recognition between the adolescent and society, identity will be resolved through social interaction, personality and role experimentation. Modern arguments- identity development is a process not a crisis, no liner path to identity achievement, most 18 year olds don't have an established identity, and college may prolong moratorium, 18-25 are "key years" for identity development. The self is made up of many pieces: different identities can be achieved separately from one another.

What is fuzzy-trace theory? What does it say about how our encoding changes as we age?

Fuzzy Trace Theory- a theory proposed by Brainerd and Reyna that postulates that people encode experiences on a continuum from literal, verbatim traces to fuzzy, gist like traces. Most information is stored through semantic encoding meaning that we remember the meaning or gist, not the exact words. Some information is stored through auditory (sound) or visual (sight) encoding (called verbatim) and we put the two back together. As we develop, starting in infancy and continuing throughout the lifespan, we rely more heavily on gist info and progressively less on verbatim info to reconstruct a memory.

What are some important milestones in terms of motor development and when do they occur?

Gross motor development is cephalocaudal and sequential. Maturation viewpoint: muscular and motor development is genetic. Experience/ Practice hypothesis: muscular and motor development are culturally bound. Dynamical Systems Theory: new skills develop as capabilities are organized, based on desire to achieve. At three months- voluntary reaching. At 10 months- ulnar grasp is replaced by pincer grasp. Early developments seem more "qualitative" (ulnar to pincer, crawl to walk). Development through childhood becomes more quantitative (ex. child gets better at existing ) children develop strength in large muscle groups- develop improved hand eye coordination. Gender differences in physical abilities are apparent but small in childhood and are likely driven by socialization. 7-8 months- most children begin to crawl and 12-14 months most children begin to walk.

When are the two big physical "growth spurts" in childhood?

In-utero/ infancy/ toddlerhood- first two years. Puberty- age 11-17

What happens in the first "neural growth spurt?" When does it occur? Define cell differentiation, myelination, and synaptogenesis and provide an example of how each contributes to plasticity.

Infancy. 1.Cell Differentiation 2. Synapsegenisis 3. Myelination. Cell Differentiation- neurons get assigned to specific tasks. In infancy, neurons in different regions get assigned to specific tasks but the neurons cam serve any neural function. This makes the brain more malleable. this process continues throughout the lifespan but becomes increasingly difficult. USE IT OR LOSE IT Myelination- neurons are insulated and connections are strengthened. Fatty tissue is formed around the outside of the neuron to insulate it and make it work more efficiently (Myelin Sheath). In infancy pathways between muscles and brain are myelinated. pathways between brain and sensory organs are myelinated in-utero. Synapse genesis- formation of connections (synapses) among neurons.During a growth spurt many new connections between neurons are created, many more connections are made than needed, synapses grow where they are needed.

What senses are best developed in infancy? What are least developed? How do we measure this?

Infants can taste-- flavor preferences are developed prenatally and through breast milk. Infants can smell-- avoid unpleasant odors, 6 day old infants prefer the scent of their mother's milk to another mother, one to two week old infants can recognize a mother's scent. Auditory perception is developed prenatally. Fluids "muffle" noises for the first days of life. babies recognize and orient to familiar voices and auditory stimuli. Auditory information from prenatal experience influences cries(precursors to language). Babies are able to discriminate basic speech sounds- called phonemes- very early in life. By age 4 1/2 months babies can recognize familiar words and turn their heads to their names. The least developed sense at birth, poor visual acuity (20/600), poor color vision (about -7), can sense movement, light, color, patterns. By six months- full color vision, visual acuity of 20/100. Takes about a year to be developed. Textbook: newborn infants are more likely to track faces than other patterns.

How do young infants spend their time? How do sleep patterns change through the first months of life?

Infants spend about 70%(16-18 hours a day) sleeping. And only 2 to 3 hours in alert, inactive state. By age 2 to 6 weeks, babies sleep only 14 to 16 hours a day, between 3 to 7 months of age, many infants reach a milestone that parents truly appreciate- they begin to sleep through the night and require only two or three shorter naps during the day. from at least two weeks before birth throughout the first and second month of life; babies spend at least half their sleeping hours in REM. REM declines steadily after birth and accounts for only 25-30% of total sleep for a six month old.

What is the big difference between the "nativist" and "interactionist" perspectives on language development?

Integrationists is brain and cognitive development interacting with the environment.

What are some strategies parents/communities use to try to stop teenagers from having sex? Do any of them work? What are the issues with "abstinence only" and "abstinence based" interventions/education? What is the most effective strategy for decreasing RISKY sexual activity in adolescence?

Interventions are largely unsuccessful in stopping adolescent sexual activity including: parenting, virginity pledges, sex education. Sexual literacy prevents risky sex. Virginity Pacts/ Pledges: no effect on high school sexual activity, doesn't work in "whole school" pledges, doesn't work in schools where its uncommon, effects of pledges: less contraception use-- riskier behavior. "Abstinence Only" programs: ineffective, don't decrease prevalence of behavior, don't make behavior less risky, slut shaming, failure to teach safety, failure to teach consent, February 2016-- defunded in the 2017 federal budget. Sexual Literacy: 40% of high school students didn't use a condom the last time they had sex, adolescents report using the withdrawal or rhythm method to prevent pregnancy. Comprehensive sexual education includes: pregnancy prevention, avoiding STD prevention, avoiding unwanted/unintended sex, reduces risky sexual behavior and increases "safe sex" practices. Countries with the most comprehensive sexual education programs that start the earliest have the lowest teen pregnancy and STD infection rates.

How did Kolberg adjust Piaget's theory of morality? What are the key changes from Pre-conventional to post-conventional morality?

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development: moral thinking becomes less rigid and more relative across childhood and adolescence-- Pre-Conventional ( 1 & 2), Conventional (3 & 4),Post- Conventional (5&6). Pre- Conventional: Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment-- "Right" is whatever doesn't get you in trouble, it doesn't count if you don't get caught, obey the grown ups, toddlerhood. Stage 2: Reciprocity Stage-- "Right" is about equality, things should be split and exchanged equally, I can do what is best for me, and so can you., preschool/kindergarten. Conventional: Stage 3: Conformity to the Group-- "Right" is being nice to everyone, we should all just go along with what everyone else is doing, early school age. Stage 4: Law and Order-- "Right" is based on our social consensus of following the social norms and rules, everyone should just follow the rules, middle childhood and early adolescence. Post-Conventional: Stage 5: "Constitution Stage"-- "Right" is based on human rights and what I value as a person, sometimes the law/social rules hurt people, those laws aren't "right", middle to late adolescence. Stage 6: "Ghandi Stage"-- "Right" is based on human rights, and doing the most good for the most people, our individual losses and gains must be understood in the context of the greater good, adulthood (in theory). KOHL BERG'S STAGES: provided individuals with series of moral dilemmas and conducted interviews about how they felt about the characters actions. The answer doesn't matter, the reason does. Pre-Conventional: focus on following rules and avoiding punishment. Conventional: focus on social order, justice, and law. Post-Conventional: focus on universal human rights and consideration of conscience, not laws.

What is a cohort effect? How might they effect developmental research?

Notes: Group of people born at the same time with a similar social/ historical experience. Textbook: an age-related difference among cohorts that is attributable to cultural/historical differences in cohorts' growing up experiences rather than to true developmental change.

What is puberty? What are the physical changes during puberty for girls? Boys? When does puberty begin for girls? Boys? What factors predict pubertal timing?

Notes: puberty is from "child" body to "adult" body. Textbook: puberty is the point at which a person reaches sexual maturity and is physically capable of fathering or conceiving a child. Girls: gain 18 pounds and 3.5 inches per year, hips get bigger, muscle to fat ratio 5:4. Boys: gain 20 pounds and 4 inches per year, shoulders get bigger, muscle to fat ratio 3:1. For most girls, sexual maturation begins at about age 9 to 11 as fatty tissues accumulates around their nipples, forming small "breast buds." For boys, sexual maturation begins at about 10 to 13 with an enlargement of the testes.

What is the most commonly used model of parenting style? What are the two dimensions of parenting style? What is the difference between authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved parenting? What are some outcomes associated with each?

PARENTAL RESPONSIVENESS: support and affection, response to child's needs in a warm, accepting, supportive manner. PARENTAL DEMANDINGNESS: Regulation, supervision, and high expectations of responsible and mature behavior from children. AUTHORITARIAN: very restrictive, expect obedience, do not explain why limits exist-- raise children with less favorable developmental outcomes; moody, unhappy, easily annoyed. AUTHORITATIVE: controlling but flexible, make reasonable demands, provide rationales for limits, rational and democratic-- tend to raise highly competent, well adjusted children. PERMISSIVE: accepting but lax, few demands, little monitoring-- raise children with less favorable developmental outcomes; impulsive and aggressive, self-centered, low in independence. UNINVOLVED: extremely lax and undemanding, may have rejected their children, may be overwhelmed and cannot devote energy to child rearing-- raise children who are aggressive, selfish, rebellious, perform poorly in school, are likely to abuse drugs.

What is plasticity? What is a neuron? What do neurons do? When are the two big neural "growth spurts?"

PLASTICITY: Notes: in infancy, the brain is very plastic and becomes less malleable as we age. plasticity refers to the brains ability to change and adapt. Textbook: capacity for change; a developmental state that has the potential to be shaped by experience. NEURONS: Neurons are cells that specialize in communication. nerve cells that receive and transmit neural impulses. The two big growth spurts are during infancy and Early Adolescence.

What language skills do children have in the pre-linguistic phase? How about the Holophrase period? What is Telegraphic speech? How does language develop in preschool?

PRELINGUISTIC: 2 months: cooing (vowels). 4-6 months: babbling(consonants and vowels). 8-10 months:dropping of non native sounds and turn taking happens here. 10-12 months: vocables(assign meaning or context to sounds). wa for water. 12- 13 months: receptive language. infants understand before they produce. HOLOPHRASE: One word sentences. 12-18 months: vocab grows one word at a time. 18-24 months: naming explosion- mostly concrete. multimodal motherese: exaggerated sentences, repeated words, actions to explain. TELEGRAPHIC: Simple sentences. 18-24 months: simple, grammatically accurate sentences. 2 years: turn taking, talking about novel info, monitor understanding. Fast mapping and Learning New words: attaching meaning after few uses, use social and context cues, syntactical bootstrapping-understnding of sentence structures, over and under extension. PRESCHOOL: sentences become increasingly complex and adult like. developing transformational grammar- asking questions, negative sentences, complex sentences. use grammatical morphemes (-ed,-ing,-s) correctly. over regularization.

What are the "big theories" on why attachment occurs? What is the generally accepted consensus about these theories?

PSYCHOLANALYTIC THEORY: I love you because you feed me, we derive pleasure from eating, we are attracted to that which gives us pleasure. LEARNING THEORY: I love you because you reward me, we bond with the person that provides for our physical and emotional needs. COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY: I love you because you are always there for me, once we know PCG exists even when we can't see her (object permanence), we become attached to that person who is always there for us. ETHOLOGICAL THEORY: I love you because attaching to mom serves an evolutionary purpose. historically-- we needed to stay close to mom in order to survive and not be eaten by predators, so infants attach to parents, and parents attach to infants. babies are endearing so that we take care of them, humans have an instinctual response to babies smiles and cries.

How can relationships with our parents effect our sibling relationships? What role do siblings play in development? How are these different for children of different birth order positions?

Parent-child relationships impact sibling relationships. Siblings try to differentiate themselves from one another. Siblings get along better when parents treat them differently, but don't show a preference. Older siblings benefit from tutoring and caring for younger siblings. Younger siblings benefit from direct instruction and modeling. Siblings play a role similar to peers in socializing around "taboo" topics (like sexuality). Sibling relationships impact self-regulation and peer relationships. Sibling conflict serves as a training ground for dealing with interpersonal relationships. Birth order effects have been historically overemphasized.

How do families change as new siblings are born? What does your text say about sibling rivalry?

Parents respond to changes in family systems, and children respond to parent's behavior. "Spillover hypothesis" suggests that when the oldest child reaches adolescence conflict increases with younger siblings. Sibling Rivalry- the spirit of competition, jealousy, and resentment that may arise between two or more siblings. This often begins as soon as a younger brother or sister arrives. The adjustment process is easier if the firstborn had secure relationships with both parents before the baby arrived and continues to enjoy close ties afterward.

Who is in a peer collective? How do they form? How do the reinforce values? How do peer collectives change as we move into older adolescence?

Parents socialize certain values/traits, we find peers who share those values/traits. Friends reinforce the value/traits they all share. Traits/values are strengthened by the peer group. We select peers who are a lot like us. Cliques socializes us/influences our behavior. ADOLESCENCE: from early to late adolescence social groups become more differentiated, more permeable, less hierarchical. Composition may shift, key characteristics do not.

What is a "peer"? What are some important functions of peers?

Peers are social equals to a child-- generally similar aged children, operate at similar levels of social and behavioral complexity, become increasingly important through childhood and adolescence. Peers promote development of social behaviors, provide a context for decision- making skills and compromises, interact in intimate relationships (share feelings and get support), source of information about the world, provide models and feedback in regard to identity, influence self-image.

What is a secure base? What is stranger anxiety? Separation anxiety?

SECURE BASE- the use of a caregiver as a base from which to explore the environment and to which to return emotional support. STRANGER ANXIETY- a wary or fretful reaction that infants and toddlers often display when approached by an unfamiliar. SEPARATION ANXIETY- a wary or fretful reaction that infants and toddlers often display when separated from the person(s) to whom they are attached.

Why do we date in adolescence? What do typical dating relationships look at? What do researchers know about sexuality in adolescence? What makes it hard to study?

SULLIVAN'S THEORY: children transition from intimate relationships with parents and adults to intimate sam-sex friendships. Adolescents transition from intimate same- sex friendships to sexually, intimate other sex friendships. Quality of early relationships( i.e. same sex friendships) is predictive of quality of intimate romantic relationships. Sullivan said one form of intimacy ends in order to begin another form. Modern researchers argue that the three shift in their value, but do not end. Dating in adolescence is for fun, not for mate selection. Romantic relationships are a protective factor, especially fro higher risk adolescents. 11-13 Years: start socializing with potential partners (last for weeks). 14-16 years: relationships become more meaningful (lasts about 6 months). 17 or 18 years: start to think about log term survival of relationship and growth (last over a year)."Early starters"-- before 15, are less mature, less imaginative, less happy with how they look, poorer quality relationships in adulthood. "Late bloomers" are more likely have social adjustment issues and be insecure. RESEARCHERS SAY: normal part of adolescence, occurs across cultures and eras, too "taboo" to study, focus on bad outcomes.

What is self-esteem? How does esteem change through childhood and adolescence? What are some social and cognitive factors that might cause these changes (think Erikson and Piaget)? What is social comparison? Is it good for our self-esteem? What do high/low self-esteem look like?

Self esteem- how positive or negative a person feels about him/herself in general. Young children: 4-7, gerbeally have a relatively positive sense of self and high self esteem in most domains. In middle childhood: 7-8, sense of self becomes entwined with others' evaluations of self. Generally, self esteem dips at the elementary to secondary school transition (and other school transitions). Why does self-esteem fall-- egocentrism: everyone is looking at me. Theory of mind: people might be thinking one thing, and saying another. "Peer-centric phase of life: desire for acceptance. Frequent life transitions: constantly changing schools and social roles. Low Self esteem: social withdrawal, risk taking behavior (substance use, criminality) and avoiding new challenges. High Self Esteem: stand up for him/herself, share and create positive relationships, accept compliments and negative feedback, ask for help.

Can you define attachment? What are the 4 stages of attachment? Roughly when do they occur? How might cognitive development (e.g., object permanence, symbolic thinking) play in to this developmental trajectory?

Strong affectional ties to special people in our lives. Characterized by wanting that person to be around and feeling sad when that person isn't around (i.e., missing them). Infants and parents become attached to one another. Asocial phase(0-6 weeks)-- Both people and non-people produce similar positive reactions. Indiscriminant attachment(6 weeks- 6 months)--Favors certain people (e.g., Mom) but any person that can meet my needs is okay. Phase of Specific Attachment(7-9 months)--First true attachment, Strongly favor one person, Secure base for exploration, Onset of separation anxiety, Peak of Stranger Danger. Phase of Multiple Attachment (9-18 months-- Attachments to multiple caregivers, Other people can serve as a secure base for exploration, Peak of separation anxiety, Stranger Danger begins to fade.

What is temperament? What are the 3 big categories used to describe infant temperament? Can you define each?

TEMPERAMENT: the early precursor to personality, relatively stable across the lifespan, good deal of overlap with emotionality. 3 BIG CATEGORIES: easy- dont cry easily, dont get frustrated easily, warm up to new people secure attachment. difficult- opposite insecure attachment , slow to warm- in the middle.

What is a "fragmented self concept?" Is this normal? What are "false self behaviors?" Are they normal?

The Fragmented Self- "false self behaviors"- are when we act in ways we know to be inauthentic or fake. Most likely to happen in dating situations, least likely to happen in dating situations, least likely to happen around close friends.

What do Schaffer and Kipp mean by developments in "hardware" and "software"?

The mind's hardware is the nervous system, including the brain, the sensory receptors and their neural connections. The mind's software is rules, strategies and other "mental programs" that specify how information is registered, interpreted, stored,and retrieved, and analyzed.