Exam 3
3. To Reduce Costs, Increase Productivity, or Add Value
-Control systems can reduce labor costs, eliminate waste, increase output, and increase product delivery cycles. In addition, controls can help add value to a product so that customers will be more inclined to choose them over rival products.
1. They Are Strategic and Results Oriented
-Control systems support strategic plans and are concentrated on significant activities that will make a real difference to the organization. Thus, when managers are developing strategic plans for achieving strategic goals, that is the point at which they should pay attention to developing control standards that will measure how well the plans are being achieved
John Kolter
-Management is about coping with complexity. -Leadership is about coping with change
controlling
-Monitoring performance, comparing it with goals, and taking corrective action as needed.
culture
-The shared set of beliefs, values, knowledge, and patterns of behavior common to a group of people.
stretch goals
-goals beyond what is expected to be achieved
transformational leaders are influenced by 2 factors
-individual characteristics -organizational culture
strategy map
-strategy map: A visual representation of the four perspectives of the balanced scorecard that enables managers to communicate their goals so that everyone in the company can understand how their jobs are linked to the overall objectives of the organization.
Transactional Leadership: "Here's What We Do to Get the Job Done, and Here Are the Rewards"
-transactional leadership: Leadership style that focuses on clarifying employees' roles and task requirements and providing rewards and punishments contingent on performance.
leadership
The ability to influence employees to voluntarily pursue organizational goals.
ethical leadership
-Is directed by respect for ethical beliefs and values for the dignity and rights of others.
power
-The ability to marshal human, informational, and other resources to get something done.
motivation
-defined as a psychological processes that arouse and direct goal directed behavior
characteristics for best incentive plans
1) linked to performance and measurable 2) satisfy individual needs 3) must be agreed on by managers and employees 4) must be believable and achievable
2 core principles of TQM
(1) People orientation—everyone involved with the organization should focus on delivering value to customers; and (2) improvement orientation—everyone should work on continuously improving the work processes.
4 kind of behaviors
(1) meaningfulness (2) self-determination (3) competence (4) progress.
Contingency Factors
(1) necessary knowledge and skill, (2) desire for personal growth, and (3) context satisfactions—that is, the right physical working conditions, pay, and supervision
2. To Discover Irregularities and Errors
Small problems can mushroom into big ones. Cost overruns, manufacturing defects, employee turnover, bookkeeping errors, and customer dissatisfaction are all matters that may be tolerable in the short run. But in the long run, they can bring about even the downfall of an organization.
equity/justice theory: how fairly your being treated in relation to others
-
flourishing
- represents the extent to which our lives contain PERMA
job characteristic model
-(a) five core job characteristics that affect (b) three critical psychological states of an employee that in turn affect (c) work outcomes—the employee's motivation, performance, and satisfaction
The Balanced Scorecard: Four "Perspectives"
-(a) goals and (b) performance measures according to four "perspectives," or areas—financial, customer, internal business, and innovation and learning.
2. Intergroup Conflicts: Clashes among Work Groups, Teams, and Departments
-Inconsistent goals or reward systems—when people pursue different objectives -Ambiguous jurisdictions—when job boundaries are unclear -Status differences—when there are inconsistencies in power and influence
The Three Dimensions of Situational Control
-Leader-member relations—"Do my subordinates accept me as a leader?" -Task structure—"Do my subordinates perform unambiguous, easily understood tasks?" -Position power—"Do I have power to reward and punish?"
transformational leadership
-Leadership style that transforms employees to pursue organizational goals over self-interests.
Machiavellianism
-Machiavellianism: A cynical view of human nature and condoning opportunistic and unethical ways of manipulating people, putting results over principles.
Maintenance Roles: Keeping the Team Together
-Maintenance role: Relationship related role consisting of behavior that fosters constructive relationships among team members.
1. To Adapt to Change and Uncertainty
-Markets shift. Consumer tastes change. New competitors appear. Technologies are reborn. New materials are invented.
Non-verbal communication
-Messages in a form other than the written or the spoken word. -(1) eye contact, (2) facial expressions, (3) body movements and gestures, and (4) touch
Faulty Listening Skills
-Mindlessness: Is a state of reduced attention expressed in behavior that is rigid, or thoughtless.
leadership member exchange (LXM) model of leadership
-Model of leadership that emphasizes that leaders have different sorts of relationships with different subordinates. -George Graen & Fred Dansereau
managerial leadership
-The process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.
storming
-The second of five stages of forming a team in which individual personalities, roles, and conflicts within the group emerge. -leader should encourage members to suggest ideas, voice disagreements, and work through their conflicts about tasks and goals. -"whats my role here"
Sender, Message, and Receiver
-The sender is the person wanting to share information—called a message—and the receiver is the person for whom the message is intended, as follows. Sender → Message → Receiver
communication
-The transfer of information and understanding from one person to another.
The Grapevine
-The unofficial communication system of the informal organization. -delivers up to 70% of communication
Self-determination theory
-Theory that assumes that people are driven to try to grow and attain fulfillment, with their behavior and well-being influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. -Edward Deci & Richard Ryan
two-factor theory
-Theory that proposes that work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different work factors—work satisfaction from so-called motivating factors and work dissatisfaction from so-called hygiene factors.
The Income Statement: Picture of Organization's Financial Results for a Specified Period of Time
-income statement: Summary of an organization's financial results—revenues and expenses—over a specified period of time.
Incremental Budgeting
-incremental budgeting: Allocating increased or decreased funds to a department by using the last budget period as a reference point; only incremental changes in the budget request are reviewed. -One difficulty is that incremental budgets tend to lock departments into stable spending arrangements; they are not flexible in meeting environmental demands. Another difficulty is that a department may engage in many activities—some more important than others—but it's not easy to sort out how well managers performed at the various activities. Thus, the department activities and the yearly budget increases take on lives of their own.
elements of equity theory
-inputs: what you think your putting in the job -outputs or rewards: what you think your getting out of the job -comparison: how your ratio of inputs and outputs compares to others
Internal Audits—Financial Appraisals by Inside Financial Experts
-internal audits: A verification of an organization's financial accounts and statements by the organization's own professional staff.
Job design perspectives and motivation
-job design: (1) the division of an organization's work among its employees and (2) the application of motivational theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance -The traditional way is fitting people to jobs; the modern way is fitting jobs to people
job enlargement
-job enlargement: consists of increasing the number of tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation.
Job Enrichment: Putting More Responsibility and Other Motivating Factors into a Job
-job enrichment: Building into a job such motivating factors as responsibility, achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement.
2 types of goal orientation
-learning goal orientation: developing competence through the acquisition of new skills -performance goal orientation: a way of demonstrating and validating a competence we already have by seeking the approval of others
the need to expand skills
-learning opportunities can take 3 forms 1) studying co-workers 2) tuition reimbursement 3) learning and development
1. Legitimate Power: Influencing Behavior Because of One's Formal Position
-legitimate power: One of five sources of a leader's power that results from formal positions with the organization.
5. Gender Differences
-linguistic style: A person's characteristic speaking patterns—pacing, pausing, directness, word choice, and use of questions, jokes, stories, apologies, and similar devices.
Integrating
-manager strives to confront the issue and cooperatively identify the problem, generating and weighing alternatives and selecting a solution. It is appropriate for complex issues plagued by misunderstanding
the need to matter-finding meaning in work
-meaningfulness: then, is the sense of "belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than the self." -suggestions for building a meaningful life 1) identify activities you love doing 2) find a way to build your natural strengths into your personal and work life 3) go out and help someone
Is a Medium Rich or Lean in Information?
-media richness: Indication of how well a particular medium conveys information and promotes learning.
The Medium
-medium: The pathway by which a message travels. Sender [Encoding] → Message [Medium] Message → [Decoding] Receiver
adjouring
-members prepare for dismemberment -leader can emphasize valuable lessons learned in group dynamics to prepare everyone for future group and team efforts -"can we help members transition out"
Phubbing and FOMO
-microaggression: Acts of unconscious bias; include a number of seemingly tiny but repeated actions, like interrupting others, mispronouncing or mistaking someone's name, and avoiding eye contact. -FOMO: Fear of missing out or of being out of touch with something happening in your social network.
2 forms of need for power
-negative kind: personal power, to control others -positive kind: institutional power, top managers and leaders solving problems and accomplishing institutional goals
Noise
-noise: Any disturbance that interferes with the transmission of a message. -Jargon: Terminology specific to a particular profession or group.
3. Operational Control by First-Line Managers
-operational control: Monitoring performance to ensure that operational plans—day-to-day goals—are being implemented and taking corrective action as needed.
Outsourcing: Let Outsiders Handle It
-outsourcing: Using suppliers outside the company to provide goods and services.
hierarchy of needs theory
which proposes that people are motivated by five levels of needs: (1) physiological, (2) safety, (3) love, (4) esteem, and (5) self-actualization
Active listening
-The process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages.
need for affiliation
"I need close relationships." This is the desire for friendly and warm relations with other people.
need for power
"I need to control others." This is the desire to be responsible for other people, to influence their behavior or to control them
4 kinds of relationship oriented behaviors
-Consideration -Empowering leadership -Ethical leadership -Servant-leadership
6. To Decentralize Decision Making and Facilitate Teamwork
-Controls allow top management to decentralize decision making at lower levels within the organization and to encourage employees to work together in teams.
Social Media and Innovation: Crowdsourcing
-Crowdsourcing: The practice of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people and especially from the online community, such as Facebook and Twitter users.
need for achievement
"I need to excel at tasks." This is the desire to excel, to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, to achieve excellence in challenging tasks.
4. Take Corrective Action, If Necessary: "What Changes Should We Make to Obtain Desirable Outcomes?"
(1) Make no changes. (2) Recognize and reinforce positive performance. (3) Take action to correct negative performance.
Understand Your Listening Style—or Styles
-4 styles of listening 1) Active—I'm fully invested: Active listeners are "all in." They are motivated to listen and give full attention when others are talking. They focus on what is being communicated and expend energy by participating in the discussion. They put their phone away, withhold judgment, and listen silently. They also use positive body language, such as leaning in or making direct eye contact, to convey their interest 2) Involved—I'm partially invested: Involved listeners devote only some of their attention and energy to listening. They reflect on what is being said and half-halfheartedly participate in the discussion. Their nonverbal cues can show interest and noninterest in the same conversation. If you tend to check your texts while having a meal with friends, you may be only an involved listener in the real-life Page 619interaction. Next time try having everyone put his or her phone in the center of the table until the check arrives 3) Passive—It's not my responsibility to listen: Passive listeners are not equal partners in a speaking-listening exchange. They assume the speaker is responsible for the quality of the interaction and believe their role is to passively take in information. Passive listeners will display attentiveness, but they can fake it at times. Overall, they don't expend much motivation or energy in receiving and decoding messages. Is this your listening style during course lectures? 4) Detached—I'm uninterested: Detached listeners tend to withdraw from the interaction. They appear inattentive, bored, distracted, and uninterested. They may start using mobile devices during the speaking-listening exchange. Their body language will reflect lack of interest, such as slumping and avoiding direct eye contact. It is all too easy to tune out an unimaginative PowerPoint presentation during a meeting, for example.
passive leadership
-A form of leadership behavior characterized by a lack of leadership skills.
empowering leadership
-A form of leadership that represents the extent to which a leader creates perceptions of psychological empowerment in others.
informal group
-A group formed by people seeking friendship that has no officially appointed leader, although a leader may emerge from the membership. -can advance or undercut the plans of formal groups
consideration
-A leadership behavior that is concerned with group members' needs and desires and that is directed at creating mutual respect or trust.
initiating structure leadership
-A leadership behavior that organizes and defines—that is, "initiates the structure for"—what employees should be doing to maximize output.
the contingency leadership model
-A model that determines if a leader's style is (1) task-oriented or (2) relationship-oriented and if that style is effective for the situation at hand.
narcissism
-A self-centered perspective, feelings of superiority, and a drive for personal power and glory.
cross functional teams
-A team that is staffed with specialists pursuing a common objective.
situational approach (contingency approach)
-An approach to leadership where it is believed that effective leadership behavior depends on the situation at hand.
path goal leadership
-Approach that holds that the effective leader makes available to followers desirable rewards in the workplace and increases their motivation by clarifying the paths, or behavior, that will help them achieve those goals and providing them with support.
full range leadership
-Approach that suggests that leadership behavior varies along a full range of leadership styles, from take-no-responsibility (laissez-faire) "leadership" at one extreme through transactional leadership, to transformational leadership at the other extreme. -Bernard Bass & Bruce Avolio
4. Financial Area
-Are bills being paid on time? How much money is owed by customers? How much money is owed to suppliers? Is there enough cash on hand to meet payroll obligations? What are the debt-repayment schedules? What is the advertising budget? Clearly, the organization's financial controls are important because they can affect the preceding three areas
influence tactics
-Are conscious efforts to affect and change behaviors in others.
behavioral leadership approaches
-Attempts to determine the distinctive styles used by effective leaders. Task-oriented behavior. Relationship-oriented behavior. Passive behavior. Transformational behavior
trait approaches to leadership
-Attempts to identify distinctive characteristics that account for the effectiveness of leaders. -Ralph Stogdill
task roles: getting work done
-Behavior that concentrates on getting the team's task done.
Benchmarking
-Benchmarking: A way to measure something against a standard, the benchmark.
Best Practices
-Best practices: A set of guidelines, ethics or ideas that represent the most efficient or prudent course of action.
5. Structural Area
-Bureaucratic control: The use of rules, regulations, and formal authority to guide performance. -Decentralized control: An approach to organizational control that is characterized by informal and organic structural arrangements, the opposite of bureaucratic control.
informal communication channels
-Communication that develops outside the formal structure and does not follow the chain of command. (1) the grapevine and (2) face-to-face communication.
nondefensive communication
-Communication that is assertive, direct, and powerful.
formal communication channels
-Communications that follow the chain of command and are recognized as official. -(1) vertical—meaning upward and downward, (2) horizontal—meaning laterally (sideways), and (3) external—meaning outside the organization.
functional conflict- good for orgs
-Conflict that benefits the main purposes of the organization and serves its interests.
dysfunctional conflict (negative conflict)- bad for orgs
-Conflict that hinders the organization's performance or threatens its interests.
1. Financial Perspective: "How Do We Look to Shareholders?"
-Corporate financial strategies and goals generally fall into two buckets: revenue growth and productivity growth. Revenue growth goals might focus on increasing revenue from both new and existing customers. Equipment manufacturer John Deere, for instance, is pursuing new revenue by developing software services that provide information and guidance to farmers in the field. It is doing this to offset a recent 5 percent decrease in revenue
Cyberloafing
-Cyberloafing: Is using the Internet at work for personal use. -Some studies put the cost at $85 billion per year and report that employees spend 60 percent-80 percent of their time at work pretending to do actual or legitimate work. It also exposes companies to computer viruses and uses up bandwidth
1. People Orientation—Focusing Everyone on Delivering Customer Value
-Delivering customer value is most important -People will focus on quality if given empowerment -TQM requires training, teamwork, and cross-functional efforts
social media policy
-Describes the who, how, when, and for what purposes of social media use, and the consequences for noncompliance.
Face-to-Face Communication
-Despite the entrenched use of quick and efficient electronic communication in our lives, face-to-face conversation is still justifiably a major part of most people's work day. Employees value authentic human contact with the boss and welcome the implication that their manager cares about them. Face time builds relationships and trust, shows respect for employees as individuals, and thus is highly motivating 1) make time for face time 2) listen more and talk less 3) deliver good news upfront; lead into bad 4) hold employee town hall meeting 5) hold webcast when you cant be there
psychological empowerment
-Employees' belief that they have control over their work.
Encoding and Decoding
-Encoding is translating a message into understandable symbols or language. Decoding is interpreting and trying to make sense of the message. Sender [Encoding] → Message → [Decoding] Receiver
leadership coaching
-Enhancing a person's abilities and skills to lead and to help the organization meet its operational objectives.
punctuated equilibrium
-Establishes periods of stable functioning until an event causes a dramatic change in norms, roles, and/or objectives resulting in the establishment and maintenance of new norms of functioning, returning to equilibrium.
3. External Communication: Outside the Organization
-External communication: Communication between people inside and outside an organization.
Feedback
-Feedback: information about the reaction of the environment to the outputs that affect the inputs. -Paraphrasing: Form of communication that occurs when people restate in their words the crux of what they heard or read.
fitting jobs to people
-Fitting jobs to people is based on the assumption that people are underutilized at work and that they want more variety, challenges, and responsibility
servant leadership
-Focuses on providing increased service to others—meeting the goals of both followers and the organization—rather than to yourself.
What Do Leaders Want in Their Followers?
-Followers vary, of course, in their level of compliance with a leader, with helpers (most compliant) showing deference to their leaders, independents (less compliant) distancing themselves, and rebels (least compliant) showing divergence.
defensive communication
-Form of communication that is either aggressive, attacking, angry, passive, or withdrawing.
task oriented leadership behaviors
-Form of leadership that ensures that people, equipment, and other resources are used in an efficient way to accomplish the mission of a group or organization. -2 important kinds 1) initiating-structure leadership 2) transactional leadership
relationship oriented leadership
-Form of leadership that is primarily concerned with the leader's interactions with his or her people.
7. Norms: Unwritten Rules for Team Members
-General guidelines or rules of behavior that most group or team members follow. -norms: General guidelines or rules of behavior that most group or team members follow.
self managed teams
-Groups of workers who are given administrative oversight for their task domains.
4. To Detect Opportunities and Increase Innovation
-Hot-selling products. Competitive prices on materials. Changing population trends. New overseas markets. Controls can help alert managers to innovative opportunities that might have otherwise gone unnoticed
ISO 9000 and ISO 14000: Meeting Standards of Independent Auditors
-ISO 9000 series: Quality-control procedures companies must install—from purchasing to manufacturing to inventory to shipping—that can be audited by independent quality-control experts, or "registrars," -quality management principles: Customer focus. Leadership. Involvement of people. Process approach. System approach to management. Continual improvement. Factual approach to decision making. Mutually beneficial supplier relationships -ISO 4000 series: Set of quality-control procedure that extends the concept of the ISO 9000 series, identifying standards for environmental performance.
The Role of Information Technology
-In particular, many companies have implemented enterprise resource planning (ERP) software systems, information systems for integrating virtually all aspects of a business, helping managers stay on top of the latest developments. -enterprise resource planning: Software information systems for integrating virtually all aspects of a business.
In-Group Exchange versus Out-Group Exchange
-In-group exchange: trust and respect. In the in-group exchange, the relationship between leader and follower becomes a partnership characterized by mutual trust, respect and liking, and a sense of common fates. Subordinates may receive special assignments and special privileges. -Out-group exchange: lack of trust and respect. In the out-group exchange, leaders are characterized as overseers who fail to create a sense of mutual trust, respect, or common fate. Subordinates receive less of the manager's time and attention than those in in-group exchange relationships.
Employment Recruiting
-On the job applicant's side, 59 percent used social media to conduct research on companies of interest, and they preferred Facebook (67 percent) over Twitter (35 percent). As you probably know, most company websites have a "Jobs" or "Employment" tab where interested job seekers can search and apply for open positions. Beyond this fairly simple interaction, you also can customize your searches on job posting sites like Monster and Indeed.com and apply directly to the hiring firm, attaching résumés, writing samples, links to blogs and videos, and other pertinent information. Companies can also post jobs on industry-specific hosting and social networking platforms, like GitHub (software developers), Dribble (web designers), and Mediabistro (media professionals). More than 60,000 jobs are tweeted on Monster every day. And according to Career Builder's website, 52 percent of companies check out potential hires' social media pages, including their sometimes unguarded profiles on Facebook and LinkedIn
norming
-One of five stages of forming a team; stage three, in which conflicts are resolved, close relationships develop, and unity and harmony emerge. -group cohesiveness: A "we feeling" that binds group members together. -Here the leader should emphasize unity and help identify team goals and values. -"what do others expect me to do"
4. Quality Can Be Improved on the Basis of Hard Data, Using the PDCA Cycle
-PDA cycle: A Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle using observed data for continuous improvement of operations.
personalized power
-Power directed at helping oneself.
socialized power
-Power directed at helping others.
conflict
-Process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party.
3. Informational Area
-Production schedules, sales forecasts, environmental impact statements, analyses of competition, and public relations briefings all are controls on an organization's various information resources. Among the factors that will govern a Page 643decision about whether a high-speed passenger-rail line is to be built in Oregon, for instance, is an environmental impact statement being prepared by the state's Department of Transportation
3. Compare Performance to Standards: "How Do the Desired and Actual Outcomes Differ?"
-Range of variation: acceptable amount of deviation
2. trust
-Reciprocal faith in others' intentions and behaviors.
5. team composition
-Reflects the collection of jobs, personalities, values, knowledge, experience, and skills of team members.
influence tactics
-Rely on the core. Core influence tactics—rational persuasion, consultation, collaboration, and inspirational appeals—are most effective at building commitment. -Be authentic. Don't try to be someone else. Be authentic to your values and beliefs. -Consult rather than legitimate. Some employees are more apt to accept change when managers rely on a consultative strategy and are more likely to resist change when managers use a legitimating tactic. -"Ingratiation" is not a good long-term strategy. Ingratiation improved short-term sales goal achievement but reduced it in the long term in a study of salespeople. Glad handing may help today's sales but not tomorrow's. -Be subtle. Subtle flattery and agreement with the other person's opinion (both forms of ingratiation) were shown to increase the likelihood that executives would win recommendation to sit on boards of directors. -Learn to influence. Research with corporate managers of a supermarket chain showed that influence tactics can be taught and learned. Managers who received 360-degree feedback on two occasions regarding their influence tactics showed an increased use of core influence tactics.
2. Reward Power: Influencing Behavior by Promising or Giving Rewards
-Reward Power: One of five sources of a leader's power that results from the authority to reward subordinates.
Matching the Appropriate Medium to the Appropriate Situation
-Rich Medium: Best for Nonroutine Situations and to Avoid Oversimplification -Lean Medium: Best for Routine Situations and to Avoid Overloading -
barriers to communication
-Some barriers occur within the communication process itself, as shown below. We'll look at several types—physical, personal, cross-cultural, nonverbal, and gender differences
hard vs soft tactics
-Some refer to the first five influence tactics—rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, and personal appeals—as "soft" tactics because they are friendlier than, and not as coercive as, the last four tactics—exchange, coalition, pressure, and legitimating tactics, which are "hard" tactics because they exert more overt pressure.
TQM
-TQM: (1) the failure to provide evidence supporting previous improvement activities, (2) the lack of a champion who is responsible for leading the implementation, (3) the inability to measure or track results of the program, and (4) the failure to develop a culture of quality or continuous learning
virtual teams
-Teams that work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort and achieve common goals.
Reinforcement Theory
-The belief that behavior reinforced by positive consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior reinforced by negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
2. Human Resources Area
-The controls used to monitor employees include personality tests and drug testing for hiring, performance tests during training, performance evaluations to measure work productivity, and employee surveys to assess job satisfaction, engagement, and leadership. Adidas human resource function has expanded its role and likely its control functions as well, as the following Example box describes
forming
-The first of the five stages of forming a team, in which people get oriented and get acquainted. -characterized by a high degree of uncertainty -leaders should allow time for members to become acquainted and socialize -"how do i fit in here"
performing
-The fourth of five stages of forming a team, in which members concentrate on solving problems and completing the assigned task. -leader should allow members the empowerment they need to work on tasks. -"how can i best perform my role"
1. Physical Area
-The physical area includes buildings, equipment, and tangible products.
2. They Are Timely, Accurate, and Objective
-Timely—meaning when needed. The information should not necessarily be delivered quickly, but it should be delivered at an appropriate or specific time, such as every week or every month. And it certainly should be often enough to allow employees and managers to take corrective action for any deviations. -Accurate—meaning correct. Accuracy is paramount if decision mistakes are to be avoided. Inaccurate sales figures may lead managers to mistakenly cut or increase sales promotion budgets. Inaccurate production costs may lead to faulty pricing of a product. -Objective—meaning impartial. Objectivity means control systems are impartial and fair. Although information can be inaccurate for all kinds of reasons (faulty communication, unknown data, and so on), information that is not objective is inaccurate for a special reason: It is biased or prejudiced. Control systems need to be considered unbiased for everyone involved so that they will be respected for their fundamental purpose—enhancing performance.
1. Physical Barriers: Sound, Time, Space
-Try shouting at someone over the roar of earth-moving machinery on a construction site and you know what physical communication barriers are. Other such barriers are time-zone differences, telephone-line static, and crashed computers. Office design can be a physical barrier, too, if it isolates people in cubicles. But privacy does have advantages.
5. To Provide Performance Feedback
-When a company becomes larger or when it merges with another company, it may find it has several product lines, materials-purchasing policies, customer bases, and worker needs that conflict with each other. Controls help managers coordinate these various elements by providing feedback
Variations in Trustworthiness and Credibility
-Without trust between you and the other person, communication is apt to be flawed. Instead of communicating, both of you will be concentrating on defensive tactics, not the meaning of the message being exchanged. In the end, low trust damages communication, which in turn reduces outcomes like job satisfaction, creativity, collaboration, and performance
Do Men and Women Vary in Terms of Leadership Style and Effectiveness?
-Women leaders are less confident than men and less likely to rate themselves highly. -Women and men are very similar on management skills like "building high-performance cultures; engaging employees; cultivating a customer-focused culture; creating alignment and accountability; enhancing organizational talent; building strategic partnerships and relationships, driving process innovation and driving efficiency." Says DDI's vice president, "The disparity in gender diversity has little to do with competence levels." -Men were observed to display more task leadership and women more relationship leadership -Women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style -A study conducted by the BI Norwegian Business School of nearly 3,000 managers' personalities and characteristics concluded that on almost every criterion, women performed better than men. Women ranked ahead of men in initiative and communication, openness and innovation, sociability and supportiveness, and methodical approach to management and goal setting. Men were rated better at dealing with stress and remaining emotionally stable. According to one of the study's coauthors, women "are decidedly more suited to management positions than their male counterparts. If decision-makers ignore this truth, they could effectively be employing less qualified leaders and impairing productivity -Peers, managers, direct reports, and judges/trained observers rated women executives as more effective than men. Men also rated themselves as more effective than women evaluated themselves -One study of 10,000 global leaders conducted by Development Dimensions International (DDI) found almost no differences between men and women in their levels of hard or soft skills.56 Another study, by DDI and the Conference Board, found only a few differences, notably in confidence levels
Are There Social Forces Working against Women Leaders?
-Yes, according to these data. There are more women leaders in health care, education, and retail industries than in consumer products, transportation, tech, energy, and automotive industries. But nowhere do their numbers approach their proportion in the overall population, and women managers are also less likely to get plum assignments or international experience.59 Why do these differences in leadership opportunities persist? A new Pew Research study of the gender attitudes of more than 4,500 U.S. adults suggests that social attitudes "shape how women are viewed in the workplace and whether or not women's ambition to reach leadership positions is supported." For instance, although most people actually don't see gender differences in workplace behavior and success, among those who do, 61 percent of men believe the differences are due to biology, while 65 percent of women say they come from society's differing expectations of men and women.60 Another factor the Pew study identified is that U.S. adults value attractiveness (35 percent) and empathy/nurturing (30 percent) most in women, with only 9 percent valuing ambition and leadership. Highly valued in men are "honesty and morality" (33 percent), followed by professional and financial success (23 percent). Almost 3 in 10 respondents to the study actually said women should not have ambition, leadership, or assertive traits. More believed women face pressure to be involved parents than believed men do (77 percent versus 49 percent). More than half the women surveyed (52 percent) felt they were under pressure to be successful in their careers, while only 38 percent of men thought women faced this stress.61 Studies of more than 37,000 managers showed that the display of "ineffective interpersonal behaviors were slightly less frequent among female managers but slightly more damaging to women than men when present."62 Female CEOs receive more scrutiny than male CEOs, according to an 18-year dataset of activist investors. An activist investor is a shareholder who owns more than 5 percent of a public company's voting stock and desires to change management practices. Results showed that "female CEOs are more likely than male CEOs to come under threat from activist investors, and also are more likely to have simultaneous threats from multiple activist investors."63 Female CEOs clearly experience greater monitoring and pressure from activist investors than do male CEOs.
Content perspectives
-also known as need based perspectives, are theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people
reinforcement
-anything that causes repeated behavior to be repeated or inhibited -four types: 1) positive 2) negative 3) extinction 4) punishment
audits
-audits: Formal verifications of an organization's financial and operational systems. -You can imagine that audits of medium and large companies entail collecting, analyzing, and interpreting large amounts of information. Because of this, more and more companies are using data analytics to conduct audits; we discussed data analytics in
The Balance Sheet: Picture of Organization's Financial Worth for a Specific Point in Time
-balance sheet: A summary of an organization's overall financial worth—assets and liabilities—at a specific point in time.
Balanced scorecard
-balanced scorecard: Gives top managers a fast but comprehensive view of the organization via four indicators: (1) customer satisfaction, (2) internal processes (3) the organization's innovation and improvement activities, and (4) financial measures.
3. They Are Realistic, Positive, and Understandable and Encourage Self-Control
-be realistic -be positive -be understandable -encourage self control
Compromising
-both parties give up something to gain something. It is appropriate when both sides have opposite goals or possess equal power.
budget
-budget: A formal financial projection.
three innate needs
1) competence: I want to feel a sense of mastery 2) autonomy: I want to feel independent and able to influence my environment 3) relatedness: I want to feel connected to other people
1. Inspirational Motivation: "Let Me Share a Vision That Transcends Us All"
-charisma: Form of interpersonal attraction that inspires acceptance and support. -charismatic leadership: Once assumed to be an individual inspirational and motivational characteristic of particular leaders, now considered part of transformational leadership.
3. Coercive Power: Influencing Behavior by Threatening or Giving Punishment
-coercive power: One of five sources of a leader's power that results from the authority to punish subordinates.
1. collaboration-the foundation of teamwork
-collaboration: Act of sharing information and coordinating efforts to achieve a collective outcome.
Concurrent Control
-concurrent control: Entails collecting performance information in real time.
three kinds of conflict: personality, intergroup, crossfunctional
-conflict trigger principles: 1) between personalities 2) between groups 3) between cultures
social media connectivity
-connect with key stakeholders -connect with varied sources of expertise inside the org. -connect with various sources outside the org.
2. Improvement Orientation—Focusing Everyone on Continuously Improving Work Processes
-continuous improvement: Ongoing, small, incremental improvements in all parts of an organization. -It's less expensive to do it right the first time -It's better to make small improvements all the time. -Accurate standards must be followed to eliminate small variations. -There must be strong commitment from top management -kaizen: Is a Japanese philosophy of small continuous improvement that seeks to involve everyone at every level of the organization in the process of identifying opportunities and implementing and testing solutions.
1. Establish Standards: "What Is the Outcome We Want?"
-control standard: The first step in the control process; the performance standard (or just standard) is the desired performance level for a given goal.
formal group
-created to accomplish specific goals -A group, headed by a leader, that is established to do something productive for the organization.
Deming management
-deming management: Ideas proposed by W. Edwards Deming for making organizations more responsive, more democratic, and less wasteful.
elements of justice theory
-distributive justice: how fairly rewards are handed out -procedural justice: how is fair is the process for handing out rewards -interactional justice: how fairly am i treated when rewards are handed out
1. Vertical Communication: Up and Down the Chain of Command
-downward communication from top to bottom: Communication that flows from a higher level to a lower level. -upward communication from bottom-up: Communication that flows from lower levels to higher levels.
using empathy
-empathy: The author hasn't created a definition. -cognitive empathy: -emotional empathy -compassionate empathy
4. Expert Power: Influencing Behavior Because of One's Expertise
-expert power: One of five sources of a leader's power, resulting from specialized information or expertise.
equity theory
-explains how people strive for fairness in social exchange or relationships -pioneered by J. Stacey Adams -based on cognitive dissonance
External Audits—Financial Appraisals by Outside Financial Experts
-external audit: Formal verification by outside experts of an organization's financial accounts and statements.
extrinsic vs intrinsic rewards
-extrinsic reward: a payoff such as money a person receives from others from performing a certain task -intrinsic rewards: satisfaction, such as feeling of accomplishment, a person feels from performing a certain task
Feedback Control
-feedback control: Amounts to collecting performance information after a task or project is done.
Feedforward Control
-feedforward control: Focuses on preventing future problems.
financial statement
-financial statement: Summary of some aspect of an organization's financial status.
Fixed budgets—where resources are allocated on a single estimate of costs
-fixed budgets: Allocation of resources on the basis of a single estimate of costs.
what a group is: a collection of people performing as individuals
-group: defined as (1) two or more freely interacting individuals who (2) share norms, (3) share goals, and (4) have a common identity -collection of people
Why norms are enforced
-help group survive -clarify role expectations -help individuals avoid embarrassing situations -emphasize the groups important values and identities
2. Horizontal Communication: Within and between Work Units
-horizontal communications: Communication that flows within and between work units; its main purpose is coordination. -impended in 3 ways: (1) by specialization that makes people focus on only their jobs; (2) by rivalry between workers or work units, which prevents sharing of information; and (3) by lack of encouragement from management.
situational control
-how much control and influence a leader has in the immediate work environment
expectancy theory
-how much effort to excerpt in a specific task situation
hygiene factors vs motivating factors
-hygiene factors: why are my people dissatisfied -are factors associated with job dissatisfaction—such as salary, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, and company policy—all of which affect the job context in which people work -motivating factors: what will make people dissatisfied - or simply motivators, are factors associated with job satisfaction—such as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and advancement & growth—all of which affect the job content or the rewards of work performance
Avoiding
-ignoring or suppressing a conflict. It is appropriate for trivial issues, when emotions are high and a cooling-off period is needed, or when the cost of confrontation outweighs the benefits of resolving the conflict.
popular incentive compensations plans
-pay for performance (merit pay): bases pay on ones results -salaried employees get different pay raises and bonuses based on results -piece rate: paid based on output (farmers) -sales commission: paid a percentage of sales -bonuses: cash rewards given for achieving a certain performance level -profit-sharing: distribution to employees for a percentage of the companies profits -gainsharing: rewards for cutting costs and boosting activity -stock options: ability to buy stocks at a future date for a discounted price -pay for knowledge: pay based on skill and academic achievement
1. personality ocnflicts
-personality conflict: Interpersonal opposition based on personal dislike, disagreement, or differing styles.
needs
-physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior
Privacy: Keeping Things to Yourself
-privacy: The right of people not to reveal information about themselves. -identity theft: A violation of privacy in which thieves hijack your name and identity and use your good credit rating to get cash or buy things.
Process Perspective and employee motivation
-process perspectives: Theories of employee motivation concerned with the thought processes by which people decide how to act: expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal-setting theory.
4. Use Programmed Conflict: Devil's Advocacy and the Dialectic Method
-programmed conflict: Conflict designed to elicit different opinions without inciting people's personal feelings. -devils advocacy: Taking the side of an unpopular point of view for the sake of argument. -the dialect method: Role-playing two sides of a proposal to test whether it is workable.
Acquiring Needs Theory
-proposed by David McClelland -states three needs achievement, affiliation, and power are major motives determining peoples behavior in the work place -not born with our need; learn them from culture and life experiences
psychopathy
-psychopathy: A lack of concern for others, impulsive behavior, and a dearth of remorse when the psychopath's actions harm others.
Revision of his theory
-puts more emphasis on the need for leaders to foster intrinsic motivation through empowerment. Finally, his revised theory stresses the concept of shared leadership, the idea that employees do not have to be supervisors or managers to engage in leader behavior but rather may share leadership among all employees of the organization.
Reduced Cycle Time: Increasing the Speed of Work Processes
-reduced cycle time: The reduction of steps in the work process.
5. Referent Power: Influencing Behavior Because of One's Personal Attraction
-referent power: One of five sources of a leader's power deriving from personal attraction.
6. Roles: How Team Members Are Expected to Behave
-roles: Sets of behaviors that people expect of occupants of a position.
fitting people to jobs
-scientific management: the process of reducing the number of tasks a worker performs.
Security: Guarding against Cyberthreats
-security: A system of safeguards for protecting information technology against disasters, system failures, and unauthorized access that result in damage or loss.
Dominating (forcing)
-simply ordering an outcome, when a manager relies on his or her formal authority and power to resolve a conflict. It is appropriate when an unpopular solution must be implemented and when it's not important that others commit to your viewpoint
Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma: Data-Driven Ways to Eliminate Defects
-six sigma: A rigorous statistical analysis process that reduces defects in manufacturing and service-related industries. -lean six sigma: Quality-control approach that focuses on problem solving and performance improvement—speed with excellence—of a well-defined project.
social media and managemnt
-social media: Internet-based and mobile technologies used to generate interactive dialogue with members of a network.
Obliging
-sometimes called accommodating manager allows the desires of the other party to prevail. This style may be appropriate when it's possible to eventually get something in return or when the issue isn't important to you.
Statistical Process Control: Taking Periodic Random Samples
-statistical process control: A statistical technique that uses periodic random samples from production runs to see if quality is being maintained within a standard range of acceptability.
1. Strategic Control by Top Managers
-strategic control: Monitoring performance to ensure that strategic plans are being implemented and taking corrective action as needed.
negative reinforcement
-strengthening a behavior by withdrawing something negative
goal setting theory
-suggests that employees can be motivated by goals that are specific and challenging but achievable. -edwin locke and gary latham
supply chian
-supply chain: The sequence of suppliers that contribute to creating and delivering a product, from raw materials to production to final buyers.
2. Tactical Control by Middle Managers
-tactical control: Monitoring performance to ensure that tactical plans—those at the divisional or departmental level—are being implemented and taking corrective action as needed.
4 types of leadership behavior
-task-oriented, relationship-oriented, passive, and transformational
4. Motivation through Mutual Accountability and Interdependence
-team member interdependence: The extent to which team members rely on common task-related team inputs, such as resources, information, goals, and rewards, and the amount of interpersonal interactions needed to complete the work.
2 approaches
1) contingency leadership model 2) path goal leadership model
What Determines Leadership Effectiveness: Employee Characteristics and Environmental Factors Affect Leader Behavior
1) employee characteristics 2) environmental factors 3) leader behaviors
8. Effective Team Processes
-team process: Members' interdependent acts that convert inputs to outcomes through cognitive, verbal, and behavioral activities directed toward organizing taskwork to achieve collective goals. -team charter: Outlines how a team will manage teamwork activities. -team reflexivity: A process in which team members collectively reflect on the team's objectives, strategies, and processes and adapt accordingly. -team voice: The extent to which team members feel free to engage in the expression of constructive opinions, concerns, or ideas about work-related issues.
What a Team Is: A Collection of People with Common Commitment
-team: A small group of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach to which they hold themselves mutually accountable. -powerful unit of collective performance
can too little or too much conflict effect performance
-too little conflict: inactivity -too much conflict: warefare
total quality management (TQM)
-total quality management: A comprehensive approach—led by top management and supported throughout the organization—dedicated to continuous quality improvement, training, and customer satisfaction. -4 components 1) Make continuous improvement a priority. 2) Get every employee involved. 3) Listen to and learn from customers and employees. 4) Use accurate standards to identify and eliminate problems.
important implications for managers
-use more than one leadership style -help employees achieve their goals -managers need to alter their behavior for each leadership situation -provide what people and teams need to succeed
positive reinforecemnt
-use of positive consequences to strengthen a particular behavior
Variable budgets—where resources are varied in proportion with various levels of activity
-variable budget: Allowing the allocation of resources to vary in proportion with various levels of activity.
punishment (weakness behavior)
-weakening behavior by presenting something negative or withdrawing something positive
extinction
-weakening of behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced
the need for a positive work environement
-well being: combined impact of five elements; positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, achievement (PERMA) -Martin Seligman
Which Style Is Most Effective?
-what task oriented style is the best The task-oriented style works best in either high-control or low-control situations. Example of a high-control situation (leader decisions produce predictable results because he or she can influence work outcomes): Suppose you were supervising parking-control officers ticketing cars parked illegally in expired meter zones, bus zones, and the like. You have (1) high leader-member relations because your subordinates are highly supportive of you and (2) high task structure because their jobs are clearly defined. (3) You have high position control because you have complete authority to evaluate their performance and dole out punishment and rewards. Thus, a task-oriented style would be best. -when relationship oriented style is the best The relationship-oriented style works best in situations of moderate control. Example: Suppose you were working in a government job supervising a group of firefighters fighting wildfires. You might have (1) low leader-member relations if you are promoted over others in the group but (2) high task structure, because the job is fairly well defined. (3) You might have low position power, because the rigidity of the civil-service job prohibits you from doing much in the way of rewarding and punishing. Thus, in this moderate-control situation, relationship-oriented leadership would be most effective.
law of effect
-which says behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear
need for work life balance
-work life benefits: employer sponsored benefit programs or initiatives designed to help employees balance work life with home life
Social Media and Reputation
1) Create and enforce a social media policy for employees: We'll discuss social media policies in more detail. At a minimum, your policy should limit what employees can say on the organization's web pages and ensure that all posted content meets the highest ethical standards 2) Appoint experienced managers to monitor your social media presence and respond quickly and appropriately to negative posts: Vitamin Water waited 3) 24 hours before responding to customers voicing anger on Facebook about its new flavor Acknowledge there is a problem. Gracefully accepting that someone has a genuine issue with the organization, its product or service, or its posts—even if the problem is a misunderstanding on his or her part—can go a long way toward defusing bad feelings. 4) Take the conversation offline if necessary. If a customer refuses to be satisfied, take the conversation to a private sphere such as phone or e-mail. Not only will this keep it out of the public eye and prevent further damage to the brand but the individualized attention may also reduce the customer's ire.
3. Internal Business Perspective: "At What Must We Excel?"
1) Innovation. 2) Customer service and satisfaction. 3) Operational excellence, which includes safety and quality. 4) Good corporate citizenship
So What Do We Know about Leadership Traits?
1) We cannot ignore the implications of leadership traits 2) The positive and "dark triad" traits suggest the qualities you should cultivate and avoid if you want to assume a leadership role in the future. 3) Organizations may want to include personality and trait assessments in their selection and evaluation processes 4) Cross-cultural competency is an increasingly valued task-oriented trait -global mindset: Your belief in your ability to influence dissimilar others in a global context.
1. Too Much Control
1) Working excessive hours and weekends and skipping vacation. 2) Checking everyone's work because no one else can do things right. 3) Needing to be copied on and approve everything. 4) Requiring others to continually check-in and be constantly available. 5) Having to hire new people all the time because turnover is so high.
using equity and justice theory to motivate employees
1) employees perceptions are what counts 2) employees want a voice in decisions that effect them 3) employees should be given an appeal process 4) leader behavior matters 5) a climate for justice makes a difference -voice: Employees' upward expression of challenging but constructive opinions, concerns, or ideas on work-related issues to their managers.
three elements expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
1) expectancy: will I be able to perform at the desired level on a task 2) instrumentality: what outcome will I receive if I perform at this level 3) valence: how much do I want the outcome
5 stages of development
1) forming 2) storming 3) norming 4) performing 5) adjourning
four motivational mechanisms for goal setting theory
1) it directs your attention 2) it regulates the effort expended 3) increases your persistence 4) fosters use of strategies and action plans
4 performance objectives
1) planning 2) organizing 3) leading 4) controlling
differentiated according to
1) purpose 2) duration 3) level of member commitment
2 key conclussion
1. A leader's behavior is more important than his or her traits. 2. There is no type of leader behavior that is best suited for all situations
five job characteristics
1. Skill Variety—"How Many Different Skills Does Your Job Require?" 2. Task Identity—"How Many Different Tasks Are Required to Complete the Work?" 3. Task Significance—"How Many Other People Are Affected by Your Job?" 4. Autonomy—"How Much Discretion Does Your Job Give You?" 5. Feedback—"How Much Do You Find Out How Well You're Doing?"
control process steps
1. establish standards 2. measure performance 3. compare performance to standards 4. take corrective action, if necessary
some practical results of goal setting theory
1. goals should be specific 2. goals should be challenging but achievable 3. goals should be linked to action plans 4. Performance Feedback and Participation in Deciding How to Achieve Goals Are Necessary but Not Sufficient for Goal Setting to Work
What Do Followers Want in Their Leaders?
1. significance 2. community 3. excitement
laissez faire leadership
A form of leadership characterized by a general failure to take responsibility for leading.
2. Customer Perspective: "How Do Customers See Us?"
Goal 1: Improve the patient experience and outcomes through inter-professional, high quality care. Goal 2: Focus on the highest levels of specialized care in support of our Academic Health Sciences Centre definition. Goal 3: Work with system partners and government to build an integrated delivery system in support of our communities and our Academic Health Sciences Centre definition. Goal 4: Achieving excellence in clinical care associated with our strategic priorities
The Power of Humility
Humility is a relatively stable trait grounded in the belief that "something greater than the self exists."157 Although some think it is a sign of weakness or low self-esteem, nothing could be further from the truth.