Exam 3
less automatic race bias
one study found ______________ when men and women of different races (except blacks) were surreptitiously induced to smile while looking at photographs of blacks
listening; talking
people engage in more eye contact when they're ___________ than when they're ___________
overestimate
people routinely ________________ their ability to detect liars
less
societies with more gender equality show _________ of the traditional gender differences in mate preferences
self-perception theory
the idea that people sometimes infer their attitudes by observing their own behavio
content
the ideas and feelings conveyed
physically close
the more you like someone, the more comfortable you feel being ______________ to that person
person perception
the process of forming impressions of others
the bystander effect
the tendency for individuals to be less likely to provide help when others are present than when they are alone.
need for cognition
the tendency to seek out and enjoy effortful thought, problem-solving activities, and in-depth analysis
greater
Liars are found to make ___________ eye contact with those they are trying to dupe
mature features
Men who have _____________, such as a strong jaw and a broad forehead, get high ratings on attractiveness
increases
Men, both gay and straight, also desire to be thinner and more muscular, and this dissatisfaction _____________ with age
internal attributions
Observers are especially likely to make _______________ in trying to explain the calamities and tragedies that befall other people.
fundamental attribution error
People are more likely to make the ____________ when evaluating targets of prejudice
social dominance orientation (SDO)
People high in _______________ prefer inequality among social groups, believing in a hierarchy where some are destined to dominate others, such as men over women, majorities over minorities, or heterosexuals over homosexuals
modern discrimination
People may privately harbor racist or sexist attitudes but express them only when they feel such views are justified or when it's safe to do so
stereotyping
Perhaps no factor plays a larger role in prejudice than _______________
higher relationship satisfaction
Research shows that couples who engage in exciting, novel activities together have _____________________________
stereotype threat
When the black students' stereotype vulnerability was not obvious, their performance did not differ from that of the white students; when the threat of stereotype vulnerability was raised, however, the black students performed significantly worse than the white students.
external attributions
When they impute the causes of a person's behavior to situational demands and environmental constraints, they are making __________________________
Overcommunication
_____________ is a relatively unusual response to high communication apprehension, but it does occur, as when someone who attempts to dominate social situations talks nonstop.
Defensive attribution
_____________ is a tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way
Personal space
_____________ is a zone of space surrounding a person that is felt to "belong" to that person
Nonverbal communication
_____________ is the transmission of meaning from one person to another through means or symbols other than words.
self-disclosure
_____________ is the voluntary act of sharing personal information about yourself with another person
agency
_____________ refers to the rewards or benefits friends provide us
nonverbal sensistivity
_____________ the ability to accurately encode (express) and decode (understand) nonverbal cues
reproach
_____________, in which the offended party acknowledges the problem and asks the offender for an explanation
heterosexism
_____________, or the assumption that all individuals and relationships are heterosexual
attachment styles
_____________, or typical ways of interacting in close relationships
interpersonal communication
______________ as an interactional process in which one person sends a message to another
Anxious; avoidant
______________ attachment in men is predictive of their female partners' sexual dissatisfaction, whereas _______________ attachment in women is related to male partners' sexual dissatisfaction
paralanguage
______________ includes all vocal cues other than the content of the verbal message itself
Assertiveness
______________ involves acting in one's own best interests by expressing one's thoughts and feelings directly and honestly
discrimination
______________ involves behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward members of a group
listening
______________ is a mindful activity and complex process requiring one to select and organize information, interpret and respond to communications, and recall what was heard
Kinesics
______________ is the study of communication through body movements
Proxemics
______________ is the study of people's use of interpersonal space
Withdrawal
______________ occurs when people unexpectedly find themselves trapped in a communication situation they can't escape. Here they may clam up entirely or say as little as possible.
Collectivist cultures; direct confrontations
______________ often avoid conflict, whereas individualistic cultures tend to encourage _______________
Reciprocal liking
______________ refers to liking those who show that they like you
Attachment avoidance
______________ reflects the degree to which a person distrusts a partner's goodwill and has tendencies to maintain emotional and behavioral distance from a partner.
enjoyment
______________ reflects the importance of having fun with friends
Stereotypes
_______________ are widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group
Persuasion
_______________ involves the communication of arguments and information intended to change another person's attitudes
Electronically mediated communication
_______________ is interpersonal communication that takes place via technology
Attraction
_______________ is the initial desire to form a close relationship
social categorization
_______________ predisposes people to divide the social world into ingroups and outgroups
Sexual orientation
_______________ refers to a person's preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same gender, the other gender, or either gender
breakdown processes; intrapsychic processes
_______________, in which one or both partners become dissatisfied. If this breakdown becomes extreme, either partner might engage in ____________________—ruminating about his or her dissatisfaction, the cost of the relationship, and attractive alternatives
parental investment theory
_______________, which maintains that a species' mating patterns depend on what each sex has to invest—in the way of time, energy, and survival risk—to produce and nurture offspring
Display rules
________________ are norms that govern the appropriate display of emotions in a culture
Relationship maintenance
________________ involves the actions and activities used to sustain the desired quality of a relationship.
Commitment
________________ involves the decision and intent to maintain a relationship in spite of the difficulties and costs that may arise.
Self-disclosure
________________ is the act of sharing personal information about yourself with another person
emotional
________________ loneliness stems from the absence of an intimate attachment figure
Compliance
________________ occurs when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior, even though their private beliefs have not changed
instrumental aide
________________ reflects direct support friends provide
Attachment anxiety
________________ reflects how much a person worries that a partner will not be available when needed.
Forewarning
________________ the receiver about a persuasive effort and a receiver's initial position on an issue, for instance, seem to be more influential than a receiver's personality
Interpersonal conflict
_________________ exists whenever two or more people disagree
similarity in personality
_________________ is associated with relationship satisfaction
Confirmation bias
_________________ is the tendency to seek information that supports one's beliefs while not pursuing disconfirming information.
Transient
_________________ loneliness involves brief and sporadic feelings of loneliness, which many people may experience even when their social lives are reasonably satisfying
Conformity
_________________ occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure
Disruption
_________________ refers to the inability to make fluent oral presentations or to engage in appropriate verbal or nonverbal behavior.
investments
_________________, or things that people contribute to a relationship that they can't get back if the relationship ends
communion
__________________ involves intimacy and self-disclosure
acknowledgment stage
__________________, the offended party acknowledges the remedy and the friendships progresses
Submissive communication
___________________ is deferential, as it involves giving in to others on points of possible contention.
Normative influence
___________________ operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences
aggressive communication
____________________ focuses on saying and getting what one wants at the expense of others' feelings and rights
Informational influence
____________________ operates when people look to others for how to behave in ambiguous situations
symmetrical reciprocity
____________________ relates to mutual loyalty and trust
diversionary interrupting
____________________,which can entail conversational rerouting but usually just steers the discussion off to a new and possibly unrelated topic that is of interest to the self-preoccupied monopolizer
Interdependence or social exchange theory postulates
_____________________ that interpersonal relationships are governed by perceptions of the rewards and costs exchanged in interactions
authoritarian personality
a personality type characterized by prejudice toward any group perceived to be different from oneself
defensiveness
an excessive concern with protecting oneself from being hurt
aversive racism
an indirect, subtle, ambiguous form of racism that occurs when their conscious endorsement of egalitarian ideals conflicts with unconscious, negative reactions to minority group members
avoidance
choosing not to participate when confronted with voluntary communication opportunities
resurrection processes
each partner engages in __________________ to prepare for his or her new life
superordinate goals
goals requiring two or more groups to work together to achieve mutual ends
competition
groups often respond more negatively to __________ than individuals do
right-wing authoritarianism (RWA)
he construct is now termed ______________ , and it is characterized by authoritarian submission (exaggerated deference to those in power), authoritarian aggression (hostility toward targets sanctioned by authorities), and conventionalism (strong adherence to values endorsed by authorities)
Collaborating
high concern for self and others conflict style
Competing/forcing
high concern for self, low concern for others conflict style
underestimate
high school girls _______________ the body size that boys find attractive
social processes
if partners reach the decision to end their relationship, __________________ occur as friends and family are alerted to the problem
Defensive attribution
individuals who claim that people who contract AIDS deserve it may be trying to reassure themselves that they won't suffer a similar fate
consummate love
intimacy + passion + commitment
Obedience
is a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
Avoiding/withdrawing
low concern for self and others conflict style
Accommodating
low concern for self, high concern for others conflict style
1. how much they like you 2. how good a fit you think the person is
matching effects result from one's assessment of two fundamental factors:
agency
men's friendships were higher in _________________
Compromising
moderate concern for self and others conflict style
nonconsciously
there is evidence that when a stranger looks very similar to someone we know well, such as a romantic partner, we automatically, effortlessly, and more or less ______________ like the person
systematic judgments
they take the time to observe the person in a variety of situations and to compare that person's behavior with that of others in similar situations
more effective
two-sided arguments are __________ than one-sided arguments
status than of gender
visual dominance seems to be more a function of...
secure attachments; avoidant attachments
warm/responsive approach in parenting seems to promote ____________, whereas a cold/rejecting style is associated with _____________
grooming qualities
we also have _______________, such as cosmetics, hairstyle, clothing, and accessories, that we use to enhance our physical attractiveness
overestimate; underestimate
we tend to ______________ the differences between groups and _______________ the differences within groups
red
wearing the color _______ increases a woman's perceived sexual attractiveness
ultimate attribution error
when people take note of ethnic neighborhoods dominated by crime and poverty, they blame these problems on the residents ("they're lazy and ignorant") and downplay or ignore situationally based explanations (job discrimination, poor police service, and so on).
more
women tend to gaze at others ________ than men do
positive attributes
women who associate _________________ with being underweight have a higher incidence of eating disorders
symmetrical reciprocity, communion, enjoyment, and similarity
women's friendships were higher in....
reduce
you can ______________ prejudice if you are motivated to pay careful attention to what and how you think
ingroup
your personal self-esteem is elevated by individual accomplishments (you got an A on a history exam), your collective self-esteem is boosted when an __________ is successful (your team wins the football game)
Shyness
___________ refers to discomfort, inhibition, and excessive caution in interpersonal relations
Intimacy
___________ refers to warmth, closeness, and sharing in a relationship
self-fulfilling prophecy
A ____________ occurs when expectations about a person cause him or her to behave in ways that confirm the expectations.
primacy effect
A ____________ occurs when initial information carries more weight than subsequent information.
comparison level
A ________________ is a personal standard of what constitutes an acceptable balance of rewards and costs in a relationship.
Close relationships
____________ are those that are important, interdependent, and long lasting.
attitudes
____________ as beliefs and feelings about people, objects, and ideas.
Prejudice
____________ is a negative attitude toward members of a group
Hearing
____________ is a physiological process that occurs when sound waves come into contact with our eardrums
Chronic
____________ loneliness is a condition that affects people who have been unable to develop a satisfactory interpersonal network over a period of years
Loneliness
____________ occurs when a person has fewer interpersonal relationships than desired or when these relationships are not as satisfying as desired.
Proximity
____________ refers to geographic, residential, and other forms of spatial closeness.
Passion
____________ refers to the intense feelings (both positive and negative) experienced in love relationships, including sexual desire.
context
____________ the environment in which communication takes place.
remedy
_____________ by taking responsibility and offering a justification a concession, an apology, or a combination of these three
Communication
_____________ can be defined as the system and process of sending, receiving, and interpreting messages that have meaning
situationally specific
shyness was triggered only in certain social contexts, such as asking someone for help or interacting with a large group of people
fewer
so the presence of ______________ saccadic eye movements suggests someone is telling the truth.
social identity theory
According to this theory, self-esteem is partly determined by one's social identity, or collective self, which is tied to one's group memberships (nationality, religion, gender, major, occupation, political party affiliation, fraternity, sorority, self-help clubs, and so forth)
interdependence theory
According to__________________ , people assess a relationship by its outcome—their subjective perception of the rewards of the relationship minus its costs
loneliest
Adolescents and young adults are the ____________ age group.
speaking; listening
African Americans use more continuous eye contact than European Americans when ______________, but less when __________
anxious/ambivalent attachments
An ambivalent/inconsistent parenting style seems to result in _____________
grave-dressing processes
As the couple moves toward breaking up, ________________ occur in which each partner develops a separate account of the breakup for his or her social network
longer lasting and more resistant to challenge
Attitudes formed via the central route are ___________ than those formed via the peripheral route. They are also better predictors of a person's behavior
reduced
Chronic loneliness also is associated with ____________ physical health
common goals
Cooperating to reach ______________, then, can reduce conflict
dyadic processes
If commitment wavers, the couple will engage in _________________ by discussing and negotiating the conflict
65
In Milgram's study _______% of the subjects administered all thirty levels of shock.
Efficiency
In forming impressions of others, people prefer to exert no more cognitive effort or time than is necessary. Thus, much social information is processed automatically and effortlessly.
systematic judgments
In forming impressions of those who can affect their welfare and happiness, people make ___________ rather than snap decisions
social skills training
In this program, individuals learn and practice the skills involved in initiating and maintaining relationships
satisfaction
Individuals assess their _______________ with a relationship by comparing the relationship outcomes (rewards minus costs) to their subjective expectations
peripheral; central
Political candidates use music, flags, and slogans to persuade via the __________ route; when they present their views on an issue, they are going for the ___________ route.
85%-90%
Polygraph experts claim that lie detector tests are ______________ accurate and that there is empirical support for the validity of polygraph testing
intimacy, passion, and commitment
Robert Sternberg's triangular theory of love posits that all love experiences are made up of three components:
Robert Merton
Self-fulfilling prophecy was originally coined by sociologist _________________ (1948) to explain phenomena such as "runs" on banks that occurred during the Depression
medium
The United States is usually characterized as a __________-contact culture, but there is a lot of variability among ethnic groups
source; receiver
The ___________ is the person who sends a communication, and the __________ is the person to whom the message is sent
message
The ___________ refers to the information transmitted by the source
receiver
The ____________ is the person to whom the message is sent.
polygraph
The ______________ is a device that records fluctuations in physiological arousal as a person answers questions
sender
The ______________ is the person who initiates the message
channel
The ______________ refers to the medium through which the message is sent.
message; medium
The _______________ is the information transmitted by the source; the channel is the ___________ through which the message is sent.
foot-in-the-door technique
The ________________ involves getting people to agree to a small request to increase the chances that they will agree to a larger request later
fundamental attribution error
The ________________ refers to the tendency to explain other people's behavior as the result of personal, rather than situational, factors.
ambiguous situations
The bystander effect is most likely to occur in ____________________ because people look around to see whether others are acting as if there's an emergency
outgroup homogeneity effect
This phenomenon, in which others are seen as "all alike" and one's own group is perceived to be "diverse," is termed the _______________
internal attributions
When people ascribe the causes of someone's behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, or feelings, they are making _______________
men (straight and gay)
___________ place more emphasis on physical attractiveness
smaller
Women have __________ personal-space zones than men do
neonate
Women who have _________ qualities such as large eyes, prominent cheekbones, a small nose, and full lips tend to get high ratings.
women
_________ are better encoders and decoders of nondeceptive messages b/c they are more motivated to exert effort acquiring these skills
Higher-status; lower-status
_________ individuals look at the other person more when speaking than when listening, while _______________ people behave just the opposite
Noise
__________ refers to any stimulus that interferes with accurately expressing or understanding a message
liars; truth tellers
__________ say less, tell less-compelling stories, make a more negative impression, are more tense, and include less unusual content in their stories than _______________ do
Social
___________ loneliness results from the lack of a friendship network
elaboration likelihood model
an individual's thoughts about a persuasive message (rather than the actual message itself) determine whether attitude change will occur
body; face
an unattractive _________ is seen as a greater liability than an unattractive __________
easier to identify
angry outgroup members are much ________________ than angry ingroup members, suggesting that the human mind carefully tracks strangers who may pose a threat.
communication apprehension
anxiety caused by having to talk with others
attributions
are inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior, others' behavior, and events
stronger
bad impressions tend to be ____________ than good ones
"what-is-beautiful-is-good" stereotype
beautiful people are usually viewed as happier, more socially competent, more assertive, better adjusted, and more intellectually competent than those who are less attractive
pseudolistening
pretending to listen while their minds are occupied with other topics
door-in-the-face technique
the _________________ involves making a large request that is likely to be turned down in order to increase the chances that people will agree to a smaller request later
reciprocity principle
the _________________ —the rule that one should pay back in kind what one receives from others
mere exposure effect
the _________________, or an increase in positive feelings toward a novel stimulus (such as a person) based on frequent exposure to it
lowball technique
the ___________________, which involves getting someone to commit to an attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed
comparison level for alternatives
the _____________________, or one's estimation of the available outcomes from alternative relationships
mature features
the combination of these youthful features with _________________ (prominent cheekbones, wide smile) seems to be the winning ticket