Dev. Psych Exam 3

Blended families/remarriage (benefits, risks, are younger or older children most at risk for negative outcomes & why?)

*Preschoolers adapt more readily than older kids Benefits - additional income - shared housework - new healthy relationships Challenges - may not want to "share" love with new parent - may feel they are betraying other parent - may wish for parental reunion - disciplinary issues - may be less affectionate than bio rent/ kid relationship

Single parent households (prevalence - slide 10, typical gender of head of household, benefits, risks, factor most associated with child outcomes)

- 80% are led by women - benefits: more focus on children (kid #1), do not witness conflict b/w rents, strong parent as model (adaptive, active coping), intimacy of small family - Challenges: many responsibilities, efficacy strongly linked with social support (another person to help provide social support to the parent/ex: taking kid to school when parent can't)

Adoption (benefits, risk for problems compared to non-adopted siblings)

- Adopted children fare better (than siblings that were not taken out of the abusive family) than non-adopted biological siblings - increased risk for emotional, behavioral, & academic problems (compared to non-adoptive sibs) due to trauma benefit: more stable and safe home environment

Effect of siblings (under what conditions are sibling relationships the most harmonious?)

- Birth of a sibling can result in the older child withdrawing or regressing to childish behavior - Sibling relationships are more harmonious: A. In mid-late adolescence B. If same-sex C. When parents have a good relationship D. When parents are affectionate, caring, &responsive to each other & all of their children

GLBTQIA families (what are the differences within each developmental domain between children raised by GLBTQIA and non-GLBTQIA families?)

- Children similar to children raised with heterosexual parents - ***No significant differences in any developmental domain***

Homophily

- Friends tend to be similar in age, of same sex, and from the same race or ethnic group - Friends have similar interests, attitudes toward school, recreational pursuits, popularity, future plans, and drug use

Extended family (prevalence - slide 10, which family member(s) are children most likely to live with if not their parents?)

- Most likely grandparents benefits: more stable home life

Divorce (effects of divorce on children, difference in effects for younger and older children, factors that increase negative outcomes of divorce, is it better to divorce or stay together for the children's sake?)

- Parents underestimate the effects of divorce on children, but...it's NOT healthy to "stay together for the kids" - Acting out and rumination are common - There is evidence for Parental Alienation Syndrome - Several factors increase the likelihood of adjustment problems: A. A dramatic decrease in family income B. Abandonment or fear of abandonment C. Diminished parenting D. Parental conflict E. Dislocation - most acute effect during the first two years - more likely to have problems with school achievement, conduct, adjustment, self-concept, and parent-child relations - younger children can adjust better Divorce and Remarriage

Drop-out Prevalence rates (slide 38 - national rate & how variable is this rate?) & adverse effects of drop-out

- Proportion of individuals who have not completed high school has declined steadily over the last 50 years. - Huge variations in rates from region to region (national rate obscures this variability) *National average: 6%, but dependent on race and state - Differences across ethnicity - Dropping out is the cause of a culmination of a long process adverse effects: 1. more likely to never go back to school 2. lower socioeconomic status/financial instability 3. paid less

Delinquency (definition)

- Risky behavior, rule-breaking, experimentation all normative in adolescence - Problems that have their origins and onset during adolescence (starts and ends in ado.) = better outcomes - Problems that have their roots in early periods of development = worse outcomes - Many problems are relatively transitory - Problem behaviors not direct consequence of going through normative changes of adolescence itself

Factors that affect onset of puberty (health, nutrition, genetics, gender) & effects for early & late maturation for boys & girls (slides 17 - 19)

- Timing of puberty = interaction between nature and nurture - Nutrition and Menarche (Secular trend) - Early maturation typically has positive and/or complicated impact on boys (though increases risk for delinquent behavior) - Early maturation typically has negative impact on girls in terms of psychological well-being *early adversity contributes to puberty happening faster

Co-rumination

- has a negative impact - discussing personal problems with friends - constantly talking about the same problems and issues Risks: Reinforce each other's aggressiveness and risky behaviors

Temporary legal guardians (the effects of frequent moving & relation between child outcomes and specialized trauma training)

- usually due to parental neglect or substance abuse - most families reunite within 1 year - frequent moves are disruptive - Foster homes w/ specialized training = better child outcomes *not all foster homes are trained in trauma

5 major physical components/changes during puberty (slide 3)

1. Rapid acceleration of growth 2. Development of primary sex characteristics 3. Development of secondary sex characteristics 4. Changes in body composition - Muscle & fat composition 5. Changes in circulatory and respiratory systems - Increased strength/endurance

5 important changes in adolescent thinking (slide 33)

1. We become better able to think about what is possible, not just about what actually is - Hypothetical thinking 2. We become better able to think in sophisticated ways about abstract concepts, like love, democracy, and justice 3. We become better at thinking about the process of thinking - Metacognition 4. We improve in our ability to think about things from multiple vantage points at the same time 5. We start to see things as relative, rather than absolute

According to your book, what percentage of youths show signs of video game addiction (slide 50)?

10%, 1 in 10 = video game addiction - have withdrawal symptoms if they try to stop - Teens spend 90 minutes daily on social media

Gottman's 4 Horsemen of the Relationship Apocalypse (this is from the video you watched for the ch. 7 assignment):

5:1 ratio (what it is & how couples that stay together vs. breaking up differ with this ratio): relationships are like a bank account (deposits and withdrawals) and the majority should be deposits (positives) need to know specifically what the horseman are and how they're defined: Contempt: using mockery, sarcasm and hostile humor with the intent to make one's partner feel stupid, foolish, or otherwise inferior Criticism: a complaint taken to the next level by including statements that are blaming, attack character, or are otherwise insulting Defensiveness: defending oneself from real or perceived criticism by making excuses, deflecting blame or otherwise avoiding responsibility Stonewalling: actively disengaging from a conversation. Includes looking away and not responding to questions. Often occurs when one partner is feeling overwhelmed by the conversation. Which of the 4 horsemen is most strongly related to breaking up?

General age of onset for girls & boys, length of puberty process (slide 5)

Adolescent growth spurt *Girls 2 years earlier than boys Onset: girls 7-13, boys 9.5-13.5 Lasts 1.5-6 years Tanner stages - development of secondary sex characteristics

Parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, disengaged/uninvoled, child outcomes for each, which one is associated with the best & worst outcomes on average) warmth = positive regard, physical or verbal affection control= disciplines, rules, boundaries

Authoritative: (high warmth, high control) parents are high on both dimensions, they have high expectations and enforce rules but also love and accept their children, have & enforce rules but they explain the rules (leading to higher levels of self-competence in their kids), provide structure & routine, allow choice when appropriate (the children have chores, but may have a choice in which chores they do) *More likely to lead to the best outcomes for children - high self-esteem, less externalizing & internalizing behavior problems, self-competence, tend to have higher grades and are responsible, self-reliant, and friendly. Authoritarian: (low warmth, high control) parents are high on control but low on warmth, set strict standards, rarely display affection, and rarely take outward pride in their child's accomplishments (meaning they don't convey their pride to the child but they still may feel it) Their way or the highway, they do not explain the rules, use of "Because I said so" or "my way or the highway" is explanation enough These children are more likely to lack self-esteem, less happy, self-competence, display anxiety or depression, be unsure of themselves, may follow directions only when parent is around but disobey when parent is not there, externalizing & internalizing problems Permissive: (high warmth, low control) parents are low on control but high on warmth, they are affectionate, indulgent, and make few demands for home order or responsibility Want to be the child's friends, allows the child to voice opinion & decide matters they shouldn't be deciding (like bedtime or ice cream for breakfast) Children at risk for externalizing behavior problems, rule-breaking, delinquency because they rebel when they encounter rules, highly likely to disobey authority, substance abuse, etc., can also lack competence because parents did tasks for them, can lack follow-through, impulsivity, self-control Disengaged/Uninvolved parents (low warmth low control): low on both warmth and control and who focus on their own needs, interacting minimally with their children, also called uninvolved, these are neglectful parents, may have substance use disorders or mental illness *Most likely to lead to the worst outcomes for children - mental illness, low self-esteem, problems in peer relationships, problems with academic performance, etc.

Brain changes during adolescence (dopamine, serotonin, amygdala, reward circuitry of brain, prefrontal cortex) & the effect it has on adolescent behavior - 100% chance you'll be tested on this

Brain maturation - Prefrontal cortex developing until mid-20s Changes in neurotransmitters -Changes in dopamine (pleasure/reward/motivation) and serotonin (mood regulation) neurotransmitters (chemical substances in the brain that carry electrical impulses across synapses) levels and the limbic system (area of the brain important for emotional experience and processing social information) make adolescents more emotional, more responsive to stress, and more sensation-seeking -pleasure/reward centers/circuitry of brain & amygdala more developed than prefrontal cortex (thus making adolescents overestimate benefits and underestimate risks)*** Implications for behavior - Risk-taking and behavioral problems during adolescence - May crave novelty, reward, and stimulation - Risk for addiction

Bullying (definition & unique risks of cyber-bullying - slide 47)

Bullying - aggression by an individual that is repeatedly directed toward particular peers (victim) *always an unbalance of power ex: popular kid picking on a rejected kid - Cyberbullying (happening over the internet) new challenge for kids: people are meaner on the internet, a bully can remain unanimous, the audience (people witnessing the cyberbullying) tends to be bigger, you can see it for longer - Types of victims: A. Perceived as shy, anxious, socially withdrawn B. Perceived as aggressive, irritating, provocative - Styles of coping A. Aggression, anger, contempt B. Passive capitulation or submissive avoidance

When/how/under what conditions is dating beneficial and when/how/under what conditions is it harmful? (slide 22)

Dating serves a recreational purpose - Average age to begin dating is 13-14 - Dating can mean different things, including group activities, group dates, casually dating couples, & serious involvement Impact of dating: - Early/intensive dating & no dating has stunting effect on psychosocial development. - Moderate dating after age 15 appears is beneficial - Romance has powerful impact on emotional state A. Risk for depression - dating tends to not be risk factor, though

How do peer relationships change from middle childhood to adolescence (slide 19)

Developments in peer relationships: - Sharp increase in time spent with peers - Peer groups function more often without adult supervision. - Adolescents have more contact with opposite-sex friends. - Emergence of larger peer groups

Friendship (definition, gender differences in how boys and girls get closer/spend time together, how are friendships different from sibling relationships?)

Friendship: voluntary relationship of two people involving mutual liking - Provide unique opportunities for conflict management - Girls: intimacy & self-disclosure - Boys: shared activities (i.e. - sports) - Friendships in: Early Middle Childhood cost/reward/interests Later Middle Childhood & ado trust, assistance, loyalty, & shared values - Homophily

Substance use

GENERAL prevalence rates for alcohol, nicotine, pot, & hard drugs (use slide 45's rates): how common is daily substance use: - Alcohol (75%), nicotine (50%), marijuana (45%) - Other drug use is more rare - Experimentation common - Only 10% of teenagers have used an illicit drug other than marijuana in the last month daily use: rare is substance use normative or non-normative during adolescence?: yes

Peer influence (slide 42 - is an individual most susceptible to peer influence in early, mid or late adolescence? Peer pressure definition, in what domains do parents and/or peers have a greater influence)

Peer pressure: pressure to conform to group norms Most powerful when: - Youth are younger and socially anxious - Peers are friends and/or of high status - Behavioral standards are ambiguous - Most susceptible in early adolescence, though pressure actually increases throughout adolescence Can have both positive & negative effects

Under what conditions are strategies to reduce prejudice most effective (slide 59)?

Prejudice: having a negative view of one or more groups Contact with different groups is effective only when children are: - Of equal status - Cooperating in pursuing common goals - Hearing adults support not being prejudiced - Educated about instances of prejudice - Asked to consider fairness and how to handle the situation while role-playing discriminatory situation

Storm & Stress model of adolescence (slides 14-17):

What the model/theory generally states: the theory that states that Adolescence can be a time of increased risk, but conflict & negative outcomes are not universal 3 domains typically mea1). 1. Conflict with Parents, 2. Mood Disruptions, 3. Risky Behavior"sured/studied *mixed evidence whether it is and isn't a thing Evidence for "storm & stress" - normative increases risky behavior, poor decision making, & delinquent behavior due to Asymmetry in maturation of different brain structures related to reward, emotional processing, & decision making - Conflict between parents & adolescenct increases - Puberty is a sensitive period for stress: A. adolescents are more physiologically & emotionally responsive to negative emotions & stressful stimuli than children or adults B. onset of many mental illnesses tend to occur in adolescence Evidence against "Storm & stress": - Cross-cultural evidence (including the US) suggests that most adolescents report: A. feeling loved and feel that their parents listen, give good advice, & help them make better decisions B. Do not feel significantly distressed by conflict within the home (though their parents do report distress) - Even though conflict b/w parents & teens increases, it tends not to be severe for 75% of families takeaways: - Adolescence CAN be a time of increased risk, but conflict & negative outcomes are not universal - There's normative increases in risky behavior, conflict within families, & emotionality; puberty is a sensitive period for stress - 25% of families experience severe conflict & associated with negative behavioral & emotional outcomes for adolescents

Puberty (definition, end result of puberty, GENERAL role of the endocrine system)

a biological process; after going through puberty, you can reproduce (endocrine system) - middle childhood

Life-course persistent vs. adolescent limited delinquency - differences between the two groups, risk factors associated with both, long-term effects of both

adolescent limited delinquency: relatively minor criminal acts by those who aren't consistently antisocial - Short-lived, usually vanishing by late adolescence or early adulthood - no long-term negative outcomes Life-course persistent: antisocial behaviors that emerge at an early age and continue throughout life (e.g., hitting at 3, shoplifting at 12, and car theft at 16) - Fewer than 5% of youth fit this pattern - long-term negative outcomes risks for life-course: - adverse childhood experiences - heredity - biology (genetic predispositions) - poverty - cognitive processes - family processes

2-parent households (prevalence - slide 10, benefits, risks)

advantages: 2X the income, resources, social support Potential Disadvantage: modeling for negative interactions ex: you might be teaching kids how to fight in destructive ways

Eating Disorders - be able to differentiate between the types (Bulimia, Anorexia nervosa, Eating disorder NOS, Binge eating)

anorexia: involves actual self-starvation that results in dramatic and self-induced weight loss, nearly 20 percent of teens with anorexia starve themselves to death *See yourself as fat bulimia: a pattern of overeating (binging) followed by purging - purging can be vomiting, laxative use, excessive exercise, periods of fasting Eating Disorder NOS: a catch-all disorder for eating that doesn't fit into a specific category binge-eating: binging without the purging

What are the risks associated with working (specifically related to delinquency and academic performance)?

benefits: - learning the value of a dollar - developing a work ethic - time management risks: a)School performance suffers; less extracurricular participation b)Mental health and behavioral problems, including lowered self-esteem, increased anxiety, and depression. Extensive part-time work is associated with substance abuse and more frequent behavior problems. c)Working adolescents spend most of their earnings on themselves, an experience that provides misleading expectations about how to allocate income. d) take the easy classes

Deviancy training

clique members encourage, model, and reward each other for aggression or antisocial behavior

Clique vs. crowd - definitions & differences between them

clique: small group of child or adolescent friends similar in attitudes, interests, sex, race, and age *Self-selected & actual friends Crowd: larger mixed-sex group of older children with similar attitudes and values - Loosely organized & can be based on others' perceptions - Parenting styles can influence crowd endorsement ex: nerds, jocks, geeks

Romantic partner relationships/marital relationships (impact on children, how can witnessing conflict be beneficial for children?)

constructive conflict: positive effect - teaches children to fight fair and resolve conflict the healthy/right way destructive conflict: negative effect Influences on the Marital System: Harmful effects of chronic parental conflict - Jeopardizes children's feelings of a stable family; makes child feel anxious, frightened, and sad - Diverts parents' attention away from high-quality parenting Unemployment or work stress can undermine parenting skills Parents need to work as a team, with each supporting the child in their unique ways

Dating Violence (slide 31-32) - definition, prevalence rates, risk factors that increase the likelihood of becoming a perpetrator,

dating violence: violence that occurs in relationships in which teens are dating prevalence rates: reported by 20% of girls and 10% of boys Risk factors for perpetrators: - Harsh or inconsistent parental discipline - Previous exposure to interpersonal violence - Lack of communication with parents - Condoned by parents, friends, schools - They are antisocial, aggressive, not successful in school, and use drugs

Egocentrism & associated cognitive errors (definitions, consequences, when are these most prevalent - early, mid, or late adolescence): Imaginary audience Personal fable Illusion of invulnerability

egocentrism: increased introspection, self-consciousness, intellectualization and engagement in the following cognitive errors: 1. Imaginary audience 2. Personal fable 3. Illusion of invulnerability most prevalent: early adolescence adolescent egocentrism: Adolescents are overly concerned with their own thoughts and feelings. ex: When Levi's grandmother died unexpectedly, Levi was preoccupied with how the funeral would affect his weekend plans and ignored how upset his mother was by her own mother's death. Imaginary audience: Adolescents believe that others are watching them constantly. ex: Tom had to ride his bike to football practice because his dad wouldn't let him have the car; he was sure that all his car-driving friends would see and make fun of him. Personal fable: Adolescents believe that their experiences and feelings are unique. ex: When Rosa's boyfriend decided to date another girl, Rosa cried and cried. She couldn't believe how sad she was, and she was sure that her mom had never felt this way. Illusion of Invulnerability: Adolescents think that misfortune happens only to others. ex: Kumares and his girlfriend had been having sex for about six months. Although she thought it would be a good idea to use birth control, he thought It was unnecessary: There was no way his girlfriend would get pregnant.

3 phases/stages of achieving ethnic identity & general effect of having a positive ethnic identity (book p. 293 & slide 7)

ethnic identity: A feeling of belonging and learning the special customs and traditions of their group's culture and heritage the general effect of having a positive ethnic identity: --- one of the best ways to counteract discrimination that individual will experience, resiliency factor - better interactions with people - better in school; less behavioral issues Three phases to achieving this identity: 1. Disinterest: has not examined ethnicity and are not interested in that 2. Exploration: explore and investigate how ethnic identity has impacted them personally 3. Identity achievement: having a strong sense of ethnic identity; knowing and seeing how ethnicity has become a part of your identity and how impactful it is on your life

Peer groups (general definition)

groups of kids that are about the same age, have about the same skill set, will identify with one another - the peer group you interact with; you don't have to like everyone

General effect of school-based sex-ed programs on sexual activity & contraception use

not so good; abstinence only programs do not keep kids from having sex; even safe-sex programs actually alter whether a teen will engage in sex or not

Teenage pregnancy (national US prevalence rate - slide 25, how does the US compare to other developed nations? risks of teen pregnancy, rate of teen raising the child herself if she becomes pregnant - slide 25, are most pregnant teens younger or older?)

prevalence rate: Roughly 1 in 8 (12.5%) U.S. teenagers becomes pregnant (13-19) - Nearly 250,000 babies are born to teen moms annually how does the US compare to other developed nations?: one of the highest rates in the industrial world rate of teen raising the child herself if she becomes pregnant: half are most pregnant teens younger or older?: more likely to be older risks: - Lots of stress, lack of awareness of child development - Unrealistic rents inattentive, inconsistent, critical parenting & lower academic achievement of children/delayed language

Sexual Activity during adolescence - potential psychosocial risks & prevalence (VERY GENERAL TRENDS in current rates compared to previous decades regarding initial age of activity & % of adolescent population engaging in activity)

prevalence: 2/3rds of adolescents had intercourse by 18 less adolescences are engaging in sex overall; the earlier the age, the greater risk for negative outcomes do not tend to negative affects, though

Primary vs. secondary sex characteristics

primary sex characteristics: - maturation of ovaries and testes secondary sex characteristics: - changing rapidly during puberty

Changes in self-esteem across adolescence (slide 10) & influences on self-esteem (slide 12)

self-esteem: global assessment of self worth *if you are going to have instability or declines, it will be in early adolescence Adolescents' self-worth is higher when: - They are skilled in domains they value - Parents view them positively, being affectionate and involved - Parents set reasonable expectations and are willing to discuss rules and discipline - They believe peers think highly of them

Depression (starting on slide 47):

symptoms: - Pervasive feelings of sadness, emptiness, irritability, anger, poor sleep, low self-esteem, and inability to concentrate - Feeling lonely; believing family, classmates, and friends to be unfriendly most common age of onset (early, mid, or late adolescence?): late adolescence; double compared to early adolescence risk factors for depression, which gender is most at risk?: - girls are more at risk - Poor emotion regulation - Extremely negative self-beliefs - Emotionally distant, uninvolved parents - Punitive discipline - Poverty - Disturbed levels of serotonin and/or norepinephrine - can run in families *5-10% of kids will suffer from depression

Do fluctuating hormones and brain changes underlie the risky, sensation-seeking behavior often displayed by adolescents?

the brain changes do (Adrenarche), but not fluctuating hormones as it relates to puberty (testes, ovaries, etc.)

adolescence

the developmental stage from 11 to 20 years of age

Adrenarche, why is there a sensitive period for stress during puberty & what are the potential implications?

the maturation of the adrenal glands; creates a sensitive period for stress (puberty) - the environment will be more influential ***The system that regulates the adrenal gland also regulates response to stress (the HPA axis). ***An adverse side effect of adrenarche is that it heightens one's response to stress, which increases the release of cortisol, a stress hormone that can, at high and chronic levels, cause brain cells to die. ***This may explain why adolescence is a time for the onset of many serious mental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, substance abuse, eating disorders) seldom seen in childhood.

Family structure vs. family process (definitions/examples and which one is more strongly associated with child outcomes)

trends: - 69% of kids live in two-parent household A. 15% = blended families (remarried) B. 7% = cohabiting families 27% = single parents *over 80% of single parent households are single mothers 4% = no parents (another family member; most likely to be grandparents) structures: demographics, what is the family made of process: what is actually happening in the homes *matters more and is associated with child outcomes ex: attachment styles, parenting behaviors, warmth and sensitivities

Peer group status (slide 43)

what the types are - popular, controversial, rejected, average categories Popular: most classmates like Rejected: most classmates dislike - Aggressive or withdrawn Controversial: classmates are divided; extremely like or dislike Average: are liked and disliked by some classmates, but with lower intensity than above categories Neglected: many classmates ignore the child Which statuses are most stable across time?: Popular, average, & rejected the most stable over time

Delayed phase preference (what this is & why it occurs)

when serotonin (the thing that makes you sleepy) starts to peak later for adolescents (i.e. go to bed late and sleep in longer)

Does working during adolescence build character & teach children about $? Why or why not?

while you can see that, research shows that benefits are exaggerated, so not really