Education

The Function of the "National Security State"

---Higher education is central to the training of individuals for high-level technical human resource requirements; this is seen by some as necessary for national security and for a developing economy. =--The university power structure is headed by boards of trustees who serve corporate interests; these interests impact on the organization of universities. ---The control over the intellectual property created by faculty research funded by private sources as well as public money has become an important issue.

Community Colleges in Higher Education ch.10

--Community colleges are a 20th-century phenomenon. --Community colleges are more likely to enroll academically unprepared students, part-time students, minority students, commuter students, first-generation college students, and older students. --Community colleges serve multiple purposes - remediation, transfer, and vocational degrees. --Community colleges are usually open-admission. In 2008, 43% of all college students were attending a community college.

Minority Students in Higher Education

--Many minority students who enter college fail to complete their degree work, not because of ability level, but because of poor academic preparation, financial issues, and campus climates. --Those who do graduate do so with lower grades and less of a chance to go to graduate school. --College can be hostile and quite impersonal for many students, but this is amplified for minority students.

Chapter 12 Educational Systems around the world

...

People's Republic of China (PRC)

1949 - The Chinese Communist Party won power; founded the People's Republic of China (PRC); borders were closed to the outside world and private schools were closed.

Mao Tse-tung

1976 - Chairman Mao Tse-tung died; ushered in a new era of changing policies; borders were reopened to the outside world in 1979.

Faculty Role

A common complaint in the graduate-student ranks is there is really little done to prepare them for teaching. More colleges and universities are incorporating university teaching preparation into their programs. Cosmopolitan versus local faculty - cosmopolitan faculty are usually at the more prestigious universities. Higher amounts of local faculty are at two- and four-year colleges.

"normal schools"

By the late 1800s, public teacher-training colleges, or "normal schools" sprang up to meet the growing need for teachers.

Williams Cummings (1999)Mid 1950s

Classification of facts led to historical and area studies

Outcomes of Higher Education

College graduates earn upward of 61% more than a high-school graduate. Both men and women from the lower socioeconomic strata and minority students are more likely to benefit from having a college degree - so in essence the people who benefit the most are the ones least likely to attend.

University as a Community

Considering the university or college as a community involves looking at what members have in common, the division of labor, and interdependence amongst its members. Modern universities fulfill numerous functions, often with contradictory goals (research vs. teaching or athletics vs. academics).

Elite versus Public Colleges

Fewer middle-class students are applying to elite institutions. --Fewer middle-class students are even applying to their state's flagship universities. --American higher education is becoming increasingly stratified by parental income. Elite boarding schools have the best results in producing entrance into the most elite colleges and universities.

Student Subcultures or Peer Groups

Four types: Collegiate - involved in sports, fraternities, sororities, and FUN. This takes $$$. Vocational - focused on career skills, financially less well-off, often working, and married. Academic - intellectual, identification with faculty, spends time in library and labs. Nonconformist - several kinds.

Diffrence between Education of Us and britain

In Britain, social class has been more important for career mobility; in the U.S., educational attainment is more important

Western Countries

In Western countries, primary school enrollment is 100%; in Niger, 22%; in Angola, 27%; in Djibouti, 30.6%; in Ethiopia, 31%.

distance education

In the 1960s, there was increased access to higher education with the establishment of additional universities, polytechnics, and the Open University

Gender and Race in Higher Education

More and more women have entered college since the 1970s. --In 2010, college women outnumbered men by 10.9 million (57.4%) to 8.18 million (42.6%). --There are more than 1 million "reentry" women in higher education and they are attempting to fulfill two sets of expectations - family and educational roles. --Many colleges are concerned about the drop in male enrollments. ---Women earn more graduate degrees in the humanities and social sciences. ---Men earn more degrees in natural science, computer science, engineering, and business management. ---Controlling for time off for childrearing, men still out earn women with comparable educations.

Functions of the University: Teaching

Publications often take precedent over teaching, even in smaller colleges and universities. ---Since the 1990s there has been a call for a shift away from this back to where teaching is a priority. ---There is an increasing emphasis on accountability in the classroom and mechanisms to ensure that students are learning (the CLA or Collegiate Learning Assessment).

Functions of the University: Research

Research supplies a tie between business, industry, and government because of the funding. Many communities use universities as a source of economic development. There has been a shift away from pure research in favor of applied research as government funding dries up. This increases relationships between the university and business and industry.

Linguistic imperialism on the country,"

Some feel that using the colonial power's language imposes "linguistic imperialism on the country," but if a native tongue is used one group might gain dominance over another.

"Land Grant"

The Morrill Act of 1862 established public "Land Grant" Colleges with the purpose of educating a wide range of students.

Roles in Higher Education

The clients a.k.a. STUDENTS --Students became politically active in the 1960s and 70s and wanted a say in the governing of the university. --Baby-boom college enrollment increased dramatically. --19.1 million students attended college in 2008. --A major change in enrollment patterns is related to the rise in for-profit universities (University of Phoenix).

Creating Educational System

The process of creating an educational system took place gradually, aided by a large labor force and a trade market anxious for British goods. During this process, the rigid class structure in Britain was strengthened and reflected in the educational system.

Nontraditional Students

There has been a dramatic increase in students over the age of 25. 37.1% of all college students in 2008 were over the age of 25, largely part-time students and enrolled in community colleges. These students tend to persist and their children benefit from their education as well.

Unions and Higher Education

There is a range of support for unionization in higher education. Some faculty prefer individual control over their workplace problems, and faculty at more prestigious universities already have relatively high salaries. Faculty at two-year institutions are more likely to consider themselves employees and have more to gain from representation.

Characteristics of Faculty

There is currently 691,588 full-time faculty in the U.S. There has been a significant increase in part-time adjunct faculty and contract faculty - a shift away from the tenure system. Women are found much more frequently in teaching institutions than research institutions. Minority faculty are more likely to be foreign-born. There has been no increase in African-American faculty in the past four decades. There has been no increase in faculty from blue-collar backgrounds

"job gap.

Thus, many people are overeducated for the jobs they receive Jobs once held by poorly educated people are nowheld by more highly educated individuals until they can find appropriate jobs for their training

World systems perspective and dependency theory

World systems perspective and dependency theory examine a nation's structural position in the world economy and argue that education plays a limited role in determining or influencing economic development

Finding -

after a country reaches a "critical threshold," educational efficiency and achievement between like nations is similar.

Government-sponsored training programs

aid the school-to-work transition, but only a small number of students can be accommodated, resulting in large numbers of youth leaving school with little hope of employment.

Williams Cummings (1999)

describes the field as having progressed through several historical phases of development

Market analogy

has become widespread in education, with its notion that education is like any other commodity consumers can obtain and that competition among providers is the best way to determine what forms are available and what price

Conflict or "critical" theorists in Educational Systems around the world

have viewed education as a form of "ideological domination" by those in power to control the knowledge taught. writings of Max Weber, Karl Marx, Jurgen Habermas

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS: URBAN areas

in developing nations, schools are usually organized on a Western or colonial model; many serve the elite population.

Many international organizations coordinate education worldwide

many international organizations cordinating education worldwide: (Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, UNESCO, UNICEF, World Bank, World Trade Organization, etc.). These organizations have the power and the money to promote ideas and programs around the world and models advocate by international agencies have spread around the world

Rich countries Rich Educational Typology

much learning is formal and takes place in classrooms and specially designed buildings.

Occupationally

oriented majors account for about 60% of all degrees and over 80% at many colleges and universities (Brint et al., 2005).

The National Curriculum

required core subjects: English, math, science, design and technology, information technology, history, geography, modern foreign language, music, art, phys ed, citizenship, religious education.

Two structures exist: Higher Education as a

the largely flat academic model and the administration which is quite hierarchical. ---The administrative side often looks like a business model. ---There is a conflict between a "good education" and running a university or college like a business, which implies maximum efficiency and production.

The University Hierarchy

the largely flat academic model and the administration which is quite hierarchical. The administrative side often looks like a business model. There is a conflict between a "good education" and running a university or college like a business, which implies maximum efficiency and production.

Community schools

they are similar to charter schools but often integrate social welfare services dealing with health and emotional needs

Purpose -

to identify key characteristics affecting national systems of education and relate them to outcomes of learning.

Educational systems: RURAL areas

village schools have fewer resources, less-qualified teachers, and less parental support; they may be state-run or attached to a temple, mosque, or mission, and religious education may be the main emphasis.

Non formal education in Africa

villagers bring in experts from aid organizations to teach skills and knowledge useful to daily life. This has the advantage of reaching remote areas, costing little, and providing flexibility to meet the community's needs.

Critics of Exams

Critics argue that those who can afford "elite" education are better prepared for A-levels and university entrance exams, and that the exam system helps perpetuate the class system.

Education in Britain

Cultural background of Britain: Land of monarchy, peerages, and nobility that once ruled one-third of the world Was devastated by two world wars and experienced extreme poverty for much of its population in the wake of industrialization Has a legacy of immigrants from former colonies who must be educated and integrated into society

Community college critics

Structural critics see community colleges as a sieve to eliminate the poor and minority students and prevent them from moving up the educational ladder.

("gender colonization")

Structures left from formerly colonized countries still influence power relationships, as seen in the lower status of women ("gender colonization").

Comparative Educational Studies

The sociology of education provides new insights into one's own society as well as global education trends. It provides information on what is unique and what is universal. The research findings can be used by policy makers for applied, practical purposes. The field of comparative education has moved from description and case studies in selected countries to an interdisciplinary field that uses a variety of methodologies.

The "counterculture of resistance"

among working-class males: particular seeing patterns of behavior: dress, truancy, smoking, vandalism, and rudeness and represents their view that school is irrelevant to the lives they will enter the resistance to schooling found among some British adolescents; the view that school is irrelevant to their lives.

The Education Skills Act (2008)

raised the compulsory school age to 18.National Curriculum was imposed to 18 years of age with as requirement English, Math, Science, Design, and Technology, Information Technology, history, geography, modern foreign language, music, art, phys ed, citizenship, religious education.

Williams Cummings (1999)Mid- Nineteenth Century:

"Borrowers" and Predictors used comparative inquirry to perfect and advance their own systems.

Human capital perspectives

(1960s-70s) pointed to the importance of education in transforming people's beliefs, values, and behaviors into those necessary for economic modernization. Although there is a clear relationship between the global economy and the role of education to prepare workers for the tasks needed, some ask whether the workplace can absorb all the educated workers. has built in ethnocentric assumption that all nations will emulate the Western Model of development. In fact countries do not always lose their indigenous educational systems even if they adopt western ones

Public schools

(Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester, etc.), similar to private preparatory schools and too expensive for commoners, foster the mannerisms and speech patterns typical of the elite and provide the education necessary for entrance to elite universities such as Oxford and Cambridge A large number of senior civil servants and business and professional leaders are drawn from these schools (although highly-qualified students from the lower classes may be able to attend elite schools on scholarships).

Students' advancement in the British system is determined by national examinations. EXAMS AND CREDENTIALS

(GCSE) is taken after 5 years of secondary education, following which students can go to a vocational or technical college, or, after an additional year of study, may take the AS-Level (advanced subsidiary-level) exams. After an additional year above AS-level study, students may take the A-Level exams required to qualify for university. Britain is a highly-credentialed society, placing great emphasis on exams and certificates.

The "School Choice" Movement

- charter schools, home schooling, open enrollment, and vouchers. school choice is a fast growing innovation in education with almost 27 percent of public school students in the United States participating in some form of choice

The "brain drain"

- workers who cannot find work in their own countries leave for other opportunities.

Education in Ghana

--"The Gold Coast" was the hub of the slave trade, ruled in turn by the Portuguese, Dutch, Danes, and then the British. --When independence began in 1957, Ghana was stable and its institutions were based on British models. Since that time, however, several different governments have been established and overthrown. --In 2000, primary-school enrollment was 75% and secondary-school enrollment was 50%; equal numbers of boys and girls were enrolled in primary school but boys continue further in school --Ghana is somewhat ahead of the rest of sub-Saharan Africa, where the average primary-school enrollment is 70%. --The adult population literacy rate in Ghana was 66% in 2010; 82% for males.

Global Institutional Interdependence

---Every society shares a set of common institutions: family, education, religion, politics, economics, and health systems. ----As the world shrinks with the aid of technology, these institutions become more similar. ---A rough separation divides the northern and southern hemispheres, with the southern-hemisphere countries being part of the developing world saddled with legacies of colonialism, debt to wealthier countries, and problems of disease, hunger, population expansion, and illiteracy.

Approaches to institutional interdependence:

--Global - world system perspective Wallerstein 1974 --Cross-national - in the case of Williamson economic political typology societies or studies of curricula,knowledge, or test comparative studies of societies --Institutional - focusing on the institution of education in comparison to other institutions ---National - focusing on countries in relation to the global system ---Global Approach- countries are conceptualize as part of the world system with interdependent units Internal and External Changes in educational system are linked to relationship between countries

Education and Economic Institutions

--Many countries believe that there is a relationship between education, economic development, and modernization, and act on this premise even though the facts do not always uphold it. --If the government establishes certain priorities for the society, the educational system is likely to reflect these. --To meet a country's goals, trained personnel are needed. Individuals are a "capital good" and can increase their value in the labor market through education. --Until these relationships are altered, countries cannot use their human resources to the fullest. --When countries see the value of economic development in education, women's progress may be enhanced.

Stages of economic development and educational change:

--Only the privileged few are involved in education (for example, cloistered monks and the political elite). --A core of the population is trained for factory work, civil service, and to be leaders of business, industry, and government. ---Training required for the technological age and the "communication society" where education, work, and society are interrelated and available to all.

Inequality in Education and Occupational Mobility

...

Several problems in African countries have affected educational development

: civil wars, autocratic rulers, corruption, lack of infrastructure and export of raw products, disease and pandemics (HIV/AIDS), and colonial histories that create conflict between cultural groups. Reduced national funding coincides with increased student demand. African universities offer a combination of Western models and subjects along with traditional and indigenous subjects.

Comparative Studiesof Educational Achievement

Achievement tests are taken by children around the world. This is of interest to most countries, since educational level gives an idea of the skills available in the workforce. International studies of academic achievement provide comparative data that give new perspectives on educational practices and other sociocultural variables that affect education.

Working class

As the working classes grew and organized, they demanded greater access to education. This was to the advantage of the elite, who needed an ever-more skilled workforce.

Effective Schools and Educational Form

Characteristics that enable students to achieve at a high level: 1.Professional staff holds high expectations and believes students can reach these. 2.Students understand the expectations and have high self-concepts. 3.Role expectations of teachers and students include high achievement. 4.The reward structure is centered on achievement. 5.Stratification of students and instructional programs are minimal. 6.School goals and objectives are shared. 7.The school climate is conducive to learning. (Brookover, et al., 1996) The achieve effective schools is the subject of even more studies and reports. The highest rates of improvement in school achievement have been reported when their is clear articulation of grade level expectations and standards in each area, clear homework policies throughout the school, and all students are taught the curriculum of their grade level.

The Plowden Report

Children and Their Primary Schools (1967), detailed British primary education, in which schools are noted for their informal, minimally-structured, and open approach to education.

Education of Republic of China

China has the largest population in the world (20% of total world population). Population was 1.4 billion in 2010; it is estimated to reach 1.5 billion by 2025. The fertility rate is 1.7 per woman (below population replacement level); population is projected to level off and begin to drop by 2030. China's territory covers almost a quarter of the world's land surface. In the early 20th century, China's closed-door policy kept the West out; since 1979 China has opened up to the West with extensive trade and educational exchanges. China has made significant strides in educating its vast population. --Since the adoption of market socialism in 1978, more than 90,000 private schools have opened. ---No period can be ignored in reviewing Chinese education; each has been a reaction to the previous era and also reflects the changing political-economic scene of the time. The situation has eased since the late 1990s.

Chinas The Drive toward Modernization

China's Confucian legacy served the interests of the power elite with its underlying ideology that justified elite privileged education. ---There has been a realization that national development and modernization go hand-in-hand with basic education for all. ---Preparing a literate population to participate in the global economic rise of China is now the national goal. ---93.9% of adults and 98.9% of youth were literate in 2009.

Conflict theorists

Conflict theorists argue that the expansion serves the needs of the elite. It channels people into specific tracks, and many people are channeled into lower-level white-collar jobs with little autonomy. The elite universities select the elite for the few jobs that allow for autonomy and discretion. The universities perpetuate the status quo and that more basic societal change if needed if we are to alter culture They believe higher education like primary and secondary education is structured to serve the needs and perpetuate the advantage position of elite

Criticism of Child Left Behind LAw

Criticisms: Expensive and onerous Some states set standards low to improve the state's scores Forces teachers to "teach to the test" Limits the variety of subjects offered so that schools can concentrate on the essentials Question the ability of schools to overcome achievement differences produced by inequalities among families and communities

A look to the future

Due to an increasingly demanding labor market, many young adults are prolonging their early adulthoods by building up their credentials and continuing their educations into their 20s and early 30s. Dependence on one's family for support assumes that families have resources to spare, and many do not. In this way, advantage is perpetuated over generations.

Development of Education in Britain

During the Middle Ages schools were run by religious organizations to teach students to read religious texts. In the late 1300s the first grammar schools were begun to prepare students to enter Oxford University. By the second half of the 19th century, some leaders were advocating for widespread education, but the majority of working-class people had few means and little interest in attending. Churches, who had handled education up to that time, feared government intervention.

Forms of Education in Africa

Education existed in African nations long before European systems were introduced. In African communities, the older generation passed on knowledge and skills. Many educators have asked how traditional systems can be used as a base for education in modernizing countries.

Five research Models in Comparative Education

Five research models in comparative education: 1)Comparing countries on specific aspects of education, such as subject-area achievement (language, science, math, etc.) 2)Identifying key elements that can be compared cross-culturally 3)Societal system strategies or approaches to meet the needs of society 4)Showing the link between mass education curricula, growth and expansion of nation-states, and similarities between curricula and structures 5)Showing the interrelationships between societal institutions and the environment

Williams Cummings (1999) Mid 1960s

Focus on education's role in transforming newly emerging developing nations

Higher Education Chapter 10

Historically, higher education's goal was to transmit knowledge. In the nineteenth century, research began to be integrated into higher education's mission. This has at times caused tension between professors and students, and between professors and other professors. New disciplines develop rapidly. Pressure for a multicultural curriculum and more higher-education opportunity for segments of the population has required institutions to change.

Three questions about legitimate knowledge:

How does certain knowledge become legitimate? Under what circumstances does it become changed? What does a comparison of such processes tell us?

Comparative Education and Systems Approach

How they interact economically and politically and their level of development within the world system influence the type of educational system they develop. The systems approach is also useful for describing the levels of analysis (macro-, meso-, and micro-) at work in education.

the "Forster Act"

In 1870 the first Education Act (the "Forster Act") was passed, providing for voluntary denominational school and nondenominational state schools.

Technology in the classroom

In the 1950s, with concern over declining achievement scores, teaching machines, reading programs, talking typewriters, educational television, tape-cassette machines, and other technological innovations were introduced into classrooms. Computers and computer-assisted instruction (CAI) began in the late 1960s. Today, computers are an essential part of education. In the future, distance learning will bring unlimited learning potential around the world.

Formal Education in Colonial Africa

In the 19th and early 20th century, Europeans conquered most of Africa. Early in the colonial period, missionaries set up schools to teach Christianity. Colonial governments also set up schools modeled on the mother country's system of education. Their purpose was to teach the mother country's language and fill lower posts in colonial administrations, and to develop acceptance of European law. --Many Africans saw this as an attempt to keep the population in their places and sought the education of the Western elite, some going abroad to receive training. --Those few Africans who moved up the colonial education ladder often adopted European views and worked for colonial administrations, and were often alienated from their own cultures and traditions. ---With independence, some of these European-educated Africans became postcolonial leaders, however, their proposals were often greeted with skepticism by the people. --Whether the colonial power was French, British, or other European has an impact on the education system of the former colony. ---Most postcolonial countries today must make choices between rapid expansion of mass education with lower quality versus higher-quality education for fewer citizens. For many citizens who see little advantage from education in their lives, interest in education is waning. ---In order to create relevant education systems, many former African colonies are combining Western models with African traditions to meet local needs.

Trends in Higher Education

In the early history of the United States, religious groups established colleges whose primary goal was to establish clergy to create faith communities. They were meant to serve men from respectable families and a few lucky poor young men. In 1776, one man in 200 had a college education in the U.S.

Marxist (Educational System around the world

Marxists have viewed the development of education in Britain as serving the needs of the elite: an educated mass was needed for the expansion of capitalism and the lower segments of society were prepared for a life of industry and toil.

College Admissionsand the Courts

Most precedents have left more questions than answers when it comes to minority admissions through special programs. There are conflicting affirmative-action mandates in some states.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and Race to the Top Competitionof 2009-2010

No Child Left Behind legislation dominates educational reform and policy today. This legislation requires that states test elementary students every year against state-developed standards for each grade (thus, the law did not set national standards). If students are not performing at grade level, schools are required to develop plans for improving instruction. The law also requires that teachers be "highly qualified," while leaving it up to the states to determine what that means. The legislation is aimed at reducing the "achievement gap" between advantaged and disadvantaged students. performance from students of advantage and disadvantage backgrounds

Education Reform Act of 1988

Official goals for British education (stated in the Education Reform Act of 1988 and others): gave control to the national government to carry out national research and planning, reccomended major revisions in the structure of education and determine basic national curriculum raise standards at all ability levels, give parents a wider choice of schools, improve the partnership between schools and parents, make higher education more economically available to larger numbers, and obtain good value from the educational service as a whole. In 1988 Act this opens the availability of a cheaper different schools to give them a better opportunity to obtain an education.

Poor Countries Educational Typology

Poor countries - formal learning is only a small part of education; children learn informally by imitating elders and learning the family trade.

The Competition of higher education

Public institutions: "open-door" policies anyone with the right prerequisites will be admitted. Private schools: divided between open-door and selective admissions. The competition for access to elite colleges highlights the status hierarchy in the U.S. (college rankings - U.S. News and World Report). In some places in the world, students take one university exam and this determines entrance.

"first generation" college scholarships.

Race-based scholarships are also controversial and have been litigated. This has caused many colleges and universities to move to "first generation" college scholarships.

Williams Cummings (1999) Mid 1970s

Relative neglect of comparative studies because of the idea that the United States was the leading society with little to learn from other countries

Education and Religion

Religion is closely linked to a group's ethnic, racial, or national origins and may provide a point of stability in a time of rapid change when norms break down. Religion can be a leader in change if the change is consistent with religious beliefs, or it can inhibit change if the change threatens the belief system. PG.317 Northern Nigeria A koranic school for boys Northern Ireland- the catholic parochial schools Iran- Fundamentalist Muslim School (Madrass) United States- Fundamentalist Christian Schools Israel- Religion and Education Work hand in hand to accomplish goals

Higher Education around the worls

Some common themes of the world's higher-education institutions: 1. Access and equity 2. The link between education and work 3. The transition from school to work 4. Effects of technological developments 5. Transfer of talent across borders 6. Expansion of graduate education 7. Privatization of higher education 8. Crisis in academic professions 9. Accountability There was an 8% increase of foreign students studying in the United States from 2007-2008 to 2008-2009. Most popular majors: business and management. The United States also sends thousands of students to study abroad.

Legitimation of Knowledge Perspective Two phases of development:

Study the process whereby educational knowledge becomes "legitimate" (accepted by government and citizens) and how that knowledge base changes over time Consider the relationship between the legitimation of educational knowledge and power relations in the modern state

brain drain

The "brain drain" is a potential downside to studying abroad. Some countries are losing their best and brightest as they go abroad for education and job opportunities.

"cooling-out function"

The "cooling-out function" - community colleges try to lower the ambitions of students who struggle academically by redirecting their ambitions to vocational programs that do not prepare them for transfer to a four-year college. has been stimulus for much debate about the role of two year colleges

The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA)

The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) carried out the most extensive comparative research ever.

Four Primary Challenges in China

The amount of the national budget for education needs to increase from 4% to 6%. ---Inequity of spending needs to be dealt with (Beijing and Shanghai receive more funding than other areas). --There are still 71 million illiterate people aged 15 and older, and two-thirds of these are women. --Education for girls and women needs to be improved.

distinction between "public" schools

The distinction between "public" schools and state-supported schools: With the tradition behind the elite schools and the excellent education they provide, plus the tendency to elite universities and government and industry to fill their top ranks with graduates of these schools mobility at the top remains available to a limited, select group.

Family, Social Class, and Education

The family is the primary social bond and purveyor of values. In the family we receive informal education and expectations about formal education. The position of one's family in the social structure affect one's chances for education.

Functionalist Perspective ((Higher Education))

The functionalist perspective argues that the expansion of higher education is due to three reasons: Improving individual opportunities Increasing equal opportunity The need for higher education to fulfill specific roles Universities can go along way towards solving societal problems higher education is desirable to help improve individual opportunities, higher education increases possibility of equal opportunities by teaching skills required in a context technological improve and individuals ability to compete and fit into the system a productive way. Third society into the system in a productive way. Third society needs higher educationto help prepare individual to fill essential roles

Colleges Statistics

The merging of colleges with graduate and professional schools began in the 1800s -Harvard College became Harvard University in 1869. A number of small colleges with a classical curriculum emerged by the 1900s. Currently, the U.S. has 5000 community colleges, colleges, and universities. The U.S. has about 36 graduates out of 100 between the ages of 22-24. The U.S. now ranks 16th, with the highest rates of young adults in college. The mass educational model that developed in the U.S. is now the international standard. Nearly 90% of minority students receive some form of remediation.

Cultural revolution

The ministry of education of China was dismantled it was restablished in 1975 In 1976 major changes with the seperation of politics and higher education decision making -putting education in the hands of academics the ministry and local communities

International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement

The most extensive comparative research endeavor ever The original sudy is a classic in the field of the comparative studies not only because of the extent and its advance comparative methodological techniqes

Higher Education in China

Today 22% of young people attend university. These are the best students who have attended 12 years of schooling and passed competitive exams. Beginning in the 1990s, the number of higher education institutions expanded rapidly, This has opened more university slots for the increasing number of secondary student graduates in recognition of the need to make the transition from elite to mass higher education. As graduates from these new institutions reach the job market, there are not enough positions to employ them; 1 million of the 5 million graduates are unemployed. ----China is undergoing radical change, with increased emphasis on science, applied research, foreign languages, business schools, and restructuring education in the form of a Western model of scientific management.

Equality of Educational Opportunity in China

Who receives the best educations in China has been shaped by political processes. --From 1978-2004, China experienced educational inequality between urban and rural areas, eastern and western regions, and working and middle classes. --Urban and rural differences in education stem from the "two-track" funding models established before 1949: rural schools were locally funded while urban schools were government funded.

"Butler Act")

With the 1944 Education Act (the "Butler Act"), education became free for all, including university, if one qualified.\The system still perpetuated class distinctions: grammar schools, secondary comprehensive schools with academic programs, and secondary trade-training schools.This gave equality for everyone to better their education and skills.

Charter Schools

are increasing in popularity in many states through the lack of authorizing laws limit their expansions, publicly funded, free standing schools with their own owning governing boards are not always part of a regular public school district

Reproduction theorists

argue that education does affect development, pointing out that the education systems in peripheral nations have reproduced and reinforced the class structure, strengthening the position of national elites.

credential crisis."

college students get affected by credential crisis which has arisen because graduates can no longer be guranteed a job after college Large numbers of college graduates remain unemployed or are returning to graduate school to improve their chances of employment

World system theorists (Globalization and Education )

consider education within the transnational social structural system and observe the effects of this global system on individual countries and regions.

Small Schools Movement

students attending smaller schools generally have better test scores and attendance and graduation rates a number of educational decision makers began to support the closing of large schools and replacing them with smaller ones often within the same builduing

Conflict theorists ((Educational Systems Around the World)

theorists view this as spreading capitalist ideologies and shaping Global South educational systems to meet corporate needs.

LEA Local Education Authorities

these bodies had wide ranging power and duties. Each school had a governing body ideally consisting of equal numbers of local authoritys, school staff including the head teacher, elected parents, students in older classes The day-to-day running of the schools was retained by local communities through the Local Education Authorities (LEAs).

Dependency theory (Arnove, 1980) (Globalization and Education )-

to explain the relationships between societies and education a chain of exploitation exists; peripheral areas may gain by getting needed resources, but the price is domination over local affairs such as curricula, texts, and reforms.

Magnet Schools

were established in some cities to distribute students and desegregate schools on the basis of special interest or talents: science, mathematics, art and music, and vocational education