EXSS 181 Final
Define and differentiate arousal and anxiety.
-Arousal: a general state of activation from deep sleep to extreme excitement -Anxiety: a negative emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension, and increased physiological activation
What are the 4 steps involved in the scientific method?
1. Develop the problem 2. Formulate a hypothesis 3. gather data 4. analyze and interpret results
What are the 4 steps in a PST Program? What happens in each step?
1. Education and assessment 2. Acquisition 3. practice 4. evaluation
What are the key components of the sport competition process? Be able to list and explain each part of this model.
1. Objective competitive situation 2. subjective competitive situation 3. response 4. consequences
What is thought stopping? How does it work? What is its purpose in regards to self-talk?
1. notice yourself making a negative self-statement 2. say "stop" in your head or out loud 3. follow this up by replacing the thought with a more positive self-statement
What are the importance of emotional states (e.g., enjoyment, anxiety, pride, shame) to this model?
Emotional states influence how one feels about their competence of that sport which increases their overall competence motivation
What are common issues associated with transition out of sport that can negatively affect athlete mental health and/or cognitive functioning? Be able to give examples of each.
Psychological Well Being: bitterness of being forced to retire, loss of comradely with teammates and relationships with coaches, lack of self-identity, loss of confidence in ability to cope with life situations, loss of adulation from fans, inability to replace the excitement of the sport experience
Define and differentiate the 4 theories of imagery from lecture.
Psychoneuromuscular theory Symbolic learning theory Bioinformational theory Triple code model
What are the two characteristics of skilled/effective imagery?
Recall and Reconstruction Vividness and controllability
Three roles of sport psychologists
Research, teaching, and consulting
Describe the trait approach to personality. Why are traits a poor predictor of behavior on their own?
Traits (relatively stable attributes of personality) are consistent and generalizable Not a good predictor because predispositions do not mean an individual will act on them in every situation. Sport may be a context in which traits are suppressed or exaggerated. Doesn't consider the environment
Which sense(s) should you use when you do imagery?
Visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory
Differentiate width & direction of attentional focus --> What are the 4 possible combinations of these factors and what are they used for?
Width: broad vs. narrow Direction: external vs. internal 1. Broad external: used to rapidly assess a situation 2. Broad internal: used to analyze and plan 3. Narrow external: used to focus exclusively on 1 or 2 environmental cues 4. Narrow internal: used to mentally rehearse an upcoming performance or control an emotional state
What are its benefits for athletes?
-Arouses positive emotions -Facilitates concentration -Affects goals -Increases effort -Affects game strategies -Affects psychological momentum -Affects performance
What are common problems in goal setting?
-Convincing athletes to set goals -Failing to set specific goals -Setting too many goals too soon -Failing to adjust goals -Failing to recognize individual differences -Not providing follow up and evaluation
What is biofeedback?
-Designed to teach control of physiological or autonomic responses -Visual and/or auditory feedback of: muscle activity, skin temperature, brain wave, heart rate
What do we know currently about the relationship between exercise, depression and anxiety? How does exercise compare to effects of medications for these disorders? What is the current state of the causality of these findings?
-Exercise associated with lower levels of both depression and anxiety symptoms -Potential for use as adjunct to therapy -Some studies show exercise at least as effective as medication in lowering symptoms -Bottom line: there are negative associations that do not equal extremely strong causal evidence
What are the 4 possible combinations of goal orientations?
-High task, high ego -High task, low ego -Low task, high ego -Low task, low ego
Explain the difference between internal psychological core, typical responses, and role-related behavior in Hollander's model of personality.
-Internal Psychological Core: basic level, values, interests, motives, etc. -Typical Responses: ways we learn to adjust to the environment, how we usually respond to the world around us -Role-Related Behavior: most changeable aspect of personality, different situations elicit different behaviors
History - Who are the main historical figures? What did they do? Example, who is Coleman Grifitth?
-Norman Triplett: a key figure in history of social/sport exercise psychology; studied social facilitation of bikers; tested whether bikers rode faster in groups than when alone --> first person to link psychology and sports -Colemann Griffith: the father of modern sport psychology; conducted the first research lab, 25 research articles, studied Red Grange at Illinois; worked with Notre Dame and the Chicago Cubs.
How can SDT be used to inform coaching/teaching practice to enhance self-determined motivation for athletes/exercisers?
-Provide contingent positive reinforcement -Define success in process-oriented terms -Use small rewards as symbols of achievement, not to coerce or control -Have realistic expectations Phase out rewards as intrinsic motivation develops -Provide participants some choice -Use a democratic leadership style -Help individuals set their own realistic, challenging goals -Help all participants feel included in the group by (Coach/leader showing respect to all participants, Activities to encourage group members to get to know each other and feel accepted)
What are the common motivated/behavioral outcomes of task and ego involvement?
-Task goal involvement outcome: choose learning opportunities at risk of displaying mistakes, high effort, persist in the face of failure, continue to problem solve -Ego goal involvement outcomes: avoid learning opportunities that have high risk of displaying error, put in just enough effort to socially compare well or to disguise poor ability, give up in the face of failure, fewer problem-solving efforts in failure situations
What are two assumptions of PMR?
-Tension and relaxation cannot occur simultaneously -Relaxation of the muscles (body) contributes to relaxation of the mind -Involves contracting and relaxing major muscle groups in a sequence progressing through the whole body
What are guidelines for the effective use of self-talk?
-Use short, specific phrases (easy to remember, less interference with automatic processing) -Speak in the first person (enhances personal meaning) -Use the present tense (keeps focus on process, orients you to action) -Say with meaning and attention (enhances personal meaning and helps connect the words to their intended action outcomes) -Speak kindly to yourself (keeps a positive, motivating tone) -Repeat phrases often (helps to remember, create habit) -Use specific task instructions rather than general instructions -Consider using metaphorical language (some people prefer this, others do not)
Be able to describe the motivational continuum and each type of motivation on it.
1. A-motivation: no links between actions and outcomes 2. External: displayed for the purpose of achieving some reward or avoiding punishment 3. Introjected: performing a behavior to avoid guilt/anxiety 4. Identified: performing a behavior to reach some valued, extrinsic outcome 5. Integrated: performing a behavior because it is part of your sense of self 6. Intrinsic: preforming a behavior for its own sake
Name the 4 key components to the modeling process, and identify 1 way you could enhance each.
1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Motor Reproduction 4. Motivation
What are the 3 stages of children's competence motivation? Why are they important to the competence motivation model?
1. Autonomous competence: occurs before the age of 4, children rarely compare themselves with others, kids not really interested in competition based sports which compare themselves to others 2. Social Comparison: 3. Integrated stage:
What are the 3 psychological needs and how to the influence more intrinsic/self-determined motivation?
1. Autonomy 2. Competence 3. Relatedness
There are two theories that suggest that the situation influences personality development. Name them, and explain the basic premise of each.
1. Behaviorism: the idea that people learn behaviors from specific situations via rewards and punishments 2. social learning theory: the idea that people learn behaviors for certain situations via observational learning/modeling
What is the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect?
1. Coaches form expectations based on: person cues (body size, gender, race, social skills), performance cues (skills, outcomes) 2. Coaches' expectations affect their own behavior: frequency of interactions/feedback with athletes, quality/type of interactions/feedback with athletes 3. Coaches behavior affects athlete performance and behavior: degree of skill improvement, perceptions of competence, self-esteem, goals 4. Athlete performance confirms each expectations: reinforces coaches beliefs, some athletes "resilient," but some are not, "at risk" athletes for this phenomenon: children and late-maturing adolescents, members of groups susceptible to stereotypes e
Identify and explain 3 ways of knowing. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
1. Common sense: strengths- easy and quick; limitations- not based on experience or data so large chance of being wrong 2. Practical Experience: strengths- holistic, immediate, innovative; limitations- fails to explain mechanisms, susceptible to bias 3. Science: strengths- reliable, "objective and unbiased"; limitations- reductionistic, slow to evolve, sometimes not practical
What are the 2 aspects from Cognitive Evaluation Theory that affect an individual's interpretation of a reward?
1. Controlling aspects: more controlling = undermine self-determination, affects autonomy perceptions 2. informational aspect: more informational= enhance self-determination, affects competence perceptions
Describe and explain the 6 periods of sport psychology.
1. Early years: Norman Triplett, first ever study that incorporated sports into psychology 2. Griffith Era: development of laboratories and psychological testing 3. Preparation for the future: Franklin Henry established a graduate program 4. Establishment of an academic branch: 1st NASPSPA conference 5. Multidisciplinary research and establishment of journals 6. Contemporary (present time)
List 5 misconceptions of confidence.
1. Either you have it or you don't 2. Only positive feedback can build confidence 3. success always builds confidence 4. confidence equals outspoken arrogance 5. mistakes inevitably destroy confidence
What are the 4 components of attention?
1. Focusing on the relevant cues in the environment --> selective attention 2. Maintaining attentional focus over time 3. Having awareness of the situation and performance errors 4. Shifting attentional focus when necessary
In what two key ways is anxiety described to affect performance?
1. Increased muscle tension and coordination difficulties 2. attention and concentration changes (narrowing of attention, attending to inappropriate cues, performance worries and situation-irrelevant thoughts)
What are common problems in implementing PST programs?
1. Lack of conviction (by the athlete): not wanting to do something new, not convinced that it will even help 2. Lack of time (by athlete): priorities, integrating PST into practice time 3. Lack of sport knowledge (by consultant): PST consultants working in sports where they are not necessarily knowledgeable 4. Lack of follow-up (by both athlete and consultant): do not expect results from doing only one or two sessions
Describe the competence motivation model? What are its 3 key assumptions?
1. Perceptions of control work along with self-worth and competence evaluations to influence motivation 2. Perceptions of control, competence, self-esteem do not influence motivation directly 3. rather, those perceptions influence affective or emotional states that in turn influence motivation
Describe and explain the 4 primary ways to measure degrees of learning.
1. Verbal production 2. recognition 3. comprehension test 4. actual performance
What are the 3 predictors of goal involvement (state) from Achievement Goal Theory? Which one might be the most easily influenced by a practitioner?
1. goal orientation (bias the likelihood that an athlete will become either task or ego involved in a specific situation) 2. concept of ability (undifferentiated vs. differentiated) 3. motivational climate
Define and differentiate attentional selectivity, attentional capacity, attentional alertness.
Attentional Selectivity: letting some information into the information processing system while ignoring other information Attentional Capacity: attention is limited in the amount of information that can be processed at one time. As performers become more proficient and attentional capacity becomes more automatic, attention is freed up to focus on different aspects of the situation Attentional Alertness: increases in emotional arousal narrow the attentional field because of a reduction in the range of cues a performers considers in executing a skill
What is are attributions? How do they relate to success/failure?
Attributions- interpretations or explanations individuals give for success or failure
Why are the phases of PST programs described as a circular process?
Because you continually use it and adapt to the situation
What does B=f(P,E) mean?
Behavior is a function of both the person and his/her environment
What is self-confidence?
Belief that you can successfully perform a desired behavior -generally considered a global and relatively stable trait -State perspective: b=f(P,E)
What is reframing? Describe appropriate guidelines for its use.
Changing a negative into a positive self-statement -positive statement provides you with an alternate focus to replace the negative statement -Must be positive but also believable
What is the difference between cognitive and somatic anxiety?
Cognitive anxiety: mental component; worrying, distraction, situation-irrelevant thoughts Somatic Anxiety: physiological component; changes in heart rate, sweat palms, muscle tension
What are definitions of and key differences between competition and cooperation?
Competition: a social process that occurs when rewards are given to people on the basis of how their performances compare with the performances of others doing the same task or participating on the same event Cooperation: a social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of collective achievements of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal
What kind of feedback did Horn (1995) suggest was necessary for the most positive psychological outcomes?
Contingent positive feedback
Why does goal setting work?
Creates a "road map" to success. Gives hope- a realistic goal and being able to reach the goal
Define the task and ego achievement perspectives?
Ego (or outcome): relative to other people (winning, beating a rival, coming top 3, doing just as well as others but putting in less effort) Task (or mastery): relative to your own performance (personal best time/performance, learning or improving, solving a problem and working hard)
Describe the sport confidence model. What are its four levels?
Factors influencing sport confidence --> sources of sport confidence --> constructs of sport confidence --> consequences of sport confidence
What is feedback? What are the 3 functions of feedback?
Feedback: Information that is obtained about a behavior (intrinsic --> visual, kinesthetic, tactile; augmented --> external source i.e. coach or video) Functions of feedback 1. informational 2. motivational 3. reinforcement
What are the sensations that we focus on in AT?
Heaviness and warmth in extremities
Explain how thought stopping/reframing can be used to increase attention, control emotions. or cue techniques.
Helps maintain focus
Define imagery. Describe the imagery process. What are its components?
Imagery: creating or recreating an experience on the mind, visualization -Involves recalling from memory pieces of information stored from experience and shaping these pieces into meaningful information. -Imagery= recall + construction -Visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory
List and describe some common uses of imagery.
Improve concentration Enhance motivation Build confidence Control emotional responses Develop sport skills Acquire and practice strategy Competition preparation Cope with pain and injury Solve Problems
Describe techniques which could increase athlete arousal
Increase breathing rate Act energized Self-Talk: mood words & positive self-statements Energizing music Energizing imagery Pre-competitive workout
List the psychological benefits of exercise (e.g., both increases and decreases in psychological outcomes or functioning)?
Increases: assertiveness, confidence, emotional stability, intellectual functioning, internal locus of control, memory, perception, positive body image, self-control, well-being, work efficiency Decreases: substance abuse, anger, anxiety, confusion, depression, headache, hostility, tense, work errors
There are two views. Describe each. Be able to differentiate them.
Indirect thought process view Goal setting increases confidence, reducing anxiety, enhancing satisfaction which leads to greater performance Direct Mechanistic View: directs attention to important elements, mobilizes effort, prolongs effort, fosters the development of new learning strategies
List and explain common internal and external attentional distractors.
Internal Distractors: attending to past events, attending to future events, choking under pressure, overanalyzing body mechanics, fatigue, inadequate motivation External Distractors: visual distractors, auditory distractors
What is the difference between a coping and a mastery model? Is one better than the other (i.e., Weiss et al., 1998 study).
No difference between peer coping and peer mastery but there was a difference between modeling in general and the control. Modeling is better than no modeling .
Should personality testing be used in athlete selection processes? Why or why not?
No. -Using clinical tests that focus on abnormality to study the average population -not sufficient evidence of reliability and validity -social desirability and some psychological skills can be learned -does not account of non-psychological factors which affect sport performance
Name the big 5 traits. What is the iceberg profile?
OCEAN O-Openness to experience C- Conscientiousness E- Extraversion/Introversion A- Agreeableness N- Neuroticism (Emotionality)
What are the 2 assumptions of Achievement Goal Theory?
People are motivated to achieve competence, Motivation is influenced by the personal meaning one assigns to success and failure
What are the key antecedents of self-efficacy? Be able to define/explain them.
Performance Accomplishments Vicarious Experience Verbal Persuasion Imaginal Experiences Physiological/Psychological States
Which one is the strongest predictor?
Performance accomplishments
What does the interactionist approach to personality suggest about how personality develops?
Personal factors (traits) and situational factors interact to determine behavior B=f(P,E)
Explain the findings of the Ryan (1977, 1980) scholarship studies?
non-scholarship athletes had more intrinsic motivation
What are key distinctions between competitive and cooperative learning environments?
o Competitive learning environments focus on: doing better than others, ability, score/winning, failure, extrinsic motivation, comparison to others, normative comparisons o Cooperative learning environments focus on: individual progress, effort, learning, challenge, personal best, developmental learning
What are ways to promote cooperation in sport environments?
o Positive interdependence o Face to face interaction o Individual accountability o Social skills training o Opportunities for group evaluation
Be able to describe how individual factors in this model influence competence motivation?
o You have the basic competence motivation to try to learn how to play soccer, you then go play soccer at a local recreation league, people there give you a lot of positive encouragement and positive feedback, making you feel happy (going to the emotion stage). This positive feedback makes you feel that you are fairly competent and can improve. This increases your competence motivation which in turn increases your motivation to perform mastery attempts.
What are mastery attempts?
sporting choices, intensity, and persistence
Define modeling. What are the 3 types of modeling effects?
the cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes that result from observing others 1. Skill/behavior acquisition 2. psychological respones 3. response facilitation
Define sport & exercise psychology
the study of human behavior in sport and exercise and the practical application of that knowledge
Understand the broad findings regarding exercise, personality and cognitive functioning.
Personality: hardiness (personality style that enables a person to withstand or cope with stressful situations), exercise + hardiness --> less stress and better health -Exercise and the development of the self: body satisfaction --> self-esteem -Cognitive functioning: exercise --> acute effects on memory, cognition; diseases/disorders --> ADHD; long-term outcomes --> exercise protective against normal affects of aging on the brain
List and describe the psychological and physiological explanations for the psychological health benefits of exercise.
Physiological: increased cerebral blood flow, changes in neurotransmitters (serotonin), increases in maximal oxygen consumption and delivery, reductions in muscle tension, structural changes in brain, increased serum concentrations in neuro-receptors Psychological: enhanced feelings of control, feelings of competence and self-efficacy, positive social interactions, improve self-concept and self-esteem, fun, enjoyment
What are the differences between the positive approach and the negative approach to providing feedback in coaching?
Positive approach: strengthens desired behavior by motivating participants to perform or exhibit them, and by reinforcing the behaviors when they occur, focuses on correct performance, praise, encouragement, and instruction are key elements Negative or aversive approach: attempts to eliminate undersirable behaviors through punishment and criticism, focuses on performance errors or negative behaviors, fear of failure is a key problem
What are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, & punishment ? Give examples of each.
Positive reinforcement: adding something to a situation after a desired behavior has occurred Negative Reinforcement: taking something away from a situation after a desired behavior has occurred Punishment: feedback that decreases the likelihood of a behavior
Three types of self-talk and an example of each, with their expected response
Positive/Motivational: "I've got the endurance to push through." Motivation, increased effort Instructional: "Keep tall and relaxed." Focus, motivation Negative: "I don't think I can make it." Hopelessness, frustration, distraction
List the most common reason for initiating, continuing, and discontinuing from sport? Starting and discontinuing exercise?
Reasons to start: weight control, health factors (reduce risk of disease), psychological (stress reduction) Reasons for continuing: enjoyment, increased self-esteem, socializing, competence/skill development, fun, affiliation, excitement/challenge of competition, fitness (health/appearance) Reasons for discontinuation: other interests (sports and other), lack of ability, lack of fun and excitement, pressure, hard training, dislike of coach, lack of teamwork
What do the stability, causality, and controllability of attributions mean in terms of psychological outcomes when the athlete wins/succeeds? Loses/fails?
Stability- stable (greater expectation of the same outcome happening again) or unstable (lower expectation of the same outcome happening again) Locus of causality- internal (greater pride for success, lower shame for failure) or external (lower pride for success, lower shame for failure) Locus of control- in one's control (greater motivation), out of one's control (less motivation)
Be able to define and understand stress and coping.
Stress: a relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person and endangers his/her well-being
Describe common coping strategies of elite athletes.
Thought stopping Narrowing focus rational thinking & self-talk Positive focus Social support PST Time management Training hard and smart
What is the difference between state and trait anxiety? What are common signs of state anxiety?
Trait anxiety: the tendency to become anxious in stressful situations (dispositional), an acquired behavioral tendency that is part of one's personality -State anxiety: the actual apprehension and tension felt at a given time (in the moment), a changing mood state
What are the two major types of questions in the field?
Understand the effects of: psychological factors on sport/physical activity performance, participating in sport/physical activity on psychological, developmental, health, and well-being
What are the 2 conceptions of ability and what outcomes might they influence?
Undifferentiated (working hard = ability) and differentiated
What are the two key assumptions of attribution theory (Weiner, 1979, 1985)?
Motivation is influenced by attributions, There are some commonly cited reasons for success and failure
What is the advantage of the deep breathing technique?
It is easy and effective
Define and explain the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic: behaviors demonstrated voluntarily, in the absence of constraints imposed by others, performing an activity for its own sake Extrinsic: behaviors displayed for the purpose of achieving some end
What are the 2 types of motivational climate? What individuals in the achievement environment may influence these goals?
Mastery --> task involvement Performance --> ego involvement
What is the ultimate goal of PST? What are its 5 stages?
Self-Regulation 1. Problem identification 2. commitment 3. execution 4. environmental management 5. generalization
Define self-talk?
Self-referenced thoughts, or thoughts that we think to ourselves about ourselves
Describe the self-serving bias and learned helplessness.
Self-serving bias: Making attributions that help you increase or maintain your self-esteem and confidence Learned helplessness: a psychological state where people have learned that failure is inevitable and out of their control (tend to attribute failure to uncontrollable, stable causes)
Guided by this model, how would you enhance the confidence of a young athlete who has been performing well in practice but not in games? Where would you intervene?
Set up situations where they feel the pressure of the game during practice
Explain the relative effectiveness of using imagery vs. physical practice to improve performance in sport. Which should be primary?
Should be used in addition to physical practice (physical practice is better than imagery practice; imagery practice is better than no practice at all, imagery is not more effect than physical practice over the same time period, but it is effective when added above and beyond physical practice)
Be able to describe the ways to improve concentration discussed in lecture & the book.
Simulation in practice Use cute words Use nonjudgemental thinking Establish routines Develop competition plans Practice eye control Monitor yourself -Over learn Skills
What are some on-site coping/relaxation techniques for athletes? How can practice be used to train for competition?
Smile in response to tension Enjoy the situation Slow down Stay focused in the present Be prepared with a competition plan (The key is to set up stressful situations in practice to develop these techniques)
What are SMARTS goal setting principles?
Specific Measurable Action-oriented Realistic but challenging Time-based Self-determined
What are the 3 characteristics of attributions? Be able to give an example of each type of attribution and/or infer one from a case study.
Stability- stable (greater expectation of the same outcome happening again) or unstable (lower expectation of the same outcome happening again) Locus of causality- internal (greater pride for success, lower shame for failure) or external (lower pride for success, lower shame for failure) Locus of control- in one's control (greater motivation), out of one's control (less motivation)
What is the TARGET acronym and how might it be used to influence motivational climate? Be able to list and explain the parts of the acronym.
Task Authority Recognition (reward) Grouping Evaluation Timing
What is personality?
That pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguishes one person from another and that persists over time and situations
What is the definition of motivation? (2 key parts)
The direction and intensity of effort Direction- approach/avoid or attraction Intensity- how much effort/persistence
