Final AP BIO 141 Exam

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A reflex arc is termed 1 when the receptor and effector organs of the reflex are on the same side of the spinal cord. For example, this effect occurs when the muscles in your left arm contract to pull your 2 hand away from a hot object.

1. ipsilateral 2. left

The cerebrum is divided into two halves

1. left hemisphere 2. right hemisphere

Efferent neurons are the neurons of the motor nervous system, conducting ____ output from the CNS to the effectors. All the motor neurons are _____

1. motor 2. multipolar

Overview of Conduction Pathways. 1. Sensory pathways transmit ascending information from sensory _____ to the _____. 2. Whereas, Motor pathways transmit descending information from the ____ to ____ and ____.

1. sensory receptors to the CNS. 2. from the brain to muscles and glands.

Match the location with the larger concentration or ions. 1. Extracellular -> 2. Intracellular ->

1. sodium 2. organic ions

Place the events in the correct sequence

1.) Action potential reaches synaptic knob 2.) Voltage-gated calcium channels open 3.) Calcium enters the synaptic knob 4.) Synaptic vesicles merge with synaptic knob plasma membrane 5.) Neurotransmitter is released by exocytosis 6.) Neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft 7.) Neurotransmitter attaches to receptors on a muscle, neuron, or gland cell.

Electrical impulse that travels from beginning with the postsynaptic membrane

1.) Dendrites 2.) Soma 3.) Axon Hillock 4.) Neurofibril node or Node of Ranvier 5.) Synaptic Knobs

EPSP in the correct order from beginning to end

1.) Excitatory neurotransmitter released from presynaptic neuron 2.) Neurotransmitter binds to chemically-gated sodium channels. 3.) Sodium channels open 4.) Sodium flows into neuron 5.) Inside of neuron becomes more positive 6.) EPSP propagates toward axon hillock.

Overview of Events in Skeletal Muscle Contraction

1.) Neuromuscular Junction: Excitation of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber: Release of neurotransmitteracetycholine (ACh) from synaptic vesicles and subsequent binding of ACh to ACh receptors. 2.) Sarcolemma, T-tubules, and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Excitation-Contraction Coupling: ACh binding triggers propagation of an action potential along the sarcolemma and T-tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which is stimulated to release Ca2+. 3.) Sarcomere: Crossbridge Cycling: Ca2+ binding to troponin triggers sliding of thin filaments past thick filaments of sarcomeres; as sarcomeres shorten, the muscle contracts

Generation of EPSP (receptive segment)

1.) Neurotransmitter released from presynaptic neurons binds to postsynaptic neuron receptors, which are chemically gated cation channels, causing them to open. 2.) Na+ flows into neuron (faster than K+ flows out). 3.) Inside of neuron becomes more positive (less negative); called EPSP (e.g., -68mV). 4.) EPSP moves toward the initial segment.

Generation of IPSP (receptive segment)

1.) Neurotransmitter released from presynaptic neurons binds to postsynaptic neuron receptors, which are either chemically gated K+ channels or chemically gated CI- channels, causing them to open. 2.) Either K+ flows out of or CI- flows into the neuron, depending on the type of channel stimulated. 3.) Inside of neuron becomes more negative; called IPSP (e.g., -72 mV). 4.) IPSP moves toward the initial segment.

____ pairs of cranial nerves extend from the brain.

12

neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

1a) A nerve signal triggers voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to open - Ca2+ enters synaptic knob and binds to synaptic vesicles. 1b) ACh is released by exocytosis into synaptic cleft. 1c) ACh binds to ACh receptors

Neuromuscular Junction: Excitation of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber

1a) Ca2+ entry at synpatic knob - A nerve signal is propagated down a motor axon and triggers the entry of Ca2+ into the synaptic knob; Ca2+ binds to proteins in synaptic vesicle membrane. 1b) Release of ACh from synaptic knob - Calcium binding triggers synaptic vesicle to merge with the synaptic knob plasma membrane and ACh is exocytosed into the synaptic cleft. 1c) Binding of ACh to ACh receptor at motor end plate - ACh diffuses across the fluid-filled synaptic cleft at the motor end plate to bind with ACh receptors.

Sarcolemma, T-tubules, and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Excitation-Contraction Coupling

2a) ACh binding causes Na+ to rapidly enter the skeletal muscle fiber and K+ to slowly exit the skeletal muscle fiber, which may result in an 2b) The EPP initiates an action potential along sarcolemma and T-tubules. 2c) Action potential triggers Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) terminal cisternae.

Sarcomere: Crossbridge cycling (cycle repeats and sarcomere shortens)

3a) Ca2+ binds to troponin exposing myosin binding sites on actin. 3b) Attach: Crossbridge formation between myosin and actin. 3c) Pull: Power stroke motion of myosin heads pulls thin filament past it. 3d) Release: ATP binds to myosin head releasing myosin head from actin. 3e) Reset: ATP split and myosin head is reset.

Lumbar Nerves (L1-L5)

5 pairs

Sacral Nerves (S1-S5)

5 pairs

Cervical Nerves (C1-C8)

8 pairs

Nervous tissue

A body tissue that carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body.

Muscle tissue

A body tissue that contracts or shortens, making body parts move.

connective tissue

A body tissue that provides support for the body and connects all of its parts

Describe the anatomical position

Body erect; feet flat, facing forward; eyes facing forward; arms to the side, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing out.

What is the Digestive System responsible for

Breaking down ingested material, absorbing nutrients from this material, and eliminating undigested material

cross section of spinal cord

CENTRAL CANAL, GREY MATTER, WHITE MATTER, POSTERIOR MEDIAN SULCUS, ANTERIOR MEDIAN FISSURE, DORSAL HORN, VENTRAL HORN, DORSAL ROOT, DORSAL ROOT GANGLION, VENTRAL ROOT, and SPINAL NERVE

____ bathes the exposed surfaces of the central nervous system.

CSF

Two directional terms are often used to describe relative position of brain anatomy. Posterior is synonymous with ____.

Caudal meaning "toward the tail"

Divisions of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Microscopic anatomy of Spinal cord

Cervical, Thoracic (or brachial), lumbar, sacral cord

Mental

Chin

Proximal

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Nucleus or center

Clusters of neuron cell bodies within gray matter that are either close to the surface or deep within the brain.

The central nervous system (CNS) communicates with the body through _______ pathways that extend through the spinal cord.

Conduction pathways

What can the Dorsal Cavity (posterior) be subdivided into

Cranial and Spinal Cavities

What is the Endocrine System responsible for

Creates and secretes hormones, occurs slowly and lasts a longer period of time

Sarcomere: Crossbridge Cycling

Crossbridge cycling is initiated by the release of Ca+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This allows myosin heads to bind to actin to pull thin filaments past thick filaments. This process is the sliding filament theory.

Structure and Organization of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber

(a) A skeletal muscle fiber is composed predominately of myofibrils, which extend the length of the muscle fiber. (b) A myofibril is composed of bundles of myofilaments (protein filaments) and is enclosed within segments of the sarcoplasmic reticulum by invaginations of the scarcolemma called T-tubules; both contain voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltage-gated K+ channels. (d) The triad is a T-tubule flanked by two terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In this region, the T-tubule membrane contains voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels and the terminal cisternae membrane contains both ca2+ release channels and Ca2+ pumps.

Which of the following pumps can you find in the plasma membrane?

-Ca2+ -Na+/K+

Epithelia

-Forms the surface of the body -Line body cavities and hollow organs -Constitute most gland tissue -Substances entering or leaving the body must cross the epithelia

Gray matter is composed of ___ horns 1. _____ contains sensory axons and interneurons. 2. _____ contains cell bodies of somatic motor neurons. 3. _____ contains cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons.

-Gray matter is composed of 3 horns. -Posterior contains sensory axons and interneurons. -Anterior contains cell bodies of somatic motor neurons. -Lateral contains cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons.

Lumbar

-L1 to L5 -gives rise to the femoral nerve

Telencephalon are

-Lateral ventricles -Cerebrum

Gray Matter

-Marked by low myelination -Anterior horn -Lateral horn

What chemicals create the charges?

-Potassium (K+) that's in the ICF or inside of cells. -Sodium (Na+) most commonly electrocytes/ions found usually in ECF.

Sensory pathways use what 3 neurons?

-Primary -Secondary -Tertiary

Temporal lobe (retracted)

-Primary auditory cortex -Auditory association area -Primary olfactory cortex

Sacral

-S1 to S5 -gives rises to the sciatic nerve

Diencephalon

-Third ventricle -Structures: Epithalamus, thalamus, hpyothalamus

The time when there is complete insensitivity of the plasma membrane to another stimulus

-absolute refractory period

Functions of Skeletal Muscle

-body movement -maintenance of posture -protection and support -regulating elimination of materials -heat production

Considered types of effectors are...

-cardiac muscle -skeletal muscle -glands

Epimyseum

-dense irregular connective tissue covering of the muscles. -Infiltrated by nerves and blood vessels

Skeletal muscle physiology involves three major events:

-excitation -excitation-coupling -cross-bridge cycling

White matter

-fasciculus gracilis -contains myelinated axons -tectospinal tract -posterior funiculus

Myelencephalon

-fourth ventricle (inferior part); part of central canal. -Medulla oblongata

Metencephalon

-fourth ventricle (superior part) -Structures: Pons, cerebellum

Myelin is critical to nervous system function since it provides insulation for the neuronal axons and facilitates rapid propagation of neural impulses.

-it provides insulation for the neuronal axons and facilitates rapid propagation of neural impulses

Major Organelles of the Cell Body

-large nucleus -cytoplasm -mitochondria -nissl boddies (RER and ribosomes) -cytoskeleton

Thoracic

-nerves innervate intercostals -T1 to T12 -contains no enlargement

The cells of the nervous system that produces myelin are the

-oligodendrocytes

A time when there is a decrease in the sensitivity of the plasma membrane to further stimulation

-refractory period

The time when a stronger than threshold stimulus is needed to initiate another action potential.

-relative refractory period

Triggers of acute episodes of multiple sclerosis are

-stress, infections, and pregnancy

angular gyrus function

1) Involved in mathematical calculation 2) Contributes to cognitive functions 3) Reading and writing

Interneurons (or ____1___ neurons) lie entirely within the CNS. They recieve stimulation from many other neurons and carry out the integrative function of the nervous system. The most numerous types of neurons are ___2___

1. Association 2. Interneurons

The brain is composed of four major regions:

1. Cerebrum 2. Diencephalon 3. Brainstem 4. Cerebellum

Types of Membrane potential:

1. RMP (resting membrane potential) 2. Depolarization - "localized" change in membrane potential @ MEP. 3. Action potential (nerve impulses) - and continuation of depolarization -> muscles will contract! 4. Repolarization - returns to RMP state depends on movement of K+ back into cell.

functional segments:

1. Receptive segment (dendrite-soma, most times) 2. Initial segment (just distal to the axon hillock) 3. Conductive segment (axon) 4. Transmissive segment (synapse) 5. Tropic segment (the soma)

What are the 10 Characteristics of Life

1. Responsiveness 2. Conductivity 3. Growth 4. Respiration 5. Digestion 6. Absorption 7. Secretion 8. Excretion 9. Circulation 10. Reproduction

Afferent neurons are the neurons of the sensory nervous system. They are responsible for conducting ____ input from both somatic sensory and visceral sensory receptors. Most sensory neurons are ____.

1. Sensory 2. Unipolar

Distribution of White Matter 1. White matter is organized into three pairs of ____. 2. Most of which contain ____ (ascending) tracts and ____ (descending) tracts.

1. White matter is organized into three pairs of funiculi. 2. Most of which contain Sensory (ascending) tracts and Motor (descending) tracts.

Neurons are classified functionally according to the direction the _____ travels relative to the ___.

1. action potential 2. CNS

A reflex arc is ____1___ when the sensory impulses from a receptor organ cross over through the spinal cord to activate effector organs in the ___2__ limb.

1. contralateral 2. opposite

Place the events of a chloride-based IPSP in order from earliest to latest

1. inhibitory neurotransmitter binds postsynaptic chemically gated chloride channels. 2. chloride moves from outside the cell to inside. 3. the inside of a postsynaptic cell becomes more negative 4. the local chloride current become weaker as it moves away from the neurotransmitter blinding site

____ occurs when the inside of the cell becomes more positive (less negative) than the resting membrane potential

Depolarization

What are the 2 major body cavities

Dorsal (posterior) and Ventral (anterior)

Negative feedback loop

Dynamic state within narrow ranges Response allows for the narrow fluctuations around a "set point"Brings a deviation (change) in a physiological event back to normal (= reverses change)

Neuromuscular Junction: Excitation of skeletal muscle

Excitation involves the arrival of a nerve signal to stimulate release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) contained within synaptic vesicles.

Sarcolemma, T-tubules, and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Excitation-Contraction Coupling of skeletal muscle

Excitation-contraction coupling links excitation of the muscle by the motor neuron to muscle contraction through the sarcolemma, T-tubules, and sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Extends from the Foramen Magnum to L1 or L2 Cervical and lumbar enlargements (plexuses) contain the cell bodies of the many spinal nerves to the limbs Cauda Equina The Nerve roots of lumbar and sacral Spinal nerves. Ascending and descending white matter tracts carry information to/away from brain

conductive segment of a neuron (3)

Extends the full length of the axon - voltage-gated Na+ channel and Voltage-gated K+ channel

CN 111: Oculomotor nerve

Eye muscle movement (motor output)

Orbital

Eyes

Which of the following ions have leak channels on the plasma membrane?

K+ Na+

The RMP is chiefly a consequence of the movement of ions across the plasma membrane through ______ (both K+ ____ and Na+ _________).

Leak channels.

Coronal (Frontal) Plane

Lengthwise plane running from side to side, separating the body from anterior to posterior

Inferior

Lower on the body, farther from the head

What are 4 terms related to organs

Lumen, Central and Peripheal, Medullary and Cortical, and Basal and Apical

What can the Thoracic Cavity be subdivided into

Mediastinum and Pleural Cavities

somatic motor division

Motor output that is consciously or voluntarily controlled; effector is skeletal muscle.

CN VI: Abducens Nerve

Motor: eye movement, lateral rectus muscle

What does the Respiratory System permit

Movement of air into and out of the lungs and allows for exchange of respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide)

Skeletal Muscle Relaxtion

Muscle returns to the resting state through the natural elasticity of the muscle fiber.

Plasma membrane of entire neuron

Na+/K_ pump Na+ leak channel K+ leak channel

CN V: Trigeminal Nerve

Name the cranial nerve (CN) that is responsible for the muscles of mastication and facial sensation.

peripheral nervous system

Nerves and ganglia

primary somatosensory cortex

Receives and interprets somatic information from receptors for touch, proprioception, and pain.

Organization of the Nervous System

Receptor -> Sensory NS -> CNS -> Motor NS -> Effector

Endocrine and Nervous System

Respond to changes in the environment and body.

Reproductive System

Responsible for reproduction and development

What does the Lymphatic System do

Responsible for returning materials from the tissue spaces back to the blood and plays a role in the immune system

Two directional terms are often used to describe relative position of brain anatomy. Anterior is synonymous with ______

Rostral meaning "toward the nose"

condyle

Rounded process that usually articulates with another bone

What are the 3 Main Body Planes

Sagittal, Coronal (Frontal), and Transverse (Horizontal)

CN V11: Facial Nerve

Sensory Function: Taste Somatic Motor Function: muscles for facial expression, digastric (posterior belly), stylohyoid, stapedius Parasympathetic motor function: Increases secretion from lacriminal gland of eye, submandibular and sublingual salivary glands.

somatic sensory division (sensory NS)

Sensory input that conciously perceived from receptors (e.g., eyes, ears, and skin)

visceral sensory division (sensory NS)

Sensory input that is not consciously perceived from receptors of blood vessels and internal organs (e.g., heart)

CN X: Vagus Nerve

Sensory: throat, thoracic and abdominal viscera Motor: vocalization, swallowing, and autonomic control of viscera

lateral sulcus

Separates temporal lobe from parietal and frontal lobes

Acromial

Shoulder

Cranial

Skull

Plantar

Sole of Foot

CN 1V: Trochlear Nerve

Somatic Motor Function: superior oblique extrinsic eye muscle

CN X1: Accessory

Somatic motor function: most pharyngeal muscles; all laryngeal muscles

Astrocyte function and location

Starlike shape due to projections from their surface.. Have contact with both neurons and capillaries (smallest blood vessels). Most abundant glial cells in the CNS and constitute 90% of the nervous tissue/ - Help form the blood-brain barrier - Regulate interstitial fluid composition. - Form structural support - Assist neuronal development - Occupy the space of dying neurons

Extension

Straightening a body part

Initial segment "trigger zone"

Summation of EPSPs and IPSPs includes both spatial summation of two or more presynaptic neurons and temporal summation of one presynaptic neuron; rapidly releasing neurotransmitter determines if threshold (-55 mV) is reached.

Initial segment

Summation of graded potentials; initiation of action potential

Most researchers believe that MS results from a combination of genetic and environmental factors. One peculiar observation regarding environment is the fact that the incidence increases as one gets further from the equator.

TRUE

Insula

Taste (gustatory) area

What can the Abdominopelvic be subdivided into

The Abdominal and Pelvic Cavities

Extensibility of Muscle Tissue

ability to extend/ lengthen of muscle tissue without damage

Elasticity of muscle tissue

ability to return to original shape after being stretched

Contractile Protein

actin and myosin -generate force during contraction

Thin filaments are composed of

actin, tropomyosin, troponin

Transmissive segment

action potential causes release of neurotransmitter; axon terminal

Tarsal

ankle

One of the horns of Gray Matter ___ contains cell bodies of somatic motor neurons.

anterior

The motor neurons conduct action potentials through the anterior root of the spinal cord.

anterior root

The _______ pathway transmits stimuli related to crude touch, pressure, pain, and temperature to the cerebrum (parietal lobe).

anterolateral

sensory nerves

The nerves that carry sensations of touch, taste, heat, cold, pain, and other modalities from the body to the central nervous system.

symptoms of multiple sclerosis come and go. This is because

The oligodendrocytes are constantly renewing the myelin sheaths, so they are able to temporarily repair some of the damage

Define the term homeostasis.

The process of maintaining a constant internal environment (temperature, water content, available energy, available oxygen and concentration of wastes in the blood).

General Functions of Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

The spinal cord and spinal nerves serve as a pathway for sensory and motor nerve signals and are responsible for reflexes.

membrane potential

The voltage across a cell's plasma membrane.

Spinal Nerve Identification and Gross Anatomy

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves: - 8 pairs of cervical nerves. - 12 pairs of thoracic nerves. - 5 pairs of lumbar nerves. - 5 pairs of sacral nerves. - 1 pair of coccygeal nerves.

The opening of either chemically gated K+ channels gated CI- channels (which allows negatively charged chloride ions [CI-] to enter the neuron) cause the inside of the neuron to become more negative (-70 mV to -71 mV)

This change in MP in the negative direction is called hyperpolarization.

The direction of change (whether the membrane potential becomes more positive or more negative) is dependent upon the type of chemically gated channel that opens. Example, the opening of chemically gated cation channels allows more Na+ (positively charged ion) to enter the neuron (thank K+ to exit), causing the inside of the neuron to become more positive (-70 mV to -69 mV)

This change in MP in the positive direction is called depolarization.

What can the Ventral Cavity (anterior) be subdivided into

Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Cavities

epithelial tissue

Tissue that covers outside of the body and lines organs and cavities and insides.

nervous tissue function

Transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscles and glands) which control their activity

What does the Cardiovascular do

Transport materials throughout the body through a series of closed vessels

Motor pathways use at least two motor neurons: one or more upper neurons and a lower motor neuron.

Upper motor neuron: cell body located in cerebral cortex or a brainstem nucleus. Lower motor neuron: cell body located in anterior horn or a brainstem nucleus.

Action potential arriving at the presynaptic terminal cause _____ -gated calcium channels to open

Voltage

transmissive segment (synaptic knobs)

Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and Ca2+ pumps -signal is transmitted to another cell -arriving action potential causes release of a neurotransmitter that will have an excitatory or inhibitory effect on a neuron, muscle, or gland

Medullary

Inner region of organ

CN X11 hypoglossal

Intrinsic and extrinsic tongue muscles

___ matter is peripherally located and composed of myelinated axons.

White matter

Respiratory, Digestive, and Urinary System

Work together for processing, regulation, and maintenance in the body

Cardiovascular and Lymphatic System

Work together for transportation and defense in the body

Skeletal and Muscular System

Works together to provide support and produce body movements

anterior median fissure

a groove along the anterior midline of the spinal cord that incompletely divides it into symmetrical halves

posterior median sulcus

a shallow vertical groove dividing the spinal cord throughout its whole length in the midline posteriorly.

Sarcomere

a structural unit of a myofibril in striated muscle, consisting of a dark band and the nearer half of each adjacent pale band. -Contractile unit of muscle fiber

Popliteal

area behind the knee

Endomysium

areolar onnective tissue surrounding a muscle fiber -more delicate coverings function to electrically insulate the muscle fiberStr

Lateral

away from the midline

Distal

away from the point of attachment

anterior horn of gray matter

cell bodies of somatic motor neurons

perikaryon or soma

cell body of a neuron

Neuron Structure

cell body, dendrites, axon

Neuroglia

cells that support and protect neurons

the fourth ventricle merges with the ____ in the spinal cord.

central canal

Mesencephalon (midbrain)

cerebral aqueduct

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.

Thoracic

chest or thorax

The voltage-gated Na+ channels ____ when the cell reaches +30mV.

close

the somatic sensory division detects stimuli that are ___ detected.

consciously

frontal lobes function

control skilled voluntary movements of limbs and trunk coordinate muscles involved in speech control voluntary movements of eyes and eyelids concentration, problem-solving, and planning

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

frontal eye field

controls voluntary movement of the eyes

Response to a withdrawal reflex; causes extension of the opposite limb

crossed-extensor reflex

Perimysium

dense irregular connective tissue surrounding a fascicle (bundle of muscle fibers)

sensory nervous system

detects stimuli and transmits information from receptors to the CNS

monosynaptic reflex

direct communication between sensory and motor neuron (stretch reflex)

Sagittal Plane

divides body into left and right

central sulcus

divides frontal and parietal lobes

The net diffusion of a given ion is dependent upon its ____ ______.

electrochemical gradient

contractility of muscle tissue

enables muscle cells to cause body movement and to perform the other functions of muscles.

An individual axon is wrapped in a connective tissue covering called ___.

endoneurium

CSF is produced by secretion of a fluid from the ___ cells.

ependymal

The ____ space is external to the dura mater and contains adipose connective tissue and blood vessels

epidural

Gross structure of skeletal muscle

epimysium, perimysium, endomysium

The diencephalon is organized into the:

epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus (which are essentially internal structures)

Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle

excitability, conductivity, contractility, elasticity, extensibility

characteristics of neurons

excitability, conductivity, secretion, extreme longevity, amitotic

Postsynaptic potentials that result in the neuron becoming more positive (i.e., depolarized) are more specifically called ____.

excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

deeper grooves are named

fissures

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

fluid outside the cells; includes intravascular and interstitial fluids

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

fluid within the cell; synonym for cellular fluid

Sensory and motor axons are ___.

found in mixed nerves

Interneurons (association neurons)

found in neural pathways in the CNS, connect sensory and motor neurons -most abundant

The ___ ventricle is located between the pons/medulla and the cerebellum

fourth ventricle

Antecubital

front of elbow (anterior)

neurofibril nodes (nodes of Ranvier)

gaps between neurolemmocytes

prevents contracting muscles from applying tensions to tendons

golgi tendon reflex

The folds of brain tissue are called

gyri

Skeletal muscle tissue exhibits a ____ metabolic demand for energy.

high

Foramen (foramina plural)

hole in a bone

Lumen

hollow areas of organs

motor speech area

in the frontal lobe, translates thoughts into speech

The Cerebrum is ____ to the cerebrum

inferior

Postsynaptic potentials the result in the neuron become more negative (i.e., hyperpolarized) are called ______.

inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

motor nervous system

initiates and transmits information from the CNS to effectors

polysnaptic reflex

interneuron facilitates sensory-motor communication (ex: withdrawal reflex)

Conductivity

involves sending an electrical change down the length of the plasma membrane as voltage-gated channels open sequentially during an action potential.

The diffusion of ____ into the cell or out of the cell causes a change in membrane potential

ions

One of the horns of Gray Matter ___ contains cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons.

lateral

When K+ diffuses out of a cell, the cell becomes ____ depolarized.

less

Neurotransmitter combine with their receptor sites and cause ___-gated ion channels to open

ligand

arachnoid mater (meninges / spinal cord)

middle layer

When Na+ diffuses into the cell, the cell becomes more ___ depolarized

more

A motor neuron conducts action potentials from the spinal cord to an effector organ.

motor neuron

autonomic motor system

motor output that is not consciously or is involuntarily controlled; effectors are cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.

Many dendrites and a single axon

multipolar neuron

stretch reflex

muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle

muscle fibers aka

myofibers

Umbilical

navel

Cervical

neck region (C1 to C7)

K+ diffusing out of the cell has a _____ feedback effect on the initial polarization.

negative

Although there's K+ inside the ICF it's ______.

negatively charged.

Calcium ions diffuse into the cell and cause synaptic vesicles to release

neurotransmitters

examples of neurotransmitters

norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine

The voltage-gated Na+ channels ___ when the cell membrane reaches threshold level as a result of a stimulus.

open

intercalated Disc

part of the sarcolemma that connects cardiac tissue, and contains gap junctions and desmosomes

premotor cortex function

planning and movement -plans and coordinates learned, skilled motor activities involving skeletal muscles.

Sarcolemma

plasma membrane of a muscle fiber

Na+ diffusing into the cell causes more Na+ gates to open, which is a ____ feedback loop.

positive

One of the horns of Gray Matter ____ contains sensory axons and interneurons.

posterior

The _______ lemniscal pathway transmits stimuli of fine proprioception, discriminitive touch, precise pressure, and proprioception pressure to the cerebrum (parietal lobe)

posterior funiculus-medial

The sensory neurons conduct action potentials through the posterior root of the spinal cord.

posterior root

Neurotransmitters diffuse from the ____ terminal across the synaptic celft

presynaptic

Golgi tendon reflex

produces muscle relaxation and lengthening in response to contraction -polysnaptic reflex

Conductive segment

propagation of action potential

Satellite cell functions

protects and regulates nutrients for cell bodies in ganglia - electrically insulates PNS cell bodies

Thick filaments are composed of

protein myosin

3 structures of a feedback loop/feedback mechanism

receptor, integrating center, and effector

When the neuron is at rest, the membrane potential is more specifically called the ______. The ____ of a neuron is typically -70 mV, but can range between -40 mV and -90 mV

resting membrane potential (RMP)

For example, this occurs when you step on a sharp object with your left foot and then contract the muscles in your ____ leg to maintain balance as you withdraw from the damaging object.

right

Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts

motor nerves (efferent)

sends information to muscles to carry out central nervous system commands

CN 1X - Glossopharyngeal

sensory and taste from posterior of tongue, part of the pharynx, visceral from carotid bodies; one pharyngeal muscle (stylopharyngeus); increases secretion from parotid salivary gland

contralateral reflex

sensory impulses enter one side of the spinal cord and motor impulses exit on the opposite side

Functions of the nervous system

sensory input, integration, motor output - collect information, process and evaluate information, initiate response to information

A sensory neuron conducts action potentials from the stimulus site to the spinal cord.

sensory neuron

A stimulus is detected by a ______.

sensory receptor

The two lateral ventricles are separated by a thin membrane partition called the ____.

septum pallucidum

muscle tissue types

skeletal, smooth, cardiac

somatic sensory pathway

skin, muscles, and joints

visceral sensory pathway

small intestines, heart, and urinary bladder

Facet

smooth, nearly flat articular surface

parietal lobe function

somatic sensory processing

The _____ pathway transmit stimuli from proprioceptors to the cerebellum.

spinocerebellar

ipsilateral reflex

stimulus and response are on the same side of the body

the simplest reflex; muscles contract in response to a stretch

stretch reflex

The ____ space lies between the ____ mater and pia mater and contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

subarachnoid

A potential ______ spaces lies between the dura mater and arachnoid mater

subdural

Shallow depressions between the folds of the brain are called

sulci

functions of the osseous tissue and bone structure

support, protection, storage, blood cell production, and leverage

apical surface

surface of an epithelial cell that faces away from the basement membrane

prefrontal cortex

the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for attention/concentration, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

The brainstem has 3 regions:

the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

Articular Surface

the point where two bones come together

primary motor cortex

the region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscles

basal surface

the surface near the base or interior of a structure; nearest the lower side or bottom of a structure; near basement membrane

dura mater (meninges / spinal cord)

thick, outermost layer of the meninges surrounding and protecting the brain and spinal cord

Femoral

thigh

Superior

toward the head

Medial

toward the midline

The role of neurotransmitters is to...

transmit an impulse across a synapse to another cell.

one process with two branches; one extending to the CNS, one extending to the periphery

unipolar neuron

Motor pathways use ___ and ___ motor neurons

upper and lower

Brachial

upper arm

The cavities within the brain are called ___.

ventricles

CN11 Optic

vision

occipital lobe function

visual processing

initial segment (axon hillock)

voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltage-gated K+ channels

Removes a body part from a painful stimulus

withdrawal reflex

Carpal

wrist

Pumps move substances against a concentration gradient, a process that requires energy. Channels instead provide the means to move a substance with a concentration gradient. Neurons contain the following major types of channels:

• Channels that are always open, allowing continuous diffusion of a specific ion from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration are leak channels.

Flexion

decreases the angle of the joint and reduces the distance between the two bones

Pia mater (meninges / spinal cord)

(innermost layer) internal layer, clings to the surface of the brain

Excitabilty

(responsiveness, irritability); the ability of muscle tissue to recieve and respond to a stimulus, that is any change in the environment either inside or outside the body

Cortex

(superficial layer of gray matter) outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input

withdrawal and crossed extensor reflex

(withdrawal) Painful stimulus triggers withdrawal reflex, then afferent neurons send signals to efferent neurons controlling muscles on the opposite side to compensate. -Crossed-extensor reflex occurs in response to the withdrawal reflex, by stimulating the extensor muscles in the opposite limb and thereby ensuring the opposite limb supports the body's weight. -polysnaptic reflex

Pumps move substances against a concentration gradient, a process that requires energy. Channels instead provide the means to move a substance with a concentration gradient. Neurons contain the following major types of channels:

* Channels that are normally closed that open in response to the binding of a neurotransmitter are chemically gated channels. When open, they allow a specific ion to diffuse across the plasma membrane.

Innervation of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

- A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates and controls. - The neuromuscular junction is the location where a motor neuron innervates a muscle fiber.

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

- A skeletal muscle fiber is multinucleated cell. - The sarcolemma, T-tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulum have specialized membrane pumps and channels that participate in muscle excitability, conductivity, and initiation of muscle contraction. - Skeletal muscle fibers are filled with myofibrils that house thick and thin protein filaments, which are composed of myosin and actin protein, respectively. - Myofilaments are arranged in repeating, functional units called sarcomeres. - Other specialized structural and functional proteins of muscle tissue fibers include connectins (titin) and dystrophin. - Numerous mitochondria, glycogen stores, myoglobin, and creatine phosphate all function to help meet the high energy demands of skeletal muscle tissue.

sensory pathways

- Nerve signals ascend to the brain in sensory pathways. - posterior pathways travel in the posterior and lateral funiculi of the spinal cord.

Motor Pathways

- Nerve signals descend from the brain in motor pathways. - Motor pathways travel through the anterior and lateral funiculi of spinal cord.

Microglial cells (CNS)

- Phagocytic cell that moves through the CNS. - Protects the CNS by engulfing infectious agents and other potentially harmful substances.

Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

- Skeletal muscle is ensheathed by 3 connective tissue layers: an epimysium, a perimysium, and endomysium. - Tendons or aponeuroses are extensions of these three layers of connective tissue that attach muscle ends to other structures. - Skeletal muscle is highly vascularized, and it is innervated by motor neurons that exert voluntary control of muscle.

Sensory pathways to the cerebrum use up to three neurons: a primary, secondary, and a tertiary neuron.

- Tertiary neuron: cell body located in thalamus. - Secondary neuron: cell body located in posterior horn or a brainstem nucleus. - Primary neuron: cell body located in posterior root ganglion.

Oligondendrocytes

- The cells that make the myelin sheath in the CNS - Allows faster action potential propagation along axons in the CNS.

Supplying Energy for Skeletal Muscle Metabolism

- The major means to supply energy to skeletal muscle are limited amounts of ATP, phosphate transfer, glycolysis, and aerobic cellular respiration. - The duration and intensity of activity determine the primary means of supplying ATP.

receptive segment of neuron

- dendrites and cell body - chemically gated chennels (cation channels, K+ channels, and CI- channels)

Ependymal cells (CNS)

- line the cavities of the brain (ventricles) and spinal cord (central canal) - Assists in production and circulationof cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells)

- myelinates and insulates axons in the PNS - Allows for faster action potential propagation along an axon.

Cervical

- nerves innervate muscles of the neck -C1 to C8 -has neurons that innervate the upper limbs

Graded potentials are established in the _____ segment by the opening of _____ channels.

- receptive segment - chemically gated channels: cation channels, chemically gated K+, chemically gated CI-

What is the Urinary System responsible for

- removing: metabolic wastes and chemicals in excess (including drugs) - reabsorbing water and nutrients

The meninges include:

- the pia mater - arachnoid mater - dura mater

Protection and support of the spinal cord includes:

- the vertebral column - meninges - a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Which of the following are true of neurolemmocytes?

- they create the myelin sheath in the PNS - They are also called Schwann cells

meatus or canal

A passageway through the substance of a bone

positive feedback loop

A response that intensifies a change in the body Then, change abruptly ends EX. Childbirth

Rule of Nines

A system that assigns percentages to sections of the body, allowing calculation of the amount of skin surface involved in the burn area. 9% on each arm perineum area 1% 18% on each lower lumb front and back upper areas are 18% each

Conductive Segment

Action Potential: Depolarization: Opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels in response to reaching threshold. Na+ moves into axon. Repolarization: Opening of voltage-gated K+ channels that immediately follows depolarization to reestablish RMP. K+ moves out of axon. Nerve Signal: Propagation of Action Potential: Action potential are propagated at neurofibril nodes (in myelinated axons) and are propagated from the initial segment to the synaptic knob.

Axillary

Armpit

Transmissive Segment: Release of Neurotransmitter

Arrival of a nerve signal at the synaptic knob triggers the opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. Ca2+ enters the synaptic knob, causing the subsequent release of neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles by exocytosis.

Skeletal Muscle Fibers at Rest

At rest, skeletal muscle fibers have an RMP of -90 mV with more Na+ outside the cell and more K+ inside the cell.

Patellar

Front of Knee

What is the Nervous System responsible for

Generating and interpreting nerve impulses, occurs rapidly and lasts a short period of time

_____ matter is centrally located and composed of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, and glial cells.

Gray matter

Inguinal

Groin

CN V111 - Vestibulocochlear

Hearing (cochlear branch); equilibrium (vestibular branch)

lateral horn of gray matter

I Function: contain cell bodies of motor neurons to supply muscles and glands

CN1

Olfactory (smell)

Cortical

Outer region or layer of an organ

Palmar

Palm of hand

Graded potentials that occur in the postsynaptic neurons are specifically called ____.

Postsynaptic potentials

Integumentary System

Protects the body, keeps harmful material out, regulates body temperature, senses and responds to the environment, and creates important chemicals

Spinal Cord Gross Anatomy

The adult spinal cord traverses the vertebral canal and typically ends at the level of the L1 vertebra.

When is a body in anatomical position

The body is erect, or standing, posture with arms at the sides and palms foreward

Receptive Segment

binding of neurotransmitter released from presynaptic neuron; production of graded potentials

One dendrite and one axon

bipolar neuron

there is ___ brain barrier that prevents harmful materials in the brain

blood

Osseous

bone tissue

location of osseous tissue

bones

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

Mammary

breast

Gluteal

buttock

Pumps move substances against a concentration gradient, a process that requires energy. Channels instead provide the means to move a substance with a concentration gradient. Neurons contain the following major types of channels:

• Channels that are always open, allowing continuous diffusion of a specific ion from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration are leak channels. • Channels that are normally closed that open in response to the binding of a neurotransmitter are chemically gated channels. When open, they allow a specific ion to diffuse across the plasma membrane. • Channels that are normally closed, but open in response to changes in electrical charge across the plasma membrane are voltage-gated channels. When open, they allow a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane.

Pumps move substances against a concentration gradient, a process that requires energy. Channels instead provide the means to move a substance with a concentration gradient. Neurons contain the following major types of channels:

• Channels that are normally closed, but open in response to changes in electrical charge across the plasma membrane are voltage-gated channels. When open, they allow a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane.


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