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Democracy VS Demagoguery

- A democratic system is based on a sound legal system is designed to avoid decay by welcoming free speech and harsh criticism, democracy needs input to adapt to a changing world. - Free speech turned to license and irresponsible rhetoric is demagoguery, such speaking injures and threatens the integrity of any speechmaking subsystem, but more than that it threatens the social, political and legal systems of all of us. - Articulate demagogues like Hitler and Mussolini have destroyed political systems, through deliberately using irresponsible speech. - Hitler used rhetoric irresponsibly to promote ideas of hate. - The use of outright lies, manufactured facts and dirty tricks is unethical

Figure of speech

- Are expressions used outside their literal meanings. - These are statements that can add vividness, spunk, and delight to your message but they can create confusion if used in excess

Basic Persuasive Organizational Methods

- Disputed facts: uses topical/sometimes spatial - Beliefs and values: uses topical - Action & policy: uses problem-solution, problem-cause-solution, comparative advantages, both-sides method, Monroe's motivated sequence

Acceptance speech

- Giving thanks for a gift or an award

Whorf- Sapir Principle

- Language creates our sense of reality by giving meaning to events, objects, people and places **emphasis on creates** - language is said to create reality by affecting the ways in which we conceptualize our world - Our world is largely governed by this powerful language system

Complex Process of listening: physical reception, selecting, organizing, interpreting & evaluating, responding, remembering

- Physical Reception: hearing - Selecting: attending to some things and not others - Organizing: organizing to create meaning - Interpreting & evaluating: making sense of overall situation and judging its value - Responding: communicating attention and interest verbally or non verbally - Remembering: retaining what has been heard

Commemorative speech

- Praising or giving tribute, celebrating - Inspire, arouse sentiments, heighten appreciation or admiration - Show audience why subject is praise-worthy - Uses metaphors, imagery & rhythm to create stories that evoke feeling

name and briefly explain all of Aristotle's five cannons:

1. Invention - choosing topic (interesting to audience) 2. Disposition - body paragraphs/organization (addresses audiences objections/concerns) 3. Style - language being used 4. Memory - extemporaneous 5. Delivery -

enthymeme:

-syllogistic arguments with unstated premises. Their rhetorical function is to let the audience correctly supply the desired missing premises. -Like cognitive-response theory, enthymematic persuasion assumes that thoughts are often more influential if they are our own rather than if they were explicitly stated in the message by others.

Onomatopoeia

-words that imitate the sounds to which they refer - "buzz" - "snarl" "tintinnabulation"

Unification:

Appeal to principles, goals, values that groups have in common

- Unsupported personal attacks:

diverts attention from weakness in argument

Hasty Generalization:

draws conclusions based on too little evidence

Charisma

dynamism, personality, expression

fallacy

error in reasoning

Either-Or:

false dilemma, forces a decision between only two alternatives when more exist

the major reason Monroe's motivated sequence is such an effective way of organizing persuasive speeches that seek action from listeners is because it

follows the process of human thinking

Inductive reasoning

from general principle (generalization) o Arguing from accepted to particular cases d. Inductive Reasoning → from specific instances o Watch wording, quality evidence, statistics

A persuasive strategy used to provide listeners with just a bit of counterclaim to help them develop their own defenses against it is called?

inoculation

Competence:

intelligence, expertise (skill), knowledge of topic

Red-herring:

introduces irrelevant issue to divert attention to topic

persuasive speaking

non-violent means of ethically influencing & motivating other through messages Goal: generates desired attitudes, opinions, beliefs and behaviors - Seeks a mental dialogue with audience - Targeted audience: who you want to reach - No opposition = no need to persuade

Major traits of acceptance speech

o Be brief o Be humble - recognize other contributors o Be gracious

Introduction speech rules from text

o Be brief but adequate o Stress the importance and appropriateness of the speakers subject o Make sure you know something about the speaker and subject o Consider the audience o Speak with sincerity and enthusiasm o Pay attention to the speaker after you have finished

What are the 3 C's?

o Competence: intelligence, expertise (skill), knowledge of topic o Character: sincerity, trustworthiness, honesty o Charisma: dynamism, personality, expression

Topical order:

o Main points are part or sub-topics of thesis o Main points are equal and consistent

Spatial:

o Places locational o Follows a directional pattern

Problem-solution (need-plan):

o Presents the problem and offers a solution o Typically two main points

Chronological order

o Sequence of events over time o Explain a process (EX: the digestive process) o Demonstrates how to do something

Casual Order (logical):

o Shows a cause-effect relationship o Typically two main points

persuasive speech

persuade

Inoculation:

provide listeners with just a bit of counterclaim to help them develop their own defenses against it

reluctant/aggressive listening

"non-listening"

Comprehensive listening

(active) listening to understand the message

Critical listening

(evaluative) listening for the purpose of accepting or rejecting the message

What is Aristotle's invention?

(focus) - Topic of significance - Narrow topic - Select purpose → General purpose (to persuade) → Specific purpose (what action do you want from audience) → Thesis statement (central idea) - Evidence of research

What is Aristotle's style?

(language) - Precise, creative, evocative - Appropriate to audience and topic

Appreciative listening

(passive) listening for pleasure and interest

What is Aristotle's disposition?

(structure) - Introduction - Body - Conclusion

Empathetic listening

(supportive) listening "as if" you were in the other persons shoes

What is Aristotle's memory?

(the lost cannon) - We don't memorize anymore, use extemporaneous style instead - Fluency of thought

Both-Sides Method (find this in the textbook)

- Presents arguments both pro and con to the point you are making - Has the appeal of objective/rational evaluation. Subtle, yet honest call for fair play - Two sided presentation is more effective in the long run than one sided - This method of organization typically opens with the "other" side that is a conceding of some of the obvious arguments against (con) your position - Three general ways to organize two-sided messages 1) acknowledge and concede first (con); 2) present your side first (pro); and 3) repeat the con-pro order with each issue (con/pro, con/pro, con/pro and so forth)

Monroe's Motivated Sequence:

- Preview persuasive intent - Present need - Satisfy the problem with a solution - Visualize the results - Request action

After dinner speech

- Purpose is to entertain - Be light hearted - whimsical, yet organized - Be naturally humorous to provoke smiles and chuckles - Deliver expertly to produce desired impact

Introduction speech

- Purpose of an introduction speech is to create harmony between the speaker and the audience, which in turn creates a desire for the audience to want to hear the speakers subject o Build enthusiasm: establish a welcoming climate o Be brief/accurate o Adapt to the audience, occasion and speaker o Create anticipation & drama

visual aids

- To enhance speaker credibility - Increase audience interest - Focus attention on specific point - Increase retention of message

What is Aristotle's delivery?

- Voice - Posture - Eye contact

Euphemism

- a mild, inoffensive substitute for a "bad" or negatively connoted word - "passed away" - "pleasingly plump"

Paradox

- a seemingly self-contradictory, ironic, or absurd statement - Paradoxes, refer to actual conditions or concepts which appear to present an impossible situation - logical puzzle, contradicts itself - "we will teach these natives democracy if we have too shoot every last one of them"

Hyperbole

- an exaggeration - "his arms dangled a mile out of his coat sleeves"

Metaphor

- an implied comparison that transports the listener from the thing itself to a sensory image or experience. - draws resemblance between two different things - "fiery temper, thirsty sword"

5 kinds of listening

- appreciative (passive - empathetic (supportive) - comprehensive (active) - critical listening (evaluative) - reluctant/ aggressive

Simile

- comparison - made with "like" or "as" - avoid cliches & overused expressions - "the present administration is bobbing around like a cork in a stormy sea"

To speak in double speak means to...

- distortion of meaning

Prosopopoeia

- having the dead speak - "if washington were here he would say..."

Culpable ignorance:

- ignorance coming from carelessness & thus deserves blame - the lack of knowledge or understanding that results from the omission of ordinary care to acquire such knowledge or understanding. - We have an obligation to get our facts straight before sending messages that might capriciously misinform or injure the receiver.

3 types of credibility?

- initial (source) - derived (practical) - terminal

Disputed Facts

- makes use of facts that may be inconclusive (debatable/not everyone agrees with them) - cannot be answered absolutely - can contain predictions - Speaker advocates position based on evidence

Emotional Appeals:

- must be backed by evidence - Appealing to emotions is not a new ethical question, Plato and Aristotle questioned it a lot time ago. - They believed that emotional appeals should be avoided because they detract from the truth. - The use of emotional appeals when there is no evidence to support ones points is for Aristotle (and most modern rhetoricians) considered unethical

Aristotle's three proofs of argument

- pathos (emotion) - logos (reasoning/logic) - ethos (credibility)

Immediate action:

- persuading your audience to start engaging in a specific behavior. - Many passive agreement topics can become immediate action-oriented topics as soon as you tell your audience what behavior they should engage in (e.g., sign a petition, call a senator, vote). -While it is much easier to elicit passive agreement than to get people to do something, you should always try to get your audience to act and do so quickly

Context

- provides meaning to the word

Abstract words

- refer to ideas and concepts - the more vague & ambiguous a word, the more abstract it is - often leads to misinterpretation - *furthest thing from referent

Concrete words

- refer to tangible objects (people, places, things) - more specific & descriptive a word is the more concrete it is - helps provide us with a clear picture

Clear communication calls for.... (3 things)

- referent - reference - symbol

Synecdoche

- refers to whole thing by the name of one of its parts -the use of a part for the whole or the whole part or parts. -"all hands on deck", "she wears a jewelry store" - calling a car "wheels"

Listening

- requires mindfulness, being fully engaged in the moment and choosing to attend to the other

Fair Hearing:

- showing tolerance - "fair fighting" - As receivers we have an obligation to seek out clues and choices, to question and clarify, to give a fair hearing once we have committed ourselves to some legitimate interest in an issue. - We must make an effort to understand the senders bias and intent. We should show tolerance, allow another person an opportunity to talk.

Catachresis

- somewhat abusive phraseology, involving the use of an incompatible word - "i am not guilty of such virtues" - "he threatened me a good turn"

Connotative Language

- subjective, feelings or emotional meaning that individuals place on words - more abstract - "snarl words" --> negative - "purr words" --> highly positive

Metonymy

- substituting the name of an item associated with a larger concept for the idea. - word we use to describe another thing that is closely linked to that thing - "Sword" for war, "brass" for military officers - Crown = power/authority

Denotative Language

- the objective, literal meaning of a word - dictionary definition - clear

Referent

- the thing itself

Reference

- the thought of the thing

Symbol

- the word representing the thing

Oxymoron

- use of incongruous or contradicting details - "cruel kindess" - "make haste slowly" - "jumbo shirmp"

Alliteration

- use of words beginning with the same letter - "over stock and stone" - "through thick and thin"

Doublespeak

- used to soften bad news, shift blame, or if completely unethical cover up the truth

Action and policy

- what action should/should not be taken? - move people to action - know your goal (to gain passive agreement or immediate action) - convince audience there is a need and why its relevant - explain plan for solving problem - show plans practicality

Beliefs and values

- what is better, right or moral? - more difficult - must justify assertion (establish common ground, present criteria of measurement, show how your assertion measures up against the criteria) - goal is to affect beliefs, action is implied

Persuasive Strategies (6)

-elimination -maximization -inoculation -unification -anchoring -fear appeals

Aristotle's 5 cannons

1. invention (focus) 2. disposition (structure) 3. Memory (lost cannon) 4. Style (language) 5. Delivery

reasoning from sign?

?

A process of thinking in which we selectively leave out details about concrete or real things

Abstracting

Elimination:

Acknowledge counterclaims, then destroy it by detecting fallacies

ethos

Credibility (behavioral process) - Action, action intention, response to speaker - Audience perception of speaker qualification

According to lecture, in order to fulfill the three major traits of a good acceptance speech, one must include brevity, humility &....

Graciousness

Anchoring

Identify a need, belief or value, then link the proposal to the identified need

Fear appeals:

Identify negative results that will occur if desired action is not taken

What is logos?

Logic organization/reasoning - Evidence and reasoning (cognitive process) → logical thoughts, thinking, process by which knowledge is acquired - Organize structure → cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) - Evidence → supporting materials; to draw conclusions, specific, novel, objective - Reasoning → process of drawing conclusions based on evidence

What is pathos?

Motivation (emotion) - Emotional appeal (affective process) → feelings, thoughts or things more emotional - Engaging passion to motivate the audience → appeal to emotions can be used to motivate by evoking pleasure or avoiding pain o Passive emotions: love, peace, pride o Negative emotions: guilt, shame, fear - Appeal to needs can be used to motivate action based on getting needs fulfilled → Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Listening improvement (3)

Motivation: requires mindfulness - Look for areas of interest - Relate topic to self - Challenge yourself intellectually Access: clear channel for communication - Eliminate external noise - Avoid fatigue - Accommodate hearing differences - Learn language and vocabulary ahead of time - Ask for clarification Skills: Dealing with internal & external obstacles - Learn good note taking system - Listen for ideas and facts - Manage distractions - External: noise, temperature, vocabulary, message overload, message complexity - internal: Preoccupation, prejudgment , lack of effort, too much effort

The argument that one thing (like smoking a cigarette) will inevitably lead to something else (like doing drugs & ending up in jail for stealing) is what type of invalid reasoning?

Slippery slope

Targeting the audience

When it comes to persuasion, there is no change for those already on-board, you can't change those who are anchored in their beliefs, - so the target audience are those who are in the middle, however slightly, open to change.

Passive Agreement:

When we attempt to gain the passive agreement of our audiences, our goal is to get our audiences to agree with what we are saying and our specific policy without asking the audience to do anything to enact the policy.

The three basic issues in dealing with questions of policy:

This is paramount to any policy persuasion, and is aligned with Monroe's Motivated Sequence. - You must show that there is a need (if not, then why should the audience care???). - You must then present yourplan to satisfy that need. But your audience must believe your plan will work, you have to show the practicality of your plan (how it works to satisfy the need or solve the problem): - Need, Plan, Practicality.

- Incremental plagiarism:

Using bits of texts or someone's words without crediting them or only mentioning them in passing

Informative speech

achieve clarity and interest

- Communication sensitivity:

aligning the message to the situation, the context and the audience

Persuasion:

an act designed to change/reinforce the audiences beliefs, attitudes or actions

Syntax

arrangement of the words to create well-informed sentences in a particular language - provides additional meaning

Slippery Slope:

assumes the first step will inevitably lead to subsequent disaster

Ad Hominem:

attacks the person not the issue

Listening is defined as a complex process and involves being mindful. Mindfulness refers to

choosing to listen -- being fully engaged in the moment

Invalid Analogy

compares two unlike things as though they were similar (ex: apples and oranges)

- Lies and false facts:

distorts the social construction of meaning

Initial (source) credibility

reputation (expertise) speaker brings

- Affording clues & choice:

reveal intent of the message, audience is free to choose to accept

What are cannons?

rules

Maximization:

show the superiority of your own ideas in relation to opposing ideas

Character:

sincerity, trustworthiness, honesty

Derived (practical) credibility

speaker produces during the speech

- Global plagiarism:

taking an entire document and passing it off as your own

- Patchwork plagiarism:

taking chunks of texts from multiple sources without crediting the author

Ethical

truth-telling, transparency, non-violence/harm

Terminal Credibility

what you leave audience with, self-presentation, impression management

Causal reasoning

→ establish cause/effect relationship o Consider variables, avoid assuming only one cause

Deductive reasoning

→ from general principle (generalization) o Arguing from accepted to particular cases

Analogical reasoning

→ parallel o Comparing two similar events and infer what is true for one case is true for another