Flashcards for Volume 2
sources of measurement error for internal consistency reliability coefficients
"content sampling" - item homogeneity these tests are good for assessing reliability of tests that measure unstable traits or are affected by repeated administration inappropriate for assesing the reliability of speed tests
Fee Arrangements
"forensic practitioners avoid undue influence that might result from financial compensation or other gains"...(i.e. accepting contingent fees that depend on the outcome of the case)
Interaction between selection and treatment
"interaction"- variable has one effect under some circumstances and another effect under another set of circumstances sometimes effects of a givene treatment would not generalize to other members of the population of interest (or target population)
Adolescent Identity Crisis
"storm and stress" disengage from families, adult sex drive, need to construct adult identity 20% rates of psychological disturbance, similar to children and adults
offering inducements for research participation
(a) Psychologists make reasonable efforts to avoid offering excessive or inappropriate financial or other inducements for research participation when such inducements are likely to coerce participation. (b) clarify nature, risks, obligations, and limitations of services
Gilligan's relational crisis
- 11-12 years - a response to increasing pressures to fit cultural stereotypes of the "perfect good woman" - disconnect from themselves in order to maintain relationships with others and experience drop in academic achievement, loss of self-esteem, and vulnerability to psychopathology - give up own strengths and interests - try to help girls maintain a "healthy resistance to disconnection" "loss of voice"
critical incidents
- descriptions of specific job behaviors that lead to either successful or unsuccessful job performance - observe employee while they work and keep a tally of good and bad work behaviors of each employee - subsequently tallies became likert type rating scales
Physical maturation in adolescence
- growth spurt begins around 11 to 12 for girls and 13 to 14 for boys - lasts for about 3-4 years and signals the beginning of puberty, during which he primary sex organs enlarge and become functional and the secondary sex characteristics appear - late maturation for boys has problems (attention seeking, lower confidence, poor academics) - early maturation for girls has problems (poor self-concept, lower academics, higher risk for depression, eating disorders, and substance use) - problems depend on how different kids perceive themselves to be from their peers
theories of color vision
-Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory: the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color -Herings' opponent-process theory: the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; for example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
reliability coefficient
0-1 + .90= 90% of observed variability in obtained test scores is due to true score differences among examinees and the remaining 10% of observed variability represents measurement error directly indicates the proportion of variability that is true score variability 1 is never achieved on psychological tests personality test- usually .70 and above selection tests in industrial settings should have reliability coefficients of about .90
Chronic illness in childhood and adolescence
1) Brain conditions= more behavior problems and lower social functioning 2) Family functioning positively correlated with positive adjustment for these kids 3) Parental adjustment predicts child adjustment (maternal depression=poorer adjustment) 4) Chronically ill boys more at risk for behavior problems while chronically ill girls are more at risk for distress 5) Teens at risk for not adhering to treatment...concern about being different from peers And tell the kids the truth about it in a way that is appropriate for their age
Formative stages of group therapy
1) Orientation, hesitant participation, search for meaning, and dependency 2) Conflict, dominance, rebellion- hierarchy, hostile talk especially to therapist 3) Development of cohesiveness
personal problems and conflicts
1) don't do things things where you know personal problems/conflicts will likely get in the way 2) obtaining professional consultation or assistance, and determine if you should limit, suspend or terminate work when personal problems come up
factors affecting reliability
1) longer tests have more reliability 2) the more homogeneous the group taking the test the more the reliability coefficient decreases 3) If test items are too easy or too hard then score variability decreases & decreases reliability coefficient 4) a test that people can guess the correct answer (e.g. a true/false test) the lower the reliability coefficient 5) inter-item consistency as measured by the Kuder-Richardson or coefficient alpha methods, reliability is increased as the items become more homogenous
post hoc tests
1) of all post hoc tests, the Scheffe is the most conservative, provides greatest protection against the inflation in the Type I error rate that occurs when multiple comparisons are made...but increases probability of type 2 error 2) if you are conducting pairwise comparisons, the Tukey is the appropriate post hoc test...provide enough protection against type I errors when only pairwise comparisons are made
competency to stand trial
1) understand the proceeding's against him or her 2) assist the attorney in his/her defense if defendant is incompetent the trial is suspended...receive treatment until they are restored to competence
Perpetrator characteristics (child maltreatment)
1. Bio parents, non-bio parents, parent partners, other relatives, other unrelated adults (in that order of prevalence) 2. More likely to be women than men 3. Men that are not bio parents are most likely in sexual abuse
Suicide risk factors
1. History of attempts 2. Warning signs: ideation, intent, plan 3. Age- 50-59= higher suicide 4. Gender- males 5. Race/ethnicity- Whites, American Indians, Native Alaskans 6. Marital status- divorced, widowed, single...may be only for men 7. Psychiatric diagnosis0 MDD, schizophrenis, substance abuse....comorbid MDD with substance, ADHD, and conduct disorder in adolescents 8. Hopelessness 9. Physical health
Solution focused therapy (3 basic rules)
1. If it aint broke dont fix it, 2. Once you know what works, do more of it, 3. If it doesn't work, don't do it again, do something different
Equifinality v Equipotentiality
1. Occurs when different processes have the same outcome (different but effective parenting styles)...2. Same process can have different outcomes (punishing a rebellious child)
differences between standard errors of estimate and measurement
1. SEM related to reliability coefficient, SEE related to validity coefficient 2. SEM used to measure where an examinee's true test score is likely to fall given their score on the same test, SEE determines examinee's actual criterion score given the criterion score that was predicted by another measure 3. memorize the formula for the standard error of estimate for the test
Risk factors for intimate partner violence
1. Victim vulnerability (age, low resources, history of maltreatment) 2. Male perpetrators (antisocial, low self-esteem, history of violence, heavy substance, possessivness and sexual jealousy, unemployment, history of maltreatment) 3. Relationship factors- cohabitation over marriage, marital instability, and presence of step-children 4. Community/societal factors- weak community sanctions against IPV, high-poverty, acceptance of traditional gender norms
other language guidelines
1. avoid using nouns that imply gender exclusivity 2. use male and female as adjectives rather than nouns 3. avoid generic use of masculine pronoun 4. avoid the terms homosexual and sexual preference 5. capitalize but do not hyphenate the names of racial and ethnic groups 6. when describing people with disabilities, use people-first language, "person with a disability" 7. age- boy and girl (0-12), young men and young women (13-17), and men and women (18+)
shared parametric and nonparametric assumptions
1. both assume data comes from an unbiased sample sample that is representative of the population....and there is a random selection of cases
studies on goal setting
1. combining goals setting with feedback has a significant positive effect on performance (Pritchard et al., 1988) 2. people with high self-esteem are more likely to accept difficult goals 3. employees work harder when they participate in in goal setting, rather than just have them assigned 4. difficult individual goals less productive than group goals in group settings 5. similar benefits for males and females on goals that are assigned
psychological service unit
1. composed of one or more psychologists and staff 2. can be big or small 3. can be multidisciplinary 4. can be private practice or consulting
four possible outcome of statistical tests
1. correct in concluding difference between means exist in population 2. correct in concluding that a difference does not exist 3/4. we can be incorrect in either of these conclusions
methods of item discrimination
1. correlate item response with total test scores 2. calculating item discrimination index (D= Percentage of high scorers- percentage of low scorers, can range from 100- -100 3. each individual item item can be correlated with criterion variable items difficulty level places ceiling on its discrimination index
responding to subpoena
1. determine if subpoena is a legally valid demand for the disclosure of client information 2. if subpoena is valid, contact the client and discuss the implications of providing the requested information 3. if the client consents and there are no other reasons for withholding the information, provide the information as requested...if the client does not consent, attempt to negotiate with the requester 4. if the requesting party continues to demand that the information be provided, seek guidance from the court informally through the letter or have an attorney file a motion to quash the subpeona or a motion for a protective order
sanctioners
1. direct users or recipients of service 2. private or public institutions and facilities 3. anyone else interacting with psychologist acting in professional capacity
deception in research
1. don't do it unless justified 2. do not deceive about research that will cause physical pain or emotional distress 3. psychologists explain any deception that is an integral feature of the design to participants as early as possible and permit participants to withdraw their data
Phases of organizational development
1. entry- id need for organizational change 2. contracting- consultant specifies terms and conditions of participation 3. diagnosis- assess problems and collect data 4. feedback- present diagnostic info 5. planning- develop corecctive plan 6. intervention- action 7. evaluation- assess progess characteristics 1. holistic systems approach 2. involve everyone 3. commitment and support of top management 4. view change as long-term and planned 5. use internal and external change agents who initiate change
classical conditioning steps
1. food producers salivation 2. ringing bell and food 3. ringing bell alone produces stimulation
factors that affect conformity to a majority
1. group size- conformity incr with size, but beyond 3 or four there are diminishing returns 2. Unanimity- everyone says the same thing, if one person doesn't conform, it makes it less likely the subject will conform 3. ambiguity- conformity greatest when the task is ambiguous 4. cohesiveness- the greater the cohesiveness, the greater conformity to group norms 5. Personality characteristics- people with low self-esteem, low intelligence, high need for approval, and authoritarianism are more likely to conform
Super's 5 developmental stages of career development
1. growth- capacities, attitudes, interests, needs, fantasy play 2. exploration 15-24- career choices narrowed but not finalized, self-examination, role tryouts, occupational awareness 3. Establishment 25-44- establish a permanent place in chosen occupational field 4. Maintenance 45-64- maintaining position and status attained in previous stage 5. decline 65+- decline in work output and eventual retirement, find non-vocational sources of satisfaction
factors affecting the validity coefficient
1. heterogeneity of examinees- restricted range of scores either on predictor or criterion...the more homogenous the validation group, the lower the validity coefficient 2. reliability of predictor and criterion- for a predictor to be valid, both the predictor and the criterion must be reliable 3. Moderator variables- the criterion-related validity of a test may vary among subgroups within a population (differential validity) 4. Cross-validation- after test is validated, it is typically re-validated with a sample of individuals different from the original validation sample (the reduction that occurs in a criterion related validity coefficient upon cross-validation is termed "shrinkage", high correlations between items and criterion occur becuase of the unique characteristics of the original validation sample) 5. Criterion contamination- occurs when in the process of validating a test, the predictor scores themselves influence any individual's criterion status (artificially inflates validity coefficient)
scientific method
1. hypothesis of relationship between two variables 2. hypothesis operationally defined...what we should observe if hypothesis is true 3. collect and analyze data to test hypothesis
discussing the limits of confidentiality
1. inform clients of relevant laws 2. discuss limits of confidentiality with group member in group therapy 3. always explain limits of confidentiality to military client (i.e. department of defense rules) 4. address the issue of secrets in marital and family therapy (discuss policy regarding secrets with all interested parties at the beginning of therapy)
Acculturation
1. integration orientation- retain own culture and adopt dominant culture 2. Assimilation orientation- reject own, adopt dominant 3. separation orientation- retain own, reject dominant 4. marginalization- reject own, reject dominant (lost)
causes of conduct disorder
1. life persistent pathway (neuro, temperamental, and social environment deficits) 2. adolescent limited pathway (maturity gap, inconsistent, declines with age)
assumptions about test items in item response theory
1. performance on an item is related to estimated amount of a latent trait being measured by the item 2. results of testing are sample free, as assumption which is known as "invariance of item parameters"0 (i.e. item should have same parameters across all random samples of a population)
dispensing with informed consent for research
1. research will not resonably create distress or harm (study of education in educational setting, anonymous questionnaires, archival research naturalistic observation that would not put people at risk, studying job or organizational effectiveness in a professional setting 2. where otherwise permitted by law or federal or institutional regulations
state and provincial psychology licensing boards
1. set the standards and administer procedures and examinations for psychology licensure 2. conduct disciplinary proceedings for violations of standards of professional conduct
Stages of strategic family therapy (1st session)
1. social stage (observe client patterns), 2. Problem stage (ask qs about presenting problem), 3. interaction stage (collect info on interactions), 4. goal setting, 5. task setting (a directive to complete at home
client/patient, student, and subordinate research participants
1. take steps to protect the prospective participants from adverse consequences of declining or withdrawing from participation 2. when it is an assignment or extra credit, the participant is given an equitable alternative
reliabiity
1. test yields repeatable consistent results 2. score reflects true score on the test rather than error
using statistical tests
1. the null and alternative hypotheses are stated 2. data are collected 3. the data are analyzed through the use of the appropriate statistical test 4. the obtained statistical value is compared to a tabled critical value (value you use depends on...a. pre-set alpha level (.01 or .05), b. the degrees of freedom for the statistical test) if obtained value exceeds the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected
five sleep stages
1. transition between awake and asleep (fast alpha waves, slow theta waves) 2. few minutes later (theta waves, sleep spindles, k complexes) 3. transitional stage (high amplitude, slow delta waves) 4. large slow delta waves, breathing deep, slow HR, difficult to wake 5. REM- rapid eye movements, eeg patterns similar to stages 1 and 2, but stil hard to wake, paradoxical sleep, vivid dreams (bizarre, emotionally laden) we go through all five stages every 90 minutes
users
1. users or recipients of psychological services 2. institutions or facilities receiving psychological services
Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory
10 broad cognitive abilities 70 narrow cognitive abilities framework for KABC-II and Woodcock-Johnson test
Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery
11 functional scales motor rhythm tactile visual receptive speech expressive speech writing reading arithmetic memory intellectual processes Scales used to help localize brain dysfunction, 0= normal functioning...2= brain injury Better and shorter than the Halstead-Reitan
Mini Mental State Exam
11 questions to assess... orientation registration attention and calculation recall language visual construction 30 max score, 24 or lower suggests cognitive impairment
MDD prevalence/course
12 month prevalence: 7%, rate three times higher for persons 18-29 female prevalence goes up after puberty...almost three times as high usually occur because of stressful life event...following episodes are predicited by previous episodes better than stressor
Guilford's structure of intellect theory
120 intellectual abilities later expanded to 180 convergent thinking- rational, logical, one answer divergent thinking- flexibility, non-logical processes, multiple solutions to problem
course/prognosis
15% of children continue to meet criteria into adulthood....60% still have symptoms without meeting full criteria (inattention most prominent symptoms for adults)
DSM- cultural formulation interview (cfi)
16 questions about cultural impact on presenting problems and treatment 4 domains 1 cultural defintion of problem 2 cultural perceptions of cause, context, and support 3. cultural factors affecting self coping and past help seeking 4 cultural factors affecting current help seeking
Lewin's Field Theory
1936- person's behavior is a function of the interactions between the person and his/her perception of the physical environment and that these interactions occur within the person's "life-space"
behavioral contrast (operant conditioning)
2 behaviors have been reinforced separately and then reinforcer is removed from 1 behavior...other behavior then temporarily increases
Worldview (Sue and Sue, 2013)
2 dimensions- Locus of control and locus of responsibility 1. internal/internal 2. internal/external---totally incoherent 3. external/internal 4. external/external
Overcorrection
2 phase positive punishment restitution-correct consequences of undesirable behavior positive practice- practice more desirable behavior
Helm's White Racial Identity Development Model
2 phases- abandonment of racism, defining non-racist white identity: Contact Status (lack of awareness), Disintegration Status (awareness of inequalties of treatment), Reintegration Status (whites are superior), Pseudoindependence Status (dissatisfied with racism, unintentionally perpetuate racist views), Immersion/Emersion Status (what it means to be white without being racist), Autonomy Status (realistic understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the culture, seek cross-racial interaction)
Preoperational Stage
2-7 years development of symbolic function increasing use of language symbolic/pretend play ability to solve problems mentally limited by transductive reasoning (two events that occur at the same time are causally related) limited by egocentrism These errors underlie magical thinking (thinking about something can control it) and animism (objects have thoughts, feelings, and other lifelike qualities) lack of conservation- maintained by centration (tendency to focus on one detail of a situation to the neglect of other important features) and irreversibility (inability to undertsand that actions cna be reversed)
Specific learning disorder associated features
20-30% adhd ODD Conduct disorder MDD
Child Maltreatment
2005-2006 study- 1.25 million children had "maltreatment" which caused harm (neglect, physical, emotional, sexual abuse...prevalence in that order)...rates of maltreatment higher for girls than boys (sexual)....Child characteristics linked to abuse are low birth weight, prematurity, difficult temperament, serious illness, physical and mental disabilities
shift work
25% of the labor force less productive on night shift....errors, accidents rotating shifts....low production, high accident rates, physical and mental health problems younger workers adapt better...workers who choose night shift indicate fewer problems than workers assigned to it
emotions
3 components- autonomic arousal, feelings, behavior
Brain
3 divisions Hindbrain Midbrain Forebrain
tolmans latent learning
3 groups of food deprived rats complex maze once a day for 17 days 1. got food after reaching goal box each day, speed gradually Improved 2. never got food, behavior in maze never really changed 3. did not get food till day 11 on, speed for better once they received reinforcement, speed surpassed group 1 rates group 3 rats learned, formed cognitive maps not demonstrated until reinforced
Spinal cord
31 segments divided into five groups top to bottom: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal damage: depends on location and severity, damage to cervical results in qudriplegia (tetreplegia- loss of sensory and motor functions in trunk, upper limbs ans lower limbs) damage to thoracic, lumbar, or sacral results in paraplegia (loss of sensory and motor function in lower limbs) complete injury involves total loss of sensation and voluntary movement...incomplete injury may involve loss of sensation but no loss of movement or vice versa (or the losses can be limited)
Troiden's model of gay/lesbian identity development
4 stages: Sensitization- pre-puberty feelng different from others, Identity confusion- attracted but what to do?, Identity assumption- tolerant identity, may start to come out, Identity commitment- acceptance as "way of life"
cost analysis
4 types cost benefit analysis, cost effectiveness analysis, cost utility analysis cost minimization analysis
Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test
4-85 years old Copy and recall of geometric designs Good for school readiness, id'ing learning disabilities, predicting school performance Bad for psychiatric diagnoses Ok for brain damage if coupled with other instruments
obstructive sleep apnea
5 disturbances in an hour and nocturnal breathing disturbances and daytime sleepy/fatigue or 15 or more obstructive apneas without other symptoms
ADHD prevalence
5% for kids, 2.5% for adults 2:1 male to female
Intellectual disability etiology
5% of all case due to heredity 30% chromosomal abnormalities 10% pregnancy and perinatal complications 5% general medical conditions during infancy and childhood 15-20% environmental factors and other mental disorders 30-40% unknown....low birth weight is the strongest predictor in these case
MMPI-2
567 t/f questions 10 clinical scales 9 validity scales Numerous content and validity scales (18+ age) MMPI-A- for ages 14-18
genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder
6 months duration relaxation dialation manual stimulation
WISC-V
6-16 and 11 months age range full scale IQ, five primary index scales (verbal comprhension, visual-spatial, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed) optional ancillary and complementary index scores, and subtest scores Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence, 4th- for ages 2 years 6 months to 7 years 7 months
Alzheimer's disease
60 to 90 percent of dementia slow progression- early, middle and late stages
stress
64% of survey respondents said their jobs involved stress (gustman et al., 1995) 5/6 workers filing illness claims connected to stress quantitative overload- too much work in time available qualitative overload- work too difficult work underload- too little work, work is too easy violence, harassment, threatened, attacked- increasing source of stress at work...as well as downsizing
standard deviation curve
68% fall within 1 SD 95% fall within 2 SDs 99.7% fall within 3 SDs
therapists and sex with clients
9.4% of male therapists and 2.5% of female therapists have had sex with clients typical exploitative therapist was in 40s or 50s, had an unstable marriage, was professionally burned out, depressed, sleep disturbances, and/or alcohol or drug abuse average age of therapist 42-44, client 30-33 leading cause of disciplinary action for licensing boards
percentile ranks
90th percentile- scored higher than 90% of the rest 90 percent score- answered 90%of items correctly ranks that can't tell you anything about differences between scores (i.e. 80-70 diff not necessarily the same as 70-60 diff)
Validity scales
? (cannot say)- unanswered or double marked items- reading difficulties, overcautious response styles, indecisiveness L (Lie)- lack of insight, present self in favorable light, low score =exaggeration of negative characteristics F(Infrequency)- High score=fake bad, Low score=social conformity, fake good K (Correction)- High score=defensiveness, fake good, low score=frankness, fake bad VRIN and TRIN- Response inconsistency, high score=invalid profile Fp- Fake bad=even in psychiatric patients Fb- random responding or fake bad toward the end of the test S- superlative presentation= defensiveness or attempt to look good
Individuals with Disabilities education Act (IDEA)
A free and appropriate public education must be provided for individual between ages of 3 and 21, regardless of ability IEP- provide services in least restrictive environment, approved by the child's parents Larry P. vs. Riles- on behalf of African American children who were overrepresented in special education programs in San Francisco..."IQ tests are culturally biased", banned SF schools from using them to place African American children in special ed classes
insanity
A legal term, not a psychological or psychiatric one, referring to a person who is unable, because of a mental disorder or defect, to "appreciate the criminality of his conduct to the requirements of the law" not guilty by reason of insanity guilty but mentally ill
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. 3 nights a week 3 months loss of muscle tone 15 minute rem latency hypnagogic hallucinations treatment: antidepressants...emotional control
REM sleep behavior disorder
A sleep disturbance in which the mechanism responsible for paralyzing the body during REM sleep is not functioning, resulting in the acting out of dreams....vocalizations
t scores
A test score that is converted to a normal distribution that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.
MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)
A widely used personality test based on Jungian types. introversion-extraversion sensing-intuitive thinking-feeling judging-perceiving
Vroom and Yelton's Normative (decision-making model)
AI (autocratic)- make decision on own AII- obtian info from subordinates to make decisions CI (consultive)- discuss problems individually bu make decisions on own CII- discuss problems as group, make final decision on own GII- discus problems with group and make group decision decision tree to figure out which if these styles is best when making a decision
discipline
APA may impose sanctions, including termination of membership sanctions can be imposed on non-members as well
Beck hopelessness scale
Accurate predictor of suicide, 17-80 years old
Multicultural Counseling guidelines (Black americans)
African American- Explore racial identity, discrimination, their perspective on contributing factors, extended relationships, religious/spiritual beliefs----problem solving/multisystems approach is best
theory of planned behavior
Ajzen (1991)- behavior is precede by a behavioral intention which is affected by three factors 1. persons attitude toward the bx (outcomes) 2. persons subjected norms to bx (approved of?) 3. persons perceived behavioral control
ordinal data item difficulty
Anastasi (1982)- p level (percentage of persons passing an item) expresses item difficulty in terms of an ordinal scale cannot determine relative changes in difficulty between each item
Brain development
Areas that control breathing, Heart rate, etc. are most developed at birth cerebral and prefrontal cortex continue to develop (PFC into late teens and 20s) Most neurons present at birth (development consists in new dendrites, synapses, and myelination) brain weight decreases around 30 after pruning, this accelerates after 60
Treatment for intimate partner violence
Arrest, mandated treatment, and support for the victim is better than arrest alone
Glasgow Coma Scale
Assess consciousness following acute brain injury eyes, verbal, motor Max- 15 pts, below 7= coma, 3= deep coma
DSM- Cross cutting symptom measures
Assessment of Symptom domains that are important across diagnoses Level 1- 13 domains for adults, 12 for kids...areas that need additional evaluation Level 2- information to assist with diagnosis, treatment planning, and follow-up
Gene-environment correlation
Associations found between genetic makeup and the the environmental circumstances they are exposed to ....people seek out/impact environments in ways that are consistent with their genetic makeup
REBT
Base on ABC model of bx- antecedent, bx, consequence
Multimodal therapy
Based on assumption that psych problems are multilayered (bx, affect, sensation, imagery, cognition, rxs, and drugs, diet, and exercise) BASIC ID Use Basic to conceptualize problem, Track "firing order" of BASIC, Bridging=attend to most preferred modality and bridge to others
Developmental scales for infants and preschoolers
Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler development (five subtests: cognitive, motor, language, social-emotional, adaptive behavior)... id developmental delays and plan appropriate interventions Denver Developmental Screening Test II- birth to 6 years, observe child's response in four domains (personal-social, fine motor adaptive, language, and gross motor) Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence- 3-12 months, assess memory and amount of time infant looks at novel versus familiar pictures
MCC guidelines (Hispanic)
Be aware of somatic complaints, expectations of shorter treatment, offer a tentative solution, religious and spiritual beliefs, importance of fmaily welfare over individual welfare.....machismo and marianismo....move from a formal style to personal style in therapy relationship.....active, goal-directed, time-limited, CBT, family, and cuento therapy are the best approaches
Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration
Beery-VMI- screen for visual motor impairments that can lead to learning and behavioral problems...ages 2 and up
Object Relations Theory
Behavior motivated by human connection and focuses on impact of early relationships between child and significant others (objects)
Extended family systems therapy
Bowen- multigenerational dynamics considered, transmission of emotional processes across generations---concepts: differentiation of self, Triangles (lead to instability), nuclear family emo system (methods to deal with stress), family projection process (projection of parental problems onto child), multigenerational transmission process, emotional cutoff, sibling position, societal regression (impact of societal stress)
Goal of Psychoanalysis
Bring unconscious unresolved conflicts into conscious awareness
Adler's Individual Psychology
Broke with freud, placed social interest above sexual desire, emphasized the conscious, teleological approach (impact of future goals on current behavior)
Azaspirones
Buspirone (BuSpar)- effects dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin levels uses: anxiety, generalized anxiety disorder side effects: dizzt, light headed, nausea, head ache, not sedative and not subject to abuse
Cognitive Assessment System
CAS2 5-17y 11m based on pass model of intelligence (planning, attention, simultaneous processing, sequential processing) full scale score and score for each cognitive functioning
Cost-benefit analysis
CBA compare costs and benefits of a single intervention or two or more interventions when costs and benefits are both expressed in monetary terms
Stress innoculation training
CBT intervention for exposure to mild-moderate levels of stress (conceptualization (psychoed), Skills acquistion (coping), and Application (try it in imagination then in vivo))
blocking in classical conditioning
CS blocks paired neutral stimulus when presented before us
Classical extinction
CS presented without us...response disappears
Psychotherapy
Can reduce medical costs
Mental Health Consultation
Caplan (1964) types 1. Client-cented case: Helps consultee with problem person is having with particular client 2. Consultee-centered case- Helps consultee with problems in delivering effective service 3. Program centered admin- work with admin to figure out why program isn't having desired outcom 4. Consultee centered admin- Help them design, implement, and evaluate future programs
Prevention
Caplan's (1964) levels of prevention 1. Primary- Before problem, entire group 2. Secondary- Keeps problem from becoming full disorder, screening tests, people using early signs 3. Tertiary- Prevent recurrence of disorder, Reduce its debilitating effects, persons already have the disorder (AA, rehab programs)
DSM-V
Categorical approach to diagnosing mental illness "provisional"- believe full criteria will eventually be met "other specified"- does not meet full criteria, clinician indicates why "Unspecified"- does not meet full criteria, clinician does not want to indicate why 19 diagnostic categories Principal diagnoses listed first
DSM- Outline for cultural formulation
Categories 1. Cultural identity of the individual 2. cultural conceptualization of distress 3. stressors and cultural features that affect person's vulnerability and resilience 4. cultural features that affect relationship between client and therapist
Feelings of inferiority
Childhood, real or imagined inadequcies, compensation in response
Group Intelligence Tests
Cognitive Abilities test- reasoning in three areas (verbal, quantitative, and non-verbal), k-grade 12 Wonderlic Personnel test- 12 minute measure of cognitive ability for adults...50 items that asses verbal, numerical, and spatial ability
Archetypes
Collective unconscious, universal mental structures that predispose people to react to external circumstances in specific ways, represented in cultural myths and symbols, appear in dreams
Procedures of analysis
Confrontation (Statements), clarification (Questions), Interpretation (connect conscious behavior to unconscious processes), Working through
Superego
Conscience, seeks to block id's unacceptable impulses, all three levels of conscious, internalization of parental values, prohibitions, standards
Jung's Structure of the Psyche
Conscious, Personal Unconscious, Collective Unconscious
Topographical Model
Conscious, Preconscious (just below), Unconscious (Largest part of psyche_
Advocacy Consultation
Consultant advocates consultee- law, procedures, media, publicity, negotiate with adversaries
Somatic nervous system
Controls skeletal muscles (voluntary movement), relays signals from senses (sight, taste, hearing, smell, touch) Autonomic nervous system- nerve fibers that innervate the smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands (regulates activity that is primarily involuntary)...sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Feminist Therapy
Core Priciples 1. The personal is political- Problems are rooted in societal/political factors 2. A commitment to social change 3. Need to value and honor perspective of women and girls 4. A view of the therapeutic relationship as egalitarian 5. A reformulation of traditional views of psychological distress 6. Recognition of all forms of oppression- gender, race, physical abilities, sexual orientation, religion, class Goals- Empower individuals and transform society Techniques- Gender-role analysis and intervention, power analysis, consciousness raising, assertiveness training, therapist self-disclosure, social action
Horn-Catell's Gc-Gf Theory
Crystallized Intelligence- facts, rules, and ability to apply to situations Fluid intelligence- relatively unaffected by experience, ability to reason and adapt to new situations Gc increases into 20s and 30s Gf peaks in 20s and declines with time
friendships in childhood
Damon (1988) 1. 4-7, friendships based on similarities and shared activities 2. 8-10, based on mutual trust and assistance 3. 11+, intimacy and loyalty Maccoby (1990) girls enabling style- increases intimacy and equality by expressing agreement, making suggestions, and providing support boys restrictive style- bragging, contradicting, interrupting function of friendships- girls: emotional, intimate, boys: more interested in sharing activities and interests
concrete operational stage
Decentration Reversibility Conservation (example of horizontal decalage: sequential mastery of concepts within a single stage of development) Transitivity- Ability to mentally sort objects Hierarchical classification
Bronfenner's Ecological Theory
Describes environmental influences on development in terms of five systems Microsystem- is the child's immediate family environment (family, peers, school) Mesosystem- consists of interconnections between components of the microsystem Exosystem- not in direct contact with but affected by (parent's workplace, neighbors, community services) Macrosystem- sociocultural context, aspects of society that affect the child's development (i.e. racism, socioeconomic conditions, cultural standards of childbearing) Chronosystem- represents time and includes the child's life stages and historical facts that impact his/her development
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world popularized thorndike law of effect
Ego-analysts
Distinguished ego-defensive and ego-autonomous functions
Jung's Analytical Psychology
Divided unconscious (personal and collective)
Frued's Structural Theory
Divides psyche into three components, Id, Ego, Superego
Dream Analysis
Dreams contain symbols that provide important information about unconscious impulses
person-machine systems (engineering psychology)
EP- concerned with the fit between workers and their work procedures, environment, and equipment both components must work together to accomplish the job people are flexible but don't perform consistently, machines are inflexible but perform consistently humans- better at recognizing variable patterns, detecting unusual/unexpected phenomena, generalizing, setting priorities machines better at sensing stimuli outside of human perception (really???!!! no shit???!!!), repetition, info storage, rapid and consistent responses, sustainign performance over long period of time
universal emotions
Ekman (1992) 1. happiness 2. sadness 3. fear 4. anger 5. disgust 6. surprise
Defense Mechanisms
Emerge when ego can't solve conflict through realistic means (repression, reaction formation, projection, sublimation)
Adjustment disorder
Emotional Symptoms (anxiety, depression) causing impairment following an identifiable psychosocial stressor (Divorce, illness) and lasting less than 6 months.....symptoms occur within three months of the onset of stressor
Neo-Freudians
Emphasize social and cultural determinants of personality, Henry Stack Sullivan's Parataxic distortions- arrested development in perceiving and evaluating others in the present based on early interpersonal experiences (similar to relational template)
Erich Fromm
Emphasized how society prevents people from realizing their essential human nature (creative, loving, productive)
Piaget's Constructivist Theory
Equilibration- drive toward a state of cognitive equilibrium...provides the underlying motivation for cognitive devlopment Disequilibrium resolved through adaptation- Assimilation and Accommodation
Psychotherapy outcomes
Eysenck (1952) 44%-66% of people who had psychodynamic or eclectic therapy improved...72% of people who did not receive therapy improved....not great methods, more of a review than a controlled study
The F-ratio and the Significance Level
F=MSB/MSW the final step is to compare this value to the appropriate tabled critical value
MCC Gay, lesbian, bisexual clients
Families may be those not biologically related to them...recognize impact on sexuality
Self-in-relation theory
Feminist roots- use object relations theory-development happens through "relationship elaboration" rather than "separation and disengagment"---that is for boys
Cross Black Identity Development Model
Five stages of positive black identity- pre-encounter (prefer white culture), encounter (important event challenges WV), immersion/emersion (denigrate white culture and glorify black culture), Internalization (develop security in black identity), and Internalization-commitment (committed to social activism to improve equality for oppressed groups)
Karen Horney
Focused on early relationships, Basic anxiety rooted in parental indifference, overprotection, and rejection (feeling of helplessness and isolation in hostile world)
lens
Focuses light onto retina
program evaluation
Formative evaluations- assess variables internal to the program, including trainees assessments of program effectiveness, satisfaction with the program, degree of learning summative evals- assess effectiveness of program, done after the program is completed cost effectiveness
Targets of Analysis
Free associations, dreams, resistance, and transference
Attachment
Freud- attachment is the result of feeding Harlow and Zimmerman- contact comfort more important than feeding for establishing attachment Bowlby's ethological theory- infants and mothers biologically predisposed for attachment (sucking, cooing, smiling, and crying are attachment behaviors)- 4 stages: pre-attachment, attachment in the making, clearcut attachment, and the formation of reciprocal relationships (internal working models of the self and others that influence future relationships)
causes of alzheimers
Gene's neurotransmitter structural brain abnormalities plaques tangles low achetylcholine
Occupational Ability Tests
General Aptitude Test Battery- work related aptitudes: vocational counseling and job placement for adults (general learning ability, verbal aptitude, numerical aptitude) Specific occupational abilities- Purdue pegboard, Crawford small parts dexterity test...assess speed, strength, coordination, motor responses...low validity due to practice effects and relative independence of psychomotor abilities
Boundary disturbances
Gestalt therapy...persistent disturbance between self and environment because of unsatisfied needs...leading to introjection, Projection, Retroflection, Deflection, Confluence
Individuation
Goal of Analytical Therapy, integration of conscious and unconscious aspects of self into unified whole, happens through dream interpretation, active imagination, and analysis of transference
18-24 month milestones
Gross: Run clumsily, walk up stairs with hand held (18 months), walks up stairs alone (24 months), kicks and throws ball, uses toilet during day Fine: uses apoon, turns doorknobs, builds a 6-7 block tower
7 month milestones
Gross: Sits, leaning forward on both hands, stands with help Fine: Transfers objects from one hand to the other
11-15 month milestones
Gross: Walks holding onto furniture, stands alone, walks alone (12-14 months) Fine: removes object from tight enclosure, turns pages in book, uses a cup, builds a 3-4 block tower
9-10 months milestones
Gross: crawls, pulls self to standing when holding on to furniture Fine: Uses thumb and index finger to grasp
3 month milestones
Gross: head held up when sitting but bobs forward, regards own hand Fine: Holds rattle, pulls at clothes, brings object from hand to mouth
5 month milestones
Gross: holds head up, reaches and grasps, puts foot in mouth when supine Fine: plays with toes, puts objects to mouth, grasps objects voluntarily
1 month milestones
Gross: turn head side to side when prone Fine: strong grasp reflex
Selection and Preparation of Group members
Group composition (homo/hetero), Entry into group (open or closed), Group size (7 to 10 most effective), Inclusion and exclusion criteria (brain damaged, paranoid, addicted, psychotic, sociopathic?? get out), premature termination (30-40% drop out early, prescreen), concurrent participation in group and individual (pros and cons, cons especially if you see the same therapist)
Kohlberg's theory of moral development
Heinz dilemma..should you steal a drug to save a person's life stages emerge in invariant order but some people never go beyond stage four Preconventional Stage 1- Punishment and Obedience Stage 2- Instrumentla hedonistic orientation Conventional Stage 3- "Good-boy, Good-girl" orientation Stage 4- Law and Order orientation Post-conventional Stage 5- Social contract and individual rights orientation Stage 6- Universal ethical principles orientation progression depends on level of cognitive development and social perspective taking relationship between moral reasoning and moral action strongest for folks at the highest level of moral development (Kohlberg, 1975)
MMPI malingering
High F High F-K index L and K around 50
Strong interest Inventory
High school, college and adults (scored on computer) General Occupational Themes (GOT)- RIASEC Basic Interest Scales-Subject matter (research, math, science) Occupational scales- compare to persons of same gender working in different occupations Personal styles scales- work style, learning environment, leadership style, risk taking, team orientation Administrative indices Empirical criterion keying- Compare responses of people in particular professional with responses from all employed adults
Kuder Occupational Interest survey
High school, college, adults....100 question, choose most preferred of 3 activities Occupational Scales College Major Scales Vocational Interest estimates- 10 interest areas Dependability indices- validity checks
Cultural differences in communication style
High-context communication- relies heavily on culturally defined meanings, nonverbal messages, and context (characteristic of several ethnic/cultural minority groups)...Low-context communication- relies on the verbal message, characteristic of European Americans (Hall, 1976)
Inpatient utilization rates
Highest for american indian/alaskan natives....then african american, hispanic american, white, and asian american
Theories of career choice
Holland's personality and environmental typology (personality theories) Super's Career and Life Development Theory (Stage theories)
The Neo-Freudians
Horney, Stack Sullivan, Fromm
Phase model
Howard and colleagues (1986, 1996)- two models of change Dose-effect model- 50% improve by 6-8 sessions, 75% improve by 26th session, 85% after a year Phase model- (1) Remoralization, decreased hopelessness, (2) Remediation is characterized by symptom relief and, depending on severity, requires up to 16 additional sessions, (3) Rehabilitation: gradual improvement of long standing behavior patterns
Gene-linked abnormalities
Huntington's disease- Degenerative central nervous system disorder (cognitive, motor, and psychiatric symptoms)...dominant gene disorder, child with Huntington's parent has a 50/50 shot of inheriting it themselves Phenylketonuria (PKU)- recessive gene disorder linked with lack of enzyme needed to digest an amino acid, causes severe mental retardation Tay-Sachs disease, sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis
Damnation of oneself, others, world
I am a worthless person...and so is everyone else
I can't stand it itis
I can't put up with this shit
Age and intelligence
IQ scores stabilize after age seven later adulthood- changes in intellectual abilities occur Seattle Longitudinal study- used a cross sectional design, at any point in time younger people are better educated than than older people and are more likely to have had experiences that contribute to intelligence Only perceptual speed declines substantially before 60 numeric ability does not show substantial decline until after 60 other abilities stable til about 70-75 declines due to speed and efficiency with which older adults process information some differences explained by differences in circadian rhythms
Academic Achievement tests
Illinois test of psycholinguistic abilities, 3rd edition: verbal and non verbal language for examinees age 5-12.9, can diagnose dyslexia The Wide-range Achievement Test, Revision 4- ages 5-94, assesses reading, spelling, and math computation skills, diagnosing learning disabilities, determining instructional needs, tracking academic progress
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Impairments in social communication and interaction in multiple settings restricted. repetitive behavior patterns, interests, and activities onset of symptoms during early developmental period impaired social, occupational, or other area of functioning as the result of symptoms Level 1- requiring support Level 2- requiring substantial support Level 3- requiring very substantial support
wernicke's area
In the left temporal lobe; involved in language comprehension and expression damage=wernicke's aphasia (trouble undertsaning language and producing fluent speech) usually unaware of deficits lesions=conduction aphasia (understands and speaks fluently but problems repeating and anomia)
Systems theory (family therapy)
Interrelatedness of elements of a system, infl. by cybernetics--- feedback controls functioning of systems
Jung Personality attitudes
Introversion (direct energy inward) and extraversion (direct energy outward), we all have both, one dominates
Group therapy
Jacob Moreno, Wilfred Bion, Kurt Lewin, Carl Rogers, Fritz Perls, Irvin Yalom (pioneers)
groupthink
Janis (1982)- analyzed bay of pigs, vietnam, and watergate deciison making suspension of independent/critical thought antecedents- external stressors, group cohesion, problems related to group structure symptoms- sense of invulnerability, belief in the inherent morality of the group, self-appointed mindguards who discourage dissent, self-censorship, illusion or unanimity outcomes- failure to identify alernatives, failure to consider risks of decision, biases in information processing
work performance equation
Jewell (1985)- Performance= ability X motivation Dunnette (1973)- ability is more important than motivation in explaining differences in job performance
Kaufman tests
Kaufman Assessment Battery for children, 2nd edition 3-18 years old five scales- simultaneous, sequential, planning, learning, and knowledge test of crystallized and fluid ability
Hiskey-Nebraska Test of Learning Aptitude
Kids 3-17 with hearing impairments. Can be administered verbally or in pantomime and consists of 12 nonverbal subtests. pic association, spatial reasoning, visual attention span, memory for color
Relationship between attitudes and behavior
LaPiere (1934)- took chinese couple to 250 restaurants, only refused service once, subsequently asked managers later if they would accept chinese customers, 90% said they would not weak associated with attitudes and behaviors strength of association affected by several factors (specificity, strong beliefs, personal experience, attitude is readily accessible to awareness)
Common factors
Lambert (1992) Extratherapeutic factors- severity of symptoms, motivation, psychological mindedness, resilience, and sources of support (40%) Relationship factors- alliance (30%) Expectancy- Placebo (15%) Techniques- (15%)
Helping
Latane and Darley (1968)- victim is most likely to receive help when there is only one bystander, the more bystanders the less likely that help is coming bystander apathy because of 1. diffusion of responsibility 2. social comparison- others aren't helping 3. evaluation apprehension- fear taking action will be embarrassing and lead to social disapproval bystander most likely to help when 1. victim is obviously in distress 2. bystander feels competent to provide help 3. another person already intervened 4. situation occurs in rural rather than urban environment (milgram (1970)- stimulus overload)
WOH disability assessment schedule
Level of disability in six domains understanding and community getting around self-care getting along with people life activities participation in society
multivariate analysis of variance
MANOVA- two or more dependent variables and one or more independent variables alternative to using mancova is to conduct separate one way anovas (or if there is more than one IV, separate factorial anovas) for each dependent variable advantage of mancova- reduces experimenter-wise error rate, reduces probability of making at least one Type I error (three anovas makes you more susceptible to type I error than one manova
Sex linked traits
Males have a greater chance of manifesting these traits (usually on the Y chromosome) red-green color blindness
sexuality in adulthood
Masters and Johnson (1966)- Older do not differ from younger in terms of sex drive, but have less intense orgasms, thinner vaginal walls, and reduced sexual lubrication as men age erections occur less spontaneously, require more time to develop, more difficult to maintain, older men have a longer refractory period 2010 survey of adults aged 25-85 men more likely than women to report being sexually active, to have a good sex life, and to be interested in sex. Gender gap increases with age. Best predictor of sexual activity in later life is sexual activity in previous decades... for older men, health status is significantly related to sexual activity, for older women marital status and health status are good predictors
Theory X v. Theory Y leaders
McGregor (1960) Theory X- consistent with scientific management, believe work is inherently distasteful, workers lack ambition and need to be directed, motivation dominated by lower level needs Theory Y- human relations approach, work is as natural as play, workers are self-directed, responsible and ambitious Theory Y more likely to lead to effective organization
median
Md exact middle of odd number of values mean of two middle values when there is an odd number of values less sensitive to extreme scores on the mean...useful when a distribution is skewed
MMPI T-scores
Mean=50 SD=10 65 and up=Clinically significant
NEO Personality Inventory 3
Measures Big five traits (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness)
Treatment
Meds- haloperidol and pimozide, clonidine fewer and less sever side effects stimulants can exacerbate tics comprehensive behavioral treatment for tics- habit reversal training, psychoed, relaxation exercises
Self-instructional training
Meichenbaum and Goodman (1971), modify bx through appropriate use of self talk (cognitive modeling, overt external guidance, overt self guidance (say instruction aloud while you do it), faded overt self-guidance (whispering to self), Covert self-instruction (say it internally))
Smith, Glass, and Miller (1977, 1980)
Meta-analysis, effect size .85, average therapy client better off than 80% of patients in no treatment control groups
obedience to authority
Milgram's controversial (1965, 1974) studies before study most of 40 psychiatrist questions believed less than 1% of persons would increase shock to the near fatal level...but 65% of subjects did so dropped to 48% when study was conducted in run down building (not Yale) dropped more when instructions were given by phone dropped when the learner was in close proximitiy to the subject dropped when another confederate playing the role of co-teacher refused to go along 84% of subjects said they were glad they participated, 1% said they regretted having done so
Goals of structural family therapy
Minuchin: Restructure for better adaptation through joining (mimic family language and show understanding), formulation (ID dysfunctional patterns), and restructuring (alter patterns through reframing, boundary making, unbalancing- taking side of scapegoat)
Prototaxic Mode
Mode of Cognitive experience that occurs before symbols re used and the ability to differentiate between self and external world
Fromm's Five Character Styles
Modes of dealing with demands of society... receptive, exploitative, hoarding, marketing, and productive (only one that allows people to reach their true nature)
Repression
Most basic defense mechanism that underlies all others, Keeps undesirable thoughts, impulses, and conflicts out of consciousness
Infant reflexes
Most disappear in the first six months of life Palmar grasp- grasp finger pressed against palm Babinski- fanning/stretching toes when sole of foot is touched Moro- Startle reflex, arches back and extends legs outward in response to dropped head or loud noise Rooting- turn head to source of stimulation when cheek is stroked
Cultural Perspectives in psych
Multicultural counseling, models of identity development, multicultural counseling with specific populations
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery
Neuropsych test of... lateral dominance psychomotor functions sensory-perceptual functions speech and language visual-spatial skills abstract reasoning mental flexibility attention and concentration 0-1 scale 0-.2 normal functioning .3-.4 mild impairment .5-.7 moderate .8-1 severe
Gender differences in motor development
No significant differences in first few years of life Early childhood: boys- run faster and throw farther girls- better balance, flexibility, and fine motor Boys excel in most motor skills by adolescence
Predictive value of interest inventories
Not good at predicting job success
Tourette's associated features
OCD ADHD Comorbidity = more social and bx problems
Mahler
Object relations theorist: 3 stages in object formation normal autistic (no sense of environment), normal symbiotic (sense of environment but no separation), and separation-individuation stage (5-36 months)...move through differentiation, practicing, rapproahcment, and object constancy (problems begin with problems here)
Object constancy
Object relations: Infants develop mental representations of self in relation to object (introjects), ability to maintain predominantly positive emotional connection to another despites need state or felt gratification
Splitting
Object relations: reaction to inadequate care, separate contradictory aspects of external objects (good or bad)
MCC Counseling Asian American Clients
Often express psych problems as somatic complaints...positive dependent relationships should be supported...fear of losing face and shames are powerful motivators...postpone discuss problems until clients are ready....Have a formal style, silence/low eye contact are expressions of respect and politeness...disclose info about background/experience...credibility
Down Syndrome
One of the most common chromosomal abnormalities extra number 21 chromosome, one in every 800 live births, mental retardation, distinctive physical features...increased risk for several condition including congenital heart disease
Open/Closed systems (family therapy)
Open- permeable boundaries to interact with outside environment, closed- not so much
Postconcusional syndrome`
PCS- dizzy, head ache, memory impairment, fatigue, emotional instability
Milan Systemic Family Therapy
Palazzoli- Problem due to "games" (repetitive bx interactions) that maintain homeostasis, Goals- Discover, interrupt, and change the rules of the game
brain mechanisms of emotion
Papez (1937)- circuit that includes hippocampus, mammillary bodies, anterior thalamic nuclei, cingulate gyrus future research shows this is more involved in memory than emotion, especially formation of declarative memories
Synchrony effect
Peak arousal and task performance levels tend to occur early in the morning, younger adults have higher levels of both in the evening
Pearson r
Pearson Product Moment (PPM) used when caluclating the relationship between two variables that are measured on an interval or ratio scale
criterion related validity coefficient
Pearson r- between predictor and coefficient rxy -1 - 1 range "coefficient of determination"
Gestalt Therapy
People motivated by an innate striving to maintain homeostasis...maladjustment results from boundary disturbance...Awareness of self in the here and now cures
Reality Therapy
People motivated by five innate needs (love/belonging, power, fun, freedom, survival)...satisfied/unsatisfied needs lead to success/failure identity
Incongruence
Person centered therapy...discrepancy between experience and self (i.e. how we perceive ourselves)...maladjustment comes from distorting/denying experiences
Success/failure identity (reality therapy)
Person chooses to meet needs responsibly or irresponsibly
Person Centered Therapy
Persons have an innate tendency to self-actualize impede by incongruence...three core conditions: empathy, congruence, unconditional positive regard
Types of long term memory
Procedural v declarative- knowing how v. knowing what/that implicit v explicit- memories recalled automatically without conscious awareness v. memories that require deliberate and conscious effort to be recalled
Systemic family therapy (distinguishing characteristics)
Provided by a team, sessions divided into 5 sections, meet only once a month for about 10 session
Symptom Checklist 90
Psychological symptoms 13 years olds and up nine symptoms- somatization, depression, anxiety, hostility etc. distress, intensity of symptoms, number of symptoms
Holland's Personality and Environmental typology
Realistic- activies involving manipulation of machines and tools Investigative- analytical, curious, methodical, precise Artistic- expressive, non-conforming, original, introspective Social- enjoys working with others and avoids ordered systematic activities that involve tools or machinery Enterprising- manipulating others in order to attain organizational goals and economic gain Conventional- manipulation of data, filing records, or reproducing materials each has "congruence" with a particular vocational environment differentiation- High on one and low on others personality-environment match is a storng predictor of job outcomes when there is a high degree of differentiation
Ego
Reality Principles, Tries to gratify id in ways compatible with reality, operates on all levels of consciousness
Object Relations Therapy Goal
Replace maladaptive representations with adaptive ones...client/therapist relationship is essential
Alderian Technique
Replace unhealthy style of life, 1. Therapeutic relationship, 2. Exploring development of child's mistaken style of life, 3. developing social interest..... encouragement, modeling, prescribing the symptom, acting "as if"... adapted to train teacher and parent effectiveness
Benton Visual Retention Test
Reproduce geometric shapes from memory age 8 and up tests visual perception, visual memory, and visual-motor skills...used to id brain damage
Anxiety
Results when ego can't resolve conflicts between id/superego or id/reality
Risk and resilience
Rutter (1985) Six family characteristics that contribute to likelihood that a child will develop a psychiatric disorder...risk increasing dramatically when child is exposed to two or more factors 1. severe marital discord 2. low socioeconomic status 3. large family size or overcrowding 4. parental criminality 5. maternal psychiatric disorder 6. placement of the child outside the home Werner and Smith (1982)- Children at risk less likely to have developmental difficulties when they experience only a few stressors following birth, were temperamentally easy and socially responsive as infants, and had a parent or caregiver who provided them with consistent love and support
Academic Admissions Tests
SAT- reasoning and subject tests, used to predict college success of high school seniors for purposes of admission (critical reading, math, writing) (200-800)...sat writing, best predictor of first year college gpa, high school gpa and sat are best combined predictors of first year college gpa...coaching boosts average score about 25-35 points, best for those with marginal or average skills GRE- assesses readiness for graduate work, verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, analytical writing (subject tests- biology, chemistry, computer science, math, psychology)
MMPI-2 Clinical Scales
Scale 1- Hypochondriasis- exaggerated concern about physical symptoms Scale 2- Depression- dysphoria, hopelessness, worthlessness, pessimism Scale 3- Hysteria- tendency to express conflicts as physical symptoms, denial of psychological problems Scale 4- Psychopathic deviate- antisocial tendencies, poor impulse control Scale 5- Masculinity/Femininity- stereotypic masculine and feminine interests Scale 6- Paranoia- suspiciousness, hostility, interpersonal sensitivity Scale 7- Psychasthenia- irrational fears, obsessive-compulsive anxiety Scale 8- Schizophrenia- impaired reality testing, disorganized thinking, social alienation Scale 9- Hypomania- unstable mood, impulsivity, grandiosity Scale 10- Social Introversion- timidity, aloofness, discomfort in social situation
Jung Personality functions
Sensing, thinking, feeling, intuiting, present in all people but one is usually dominant
Id
Sexual and aggressive instincts, Governed "pleasure principle", unconscious
MCC guidelines (American Indian)
Sharing and cooperation important, collective over the individual, emphasize harmony of spirit/mid/body, nonverbal (direct eye contact and firm handshake disrespectful and aggressive), disclose lack of knowledge and indicate willingness to learn.....incoporate traditional values and healing methods, network therapy, start non-directive and move to problem solving
Little Albert Study
Shows that fears can be conditioned and unconditioned...baby learned to fear rat after pairing g rat with loud noise
open head injury
Skull is penetrated and typically does not lose consciousness. Very specific damage to the brain.
internal consistency reliability
Split-half reliability - Compute scores for two halves of the test - Compute correlation between scores on two halves of test cronbach's alpha Kuder Richardson Formula 20 all are known as "coefficient of internal consistency"
Super-based assessments
Super's career development inventory Crite's career maturity inventory
Strategic Family Therapy (Haley)
Symptom of dysfunction is the communicative act ... uses relabeling, reframing, directives, and paradoxical instruction (assign the symptom; allows family members to choose to resist entrenched patterns)
head injury severity
TBI classified as mild moderate or severe depending on ... Glasgow coma scale score post-traumatic amnesia duration of loss of consciousness mild- 13-15, pta less than hour, loc 30 mins or less mod- 9-12, pta 1-24 hrs, loc 30 min to 24 hours severe- 8 or less, pta more than 24 hrs, loc more than 24 hours biggest recovery in first three months, substantial additional improvement in a year...duration of anterograde amnesia is good predictor of outcome
client is a danger to other
Tarasoff vs regents of the university of california- established a duty to warn an intended victim, this was changed to a duty to protect by warning intended victim, notifying police, taking other steps only when a client poses a a clear and imminent danger to an identifiable victim or victims...however, in some jurisdictions this refers to an identifiable class of victims
Environmental influences on development
Teratogens-substances and conditions that interfere with prenatal development drugs toxins malnutrition maternal infections maternal stress
Matching Law
The allocations of responses to choices available on concurrent schedules of reinforcement Rates of responding across choices are distributed in proportions that match the rates of reinforcement received for each choice-alternative
theoretical sampling distribution
The frequency distribution of a sample statistic based on an infinite number of samples question: how close are the values of a particular sample to the general population can't really happen- that's why its theoretical
Persona
The social mask we present to others
Adler's "style of life"
The ways in which people strive for individual superiority, Healthy=guided by goals for personal accomplishment and the welfare of others, Unhealthy= Opposite
Countertransference (Freud)
Therapist's inappropriate reaction to client (transference), Impedes the therapeutic process
MCC counseling older clients
They are smart, not necessarily depressed, are adapative, have meaningful interpersonal and sexual relationships
Roe's Fields and Levels Theory
This is a theory of vocational choice. It posits parenting orientation affects children's needs and personality traits, which subsequently influences occupational outcomes. parenting styles: overprotective, avoidant, acceptant children of avoidant- science, tech, objects if they had to work hard to achieve needs they are likely to achieve a higher occupational level in their chosen field
Transformation vs. Transactional Leadership
Transformational- charisma, motivated, intellectually stimulating, individualized consideration Transactional- Stable, contingent reinforcement
Resistance
Unwilling or unable to address threatening, anxiety arousing issues
Parataxic mode
Use of private and autistic symbols, ability to differentiate between certain aspects of experience, involves seeing causal connections between events that occur about the same time
Cross-cultural research
Utilization of mental health services- asian-american and mexican-american individuals underrepresented....African American clients have less positive outcomes, more likely to end treatment prematurely
Rorschach response (page 87)
WHole responses= abstract thinking Popular= tendency to conform Low popular= rebelliousness Excessive focus on small details= Brian injury/distorted thinking
Cycle of violence
Walker (2009)- Three phases 1. Tension building 2. Acute-battering incident 3. Loving contrition: remorseful, apologetic, "never happen again"
Positive and Negative Transference
What the client projects onto the therapist
Cultural Encapsulation
When a counselor: 1. defines reality according to their own values 2. is insensitive to cultural variation among persons 3. disregards evidence that disproves their assumptions 4. relies on quick, simple, technique oriented solutions to problems 5. evaluates others based on his/her own perspective (Wrenn, 1962)
Reality therapy
William Glasser...based on choice theory (choices determine quality of life)...choices motivated by five basic needs (love/belonging, power, fun, freedom, survival)
mean
X or M sensitive to extreme values- misleading when data is highly skewed
Scattergram
X- on the horizontal axis Y- on the vertical axis
Klinefelter syndrome
XXY chromosome normal male identity but incomplete development of secondary sex characteristics and are often infertile
regression equation
Y= bX+a Y- predicted score on criterion variable X- score on predictor variable b- Regression weight (the slope of regression line, which is described below) a- Y intercept (value on Y axis when regression line crosses it) unless correlation is 1 or -1 there will always be some error involved in use of regression standard error of estimate- allows you to assess how much erro can be expected
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
a behavior followed by a reward is is strengthened and more likely repeated
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
a childhood disorder in which children are repeatedly argumentative and defiant, angry and irritable, and in some cases, vindictive lies, anti authority, blames others
reactive attachment disorder
a consistent pattern of inhibited, emotionally withdrawn behavior toward adult caregivers 2 of 3 symptoms: minimal social responsiveness, limited positive social emotion, unexplained irritability, sadness, fearfulness extreme deprivation in care, social neglect, changes in attachment figures symptoms must be present before age 5
Cronbach's alpha
a correlation-based statistic that measures average degree of inter-item consistency when test has multiple scores items (i.e. likert scale)
insomnia disorder
a dissatisfaction with sleep quantity or quality that involves difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, early waking 3 nights a week 3 months
post-hoc tests for analysis of variance
a post-hoc comparison making pairwise or complex comparisons between means
meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies sum "scores" of each study and average them....each study used is like a "subject" in the meta-analysis effect size that indicates the magnitiude of an independent variable's effect effect size computed for each dependent variable...these effect sizes are summed and divided by the total number of effects to arrive at an average effect size (if treatment is better than no treatment/control, the effect size is positive)
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes Murray scoring system id's a hero, needs (internal determinants), press (external determinants), thema (interactions bewteen needs and press), and outcomes
robustness of a statistical test
a statistical test is robust when the rate of false rejections of the null hypothesis (or the Type I error scale) is not substantially increased by violations of the parametric test assumptions (normal distribution of data and homogeneity of variance) when sample size decreases- parametric tests are less robust
deviation IQ scores
a type of intelligence measure that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15
Nightmare Disorder
a type of sleep-wake disorder involving a pattern of frequent, disturbing nightmares
avoidance of false or deceptive statements
a) do not knowingly make statements that are false, deceptive, or misleading concerning research, practice, and other work to those who they are affiliated with b) don't lie about training, education, credentials, affiliations, services, supportive evidence, fees, publications, research findings c) only claim degrees from accredited institutions or institution was the basis for psychology licensure in state of practice
statements by others
a) retain professional responsibility for statements made by the people asked to speak for you b) do not pay anyone to give you publicity in a news item c) paid advertisement for psychologist activities must be identified or clearly recognizable as such
Disruptive mood regulation disorder
a) severe and recurrent temper outbursts that are more intense and longer than situation would warrant b) persistently irritable or angry mood between outbursts lasts for 12 months in at least two or three settings inconsistent with developmental level...occur on average at least three times per week diagnosed between 6 and 18 years old....onset must be prior to age 10
use of assessment
a. based professional opinions and conclusions on sufficient information b. use assessment techniques in appropriate ways c. consider purpose of assessment, relevant characteristics of person, and other factors when interpreting assessment results d. do not promote use of assessment by unqualified persons except for trainees under supervision e. don't make decisions based on obsolete tests or data f. if you provide automated or other scoring or interpretation services, provide psychpmetric justification and other qualifications required for use
reporting research results
a. do not fabricate data b.if there is an error in published data, publish a correction, erratum, retraction, or other appropriate means
sharing research data for verification
a. do not withhold data on which you conclusions are based from other competent professionals who seek to verify the substantive claims through re-analysis......provided confidentiality is protected b. if you request data, only use it for the declared purpose
debriefing
a. give participants an opportunity info about nature results and conclusions of the research, take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions b. if there is reason to delay or withhold this info, make sure you take reasonable measure to reduc risk of harm c. when you are aware someone has been harmed, take reasonable steps to minimize the harm
publication credit
a. take responsibility and credit only for work you've actually performed or to which you have substantially contributed b. authorship reflects relative contributions of people involved.....minor contributions to writing are acknowledged appropriately (i.e. footnotes) c. except under exceptional circumstances, student is listed as principal author in any publication based on student's doctoral dissertation
human care and use of animals in research
a. treat them in accordance with local laws and with professional standards b. psychologists trained in research methods and supervising the care of lab animals are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration or their comfort, health, and human treatment c. make sure the people around you are trained to the extent that is appropriate to their role d. reasonable steps to minimize discomfort, infection, illness, and pain e. use procedures subjecting animals to stress only when alternative is not available f. perform surgery with anesthesia and take steps to minimize infection and pain after surgery g. when animal needs to be terminated, do it as quickly and as pain free as possible
stimulus discrimination
ability to distinguish between conditioned stim and similar stim
Wisconsin Card sorting test
ability to form abstract concepts and shift cognitive strategies in response to feedback (6.5-80 years of age)...four stimulus cards, 64 response cards frontal lobe damage poor performance=autism, schizophrenia, depression, alcoholism, malingering
ADHD etiology
abnormalities in prefrontal cortex (cognitive) cerebellum (motor) caudate nucleus and putamen (motor, basal ganglia) genetic contribution Barkley (1990)- behavioral disinhibition hypothesis: inability to adjust activity levels to requirements of the situation
obtaining payment for services
acceptable to give client name to collection agency.....address and phone number but not confidential info
Parental influences on personality
acceptance/repsonsiveness and demandingness/control Authoritative- high on both, best outcomes self-confident, achievement oriented, friendly Authoritarian- low a/r, high on d/c, dependent and lacking motivation Permissive- high a/r and low d/c, trouble controlling impulses, ignore rules....not very involved Uninvolved- low in both, noncompliant, demanding, lack self-control, are prone to antisocial behavior
social judgments
accuracy may be affected by cognitive errors, biases, and reliance on heuristics
validity
accuracy of measurement
Descriptions of Workshops and Non-Degree-Granting Educational Programs
accurately describe audience for which they are intended, educational objectives, presenters, fees involved
prosocial behavior
actions intended to benefit 1 or more people other than onself...explanations? social norms- reciprocity norm, social responsibility norm social learning theory- observing others evolutionary theory- "social behaviors that contribute to the survival of the species are passed on via the genes from one generation to the next" Lefton, 2000
premotor cortex
active when in motin and when observing people in motion
Schizophrenia and culture
acute onset, shorter clinical course, complete remission of symptoms- more prevalent in developing countries factors that help- extended family, greater social support, greater tolerance and acceptance by family members
equity theory
adams (1965)- people always assesisng inputs and outcomes in work...compare their ratio to that of other workers when there is inequity...there is a motivation to create equity this can be good or bad, change unfair situation, tear others down, build yourself up focuses on how perceptions of outcome justice affect motivation
Types of group tasks
additive- people work on projects individually, product is the sum of the contributions of all group members complementary- members contribute different tabilities and knowledge, final product is more than one member could have produced alone conjunctive- group product or performance is determined by leas competent member disjunctive- performance determined by most skilled or knowledgeable, best idea wins compensatory- average input to derive final judgment/solution average of rating assigned to four raters
cooperating with ethics committees
address any confidentiality issues failure to cooperate is itself an ethical violation
Gottfredson's Theory of circumscription and compromise
addresses how gender and prestige influence and limit career choice four stages of cognitive development 1. orientation to size and power (3 to adolescence) 2. orientation to sex roles 3. influence of social class 4. introspection and perceptiveness circumscription- elimination of least preferred options and alternatives compromise- expansion of preferences based on awareness of and accomodation to external constraints (effort required, accessibility, cost)
alternate forms of reliability
administering two equivalent forms of a test to the same group of examinees, then obtaining the correlation between two sets of scores sometimes referred to as "coefficient of equivalence" tends to be lower than test-retest reliability because sources of measurement error (differences in content, passage of time) reduces problems of memory and practice effects
Adult-attachment patterns
adult attachment interviews intergenerational transmission of attachment patterns secure-autonomous- integrate positive and negative experiences of childhood, most of their children are securely attached dismissing- idealize parents but cannot support with concrete evidence, most of their children are avoidantly attached preoccupied- confused and incoherent when describing early attachment relationships and seem angry, fearful, and passive... childhood involves disappointment, frustrated attempts to please parents, role reversals...children have resistant/ambivalent attachment pattern Unresolved- experienced severe trauma and early losses, have not adequately reoslved the trauma or mourned the loss...tend to have negative and dysfunctional relationships with their own children and are often abusive and neglectful... children tend to have a disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern unresolved
noise at work
adverse effects on productivity tasks that are complex, perceptual, motor operations, and close attention intermittent noise more distracting...meaningful sounds more distracting perceived control of noise is critical factor some people are more noise sensitive
atypical antipsychotics
affect different dopamine receptors than trad drugs...also affect serotonin, norepinephrine, glutamate receptors clozapine (clozaril), riperidone (risperdal), olanzapine (zyprexa), ariprazole (abilify) uses: schizophrenia and other disorder with psychotic symptoms, alleviate positive and negative symptoms, less likely to cause extrpyramidal side effects, often effective for those who did not respond well to trad anti=psychotics side effects- anticholinergic effects, sedation, weight gian, neuroleptiv malignant syndrome, agranulocytosis (clozapine, not prescribed unless client did not respond well to other anti-psychotics)
pain sensitivity
affected by past experience, expectations of relief, anxiety, depression...more experience=more sensitivity
barbituates
affecting GABA receptors in reticular activiating system, medulla, and certain areas of the cortex thiopental (pentothal) amobarbital (amytal) secobarbital (seconal) uses: anesthetic, acute management of agitated patients, short term treatment for insomnia side effects: drowsiness, dizziness, confusion, ataxia, cognitive impairment, paradoxical excitement...dependence, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms when taken regularly often implicated in accidental deaths and suicides, suppresses respiration, combination with alcohol is particularly lethal
Turner syndrome
affects females when all or part of an X chromosome is missing, do not develop secondary sex characteristics, are infertile, have a short stature, stubby fingers and a webbed neck
Beck Depression Inventory
age 13-80, 21 items 0-13 minimal depression 14-19 mild 20-28 moderate 29-63 severe
Slosson tests
age 2- 7 years 11 months SIT-R3- revised version that measures crystalized intelligence
Piaget and Children's deception
age 6- children equate lies with things you aren't supposed to say like dirty words 6-10- any untrue statement is a lie 11- only an intentionally false statement is a lie children as young as 3 or 4 intentionally lie to avoid punishment
personal characteristics and job satisfaction
age significantly and positively correlated with satisfaction level in the organization hierarchy non-whites more dissatisfied satisfaction is stable over time across different jobs...attitudes have little to do with the work itself
Memory in Adulthood
age-related declines in memory greatest age-related declines in recent long-term memory remote long term and primary memory are relatively unaffected by increasing age increasing age has a greater negative effect on episodic memory than on semantic or procedural memory effects of age on metamemory depending on the task- negative beliefs, overestimation and underestimation declines likely explained by problems with effective coding strategies in old age older adults benefit from training in the use of memory strategies
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
ages 2-85+: general cognitive ability, diagnosis of disabilities and exceptionalities (reliable for low IQs), forensic, career and neuropsych assessment Fluid reasoning Knowledge Working Memory Quantitative reasoning Visual-spatial processing 2 routing subtests- objects/matrices and vocab, determines starting point on remaining subtests subtest (M=10, sd=3) Composite scores (M= 100, SD= 15)
catharsis and aggression
aggression reinforces more aggression...the catharsis theory does not work
drug effects
agonists- produce effects similar to neurotransmitter inverse agonists- produce effects opposite to neurotransmitter antagonists- produce no activity on their own but reduce or block the effects of neurotransmitter or agonist
Patterns of attachment
ainsworth strange situation 1. secure 2. anxious/avoidant- detached 3. Anxious/resistant- ambivalent when mom returns 4. disorganized/disoriented- dazed, confused, and apprehensive
Common teratogens and their effects
alcohol- fetal alcohol syndrome, impairs growth, motor skills, behavior and cognition nicotine- low birth weight, respiratory problems, SIDS, hyperactivity, short attention span Cocaine- spontaneous abortion, retarded growth, many physical/organ malformations, language and social problems Rubella (german measles)- low birth weight, gastro, heart defects, mental retardation Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)- transmission to infant during delivery...elevated risk of death, brain damage, seizures, breathing difficulties, visual problems, skin lesions Cytomegalovirus (CMV)- type of herpes virus passed from pregnancy, delivery or breastfeeding, death and serious consequences in first trimester, consequences vary when infected at other times HIV- 15-30% risk of transmission without preventative treatment, under 8% with drug treatment, prematurity, 20% develop serious illness in first year of life, most of these babies die by age 4, 80% develop symptoms more slowly and survive to a mean age of 9-10 years Prenatal malnutrition- spontaneous abortion, neural tube defects, abnormalities to heart, kidneys and other organs, , low birth weight, low brain size, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, other diseases, delays in motor and intellectual development, behavioral problems Maternal stress- Spontaneous abortion, premature delivery, difficult labor, low birth weight, respiratory problems, irritability, hyperactivity, sleep and eating problems....greatly reduced when mothers have strong/supportive relationships
cautions in using chi square
all observations must be independent of each other...can't use chi square in before and after study each observation can be classifiable into only one category or cell- each person can only be in one category...important to have mutually exclusive categories percentages of observations within categories cannot be compared: frequency data is necessary
justice
all persons should have access to and benefit from the work of psychologists there should also be equal quality in the processes, procedures and services of psychologists
laissez-faire leadership
allow subordinates to make decisions on their own without much guidance or help
perfomance evaluation
also called performance appraisal or merit rating- raise?, promotion?, feedback, placement, dismissal criterion measures- objective or subjective
classical conditioning terms
also known as psychic secretion and conditioned reflex
Conversion disorder
alteration in voluntary motor or sensory function and is incompatible with known neurological/psychological conditions specifiers- weakness or paralysis, attacks or seizures, anesthesia or sensory loss
Rem deprivation
alters sleep patterns, can increase anxiety and irritability...disappear after allowed to sleep rem rebound...spend more time in rem sleep in subsequent nights...similar rebound effect for stage 4 deprivation
13 types of neurocognitive disorder
alzheimers frontotemporal lombar degenerative lewy body disease vascular disease traumatic brain injury substance/med use HIV prion disease parkinsons huntington's other med condition multiple etiology
psychological reactance
an attempt at social influence may produce the opposite of conformity or compliance when a person perceives that his or her freedom of choice is being threatened person will attempt to re-establish his or her freedom by acting in a way that is opposite to what has been requested (Brehm, 1966)
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which an irrational fear of weight gain leads people to restrict or purge cold intolerance low white blood cells anemia- ab pain hypotension amenorrhea
binge eating disorder
an eating disorder in which people overeat compulsively...rapidly, uncomfortably full once a week for three months
close head injury
an injury that does not penetrate or fracture the skull more damage, lose consciousness emotional, behavioral, physical, cognitive symptoms
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
color blindness
anomaly on the X chromosome red and green= most common
correction for attenuation
answers the following question "what would the validity coefficient of my predictor be if both the predictor and the criterion were perfectly reliable?"
secondary reinforcer
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
self awareness in infants and toddlers
apparent during second year of life 3 stage process - 18 months, self-recognition - 19 and 30, self-description and evaluation, neutral terms and evaluative term - 30-40 months, most children exhibit emotional response to wrongdoing, they have adverse reactions to a caregiver's disapproval 3-9: description of physical self 9-12: description of active self 12-15: Description of social self 15+: description of psychological
computer adaptive assessment
application of item response theory involves administering a set of item's tailored to examinee's estimated level of ability preliminary test, follow-up test, customized test items (computerized)
ethics code
applies to scientific educational and professional roles as psychologists clinical counseling school research teaching supervision of trainees public service policy development social intervention development of assessment instruments conducting assessments educational counseling organizational counseling forensic activities program design and evaluation administration applies to these activities over a variety of contexts
reinforcement theories of motivation
apply principles of operant conditioning 1. keep doing things that have rewarding outcomes 2. avoid doing things that have negative outcomes 3. stop doing things that don't have rewarding outcomes focus on extrinsic rewards with the exception of Deci's (1972) model of intrinsic motivation (pride, accomplishment, satisfaction)...autonomy, competence, relatedness
planned pairwise or complex comparisons
appropriate if you specify in advance exactly what patterns of differences among means you expect to find
informed consent (d)
appropriately document written or oral consent, permission and assent
Cannon-Bard Theory
arousal and emotion occur together, thalamus stimulates sympathetic nervous system and cerebral cortex simultaneously all emotions identical in terms of physical arousal
split half reliability
artificially lowers the reliability coefficient sine the longer a test, the more reliable it will be can be overcome by use of Spearman Brown formula- estimates effect that shortening or lengthening a test will have on reliability problem- correlation will vary depending on how the items are divided so use of cronbachs alpha and kuder richardson formula is recommended over split half method
alpha and power
as preset alpha level increases, power increases the higher the alpha level, the easier it is to reject a null hypothesis
central limit theorem
as sample size increases, the shape of the sampling distribution of means approaches a normal shape true even if the population of scores is not normally distributed mean of the sampling distribution of means is equal to the mean of the population sampling distribution of means has less variability than the population distribution standard deviation of the sampling distribution of means is equal to the population standard deviation divided by the square root of the size of the samples from which the means are obtained
central traits
asch (1946)- some traits have a greater impact than others on impression formation i.e. warm and cold
race/ethnicity and drugs
asians and african americans metabolize certain isoensymes more slowly than caucasians...greater sensitivity to both therapeutic and side effects of benzos, lithium, neuroleptics, some antidepressants so start them on a lower dose and gradually titrate if needed
Preamble and General Principles
aspirational goals to guide psychologists toward the highest ideals of psychology general guidelines for ethical decision making
General Principles
aspirational in nature
Organizational surveys
assess employee attitudes and opinions..usually anonymous improves job satisfaction and employee reports of job conditions
achievement tests
assess how well a person masters a particular domain ability defined as "capacity to perform particular task"
aptitude tests
assess potential for learning or performance special aptitude tests Purdue peg board O'Connor finger dexterity test Minnesota rate of manipulation test multiple aptitude batteries differential aptitude test (DAT)- both job related and general cognitive abilities (grades 8-12) General aptitude test battery (high school seniors and adults)- good for vocational counseling and job referral
factor analysis
assess the construct validity...reduce set of many variables to fewer variables
difference in effectiveness
assessed by statistically significant difference in groups' mean scores on dependent variable
biographical information blank
assesses a wider range of biographical and attitudinal issues than a weight application blank and presents items in a multiple choice format disadvantage- specific to the job and to the organization for which they were devised...may lack face validity
Utility analysis
assesses the cost-effectiveness of a selection procedure...dollar gain in performance when using this procedure? variable- numbers of years hires stay in target position, number of people selected for position, difference in validty coefficients to two approaches for selection, standrad deviation of the dollar value of job performance, selction ratio, difference in cost associated with the two procedures being considered
power test
assesses the level of difficulty a person can attain either no time limit or a time limit that permits most or all examinees to attempt all items information subtest of the WAIS-IV
informed consent (a)
assessment, therapy, counseling, or consulting get informed consent in understandable language, except when conducting activities without consent is mandated by law
central tendency
assign average ratings to all ratees
organizational culture
assumptions ,values, norms, tangible isgns of organization first level- behavior and observable artifacts second level- values third level- underlying assumptions, thoughts, beliefs, perceptions, emotions
Vision development in infancy
at birth they see at 20 feet what adults see at 400 ft preference for faces discriminate faces by 1 month detect colors by 2-3 months depth perception by six months 20/20 vision in a year
Acute stress disorder
at least nine symptoms in any of the following categories- intrusion, negative mood, dissociation, avoidance, and/or arousal....three days to one month after the diagnosis occured (PTSD after one month)
neurocognitive disorder due to traumatic brain injury
at least one characteristic symptom i.e. lost of consciousness amnesia disorientation confusion onset immediately after injury or recovery from consciousness
Bipolar II
at least one hypomanic episode (lasts at least four days, three or more symptoms of mania not severe enough to cause marked impairment in functioning or require hospitalization) and one major depressive episode (lasts at least two weeks and include 5 or more characteristic symptoms)
bipolar I
at least one manic episode (three or more symptoms: inflated self esteem grandiosity, flight of ideas, decreased need for sleep); lasts for at least a week...cause impairment in functioning, requires hospitaliztion, or involved psychotic features prevalence: 0.6%, 12 month...onset around 18, 90% of persons who have an episode have another etiology: family history, neurotransmitter/structual abnormalities, life stressors treatment: mood stabilizers, lithium, valproate, carbamazapine, antiseziure meds, cbt, interpersonal and social rhythm therapy, family focused treatment (psychoed, communication enhancement training, problem-skills training)
Tourette's disorder
at least one vocal tic or multiple motor persistent for a year but may wax and wane in frequency onset before 18 tics- onset usually betwee 4-6 chronic but frequency of tics often declines in adolescence and adulthood
personalization
attributing external event to self when its out of your control
MDD specifiers
atypical features: increased appetite, weight gain, interpersonal sensitivity, hypersomnia peripartum onset seasonal pattern
temporal lobe
auditory processing (receptive language), long term memory contains auditory cortex and wernicke's area
Leadership styles
autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire consideration v. initiating structure Personality traits
sherif study on conformity
autokinetic effect- optical illusion that occurs when a stationary point of light appears to move is a darkened room (estimates varied in individual sessions, but converged toward similarity very quickly when shared in a group)
non rem sleep arousal disorder
awakening in stage 3 or 4 of sleep sleepwalking sleep terrors little or no recall...usually diminishes after childhood
Goals of Gestalt Therapy
awarenes of self in "here and now" i curative...help clients focus on current reality...i statements, dream work, empty chair technique
t scores
based on 10 point intervals with T=50 being the distributions mean and every 10 points above and below is an SD from the mean
structural equation modeling
based on correlations between multiple variables, assumes linear relationships test causal models based on multiple variables steps 1. specifying a causal model involving many different variables (path diagram) 2. conducting a statistical analysis 3. interpreting results of analysis (path analysis: verify one way causal models, observed variables only, LISREL- verify one or two way causal models, can be used with latent as well as observed variables)
Zeigarnik effect
based on field theory, people tend to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed ones...
function based interventions
based on the results of a functional behavior assessment
Goals of Bowenian therapy
become differentiated while connecting to family members (genograms (structure, dynamics, significant life events), process questions (how do I contribute, respond directly to therapist), Relationship experiments (try a more differentiated approach)
boundaries of competence (f)
become familiar with judicial and administrative rules governing their roles when working in forensic settings
Premature birth
before 37 weeks small for gestational age- birth weight below 10th percentile, asphyxia during birth, developmental delays, respiratory disese, impaired vision and hearing fetal distress- abnormal condition of fetus immediately before or during birth, detected by abnormal slowing of labor, abnormal substances in amniotic fluid, irregular heart rate...caused by anoxia (lack of oxygen), twisted umbilical cord, or sedatives given to mom
short term memory
begins to fade in 30 seconds without rehearsal primary- storage/capacity component working- processing component, mentally manip up late information 5 7 9 chunking
operant conditioning
behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Behavioral family therapy
behavior learned and maintained by antecedents and consequences, Goals- eliminate problem bxs and replace with adaptive bxs...Stuart (operant interpersonal therapy, focusing on reciprocal positive reinforcement
treatment for alzheimers
behavioral meds to slow aches breakdown Care at home
separation anxiety disorder- treatment
behavioral therapy, systematic desensitization, contingency management...for school refusal- treatment goal is to return to school
John Watson
behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
cognitive contributions to aggression
belief that it's easier to be aggressive than inhibit aggression expect aggression will lead to positive outcomes little or no remorse after committing an aggressive act Dodge and Crick (1990)- five steps to aggression 1. encoding social cues 2. interpretation of social cues 3. response search 4. response evaluation 5. response enactment
self-perception theory
bem (1972)- people understand themselves by observing their own behavior and the situation in which the behavior takes place Schacter and singer's epinephrine studies (1962) support this---people misinformed or uninformed about being given epinephrine take on happy and angry affect of confederate, informed persons didnt support attribution and cognitive arousal theory of negative emotions overjustification hypothesis- external reward for intrinsically interesting activity reduces intrinsic interest in activity
cost-utility analysis (CUA)
benefits assessed with a measure of health related quality of life, for example, quality adjusted life years (gain in expected lifespan due to intervention weighted by the quality of that life)
insomnia treatment
benzos antihistamines cut sleep restriction bed cues sleep hygiene relaxation cognitive restructuring
Autism Course/Prognosis
best is associated with the development of functional language by age 5, IQ over 70, later onset of symptoms, absence of co-morbid mental disorders
job enrichment
best known application of Herzberg's theory- redesigning a job so that worker has more challenge, responsibility, decision-making authority, opportunities for advancement equivocal results on this job satisfaction, decreased absanteeism, improvements in quality of work best for workers who are young, well-educated, high need for achievement
Infant sleep
better consolidation and regulation of sleep in first six months of life problems become chronic if left untreated ferberizing- pat child on back and let them know you are there without picking them up...wait period for reassurance is gradually increased
genralized seizures
bilaterally symmetric, do not have focal onset tonic-clonic seizures- alteration in consciousness, stiffening of muscles in face and limbs, uncontrollable jerky movements...depression, irritability confusion follows absence seizures- brief loss of consciousness and a vacant stare
bulimia nervosa
binge and purging at least once a week for three months
weighted application blank
biodata items given different weights based on correlation with a measure of job performance
Interpersonal Psychotherapy
biopsychsocial approach: 2 major principles- 1. depression is medical illness and not the fault of client and 2. it is related to interpersonal events that trigger and follow the onset of symptoms....maualized treatment of a. role transitions, b. role disputes, c. interpersonal deficits, and d. complicated grief....three phases of therapy 1. determine dx and interpersonal context, 2. strategies appropriate for problem area, 3. review progress, termination, and discuss relapse prevention
Traditional antipsychotics
block dopamine receptors in the brain amphetamines and other dopmine inducing drugs can produce psychosis in individuals who do not have schizophrenia phenothiazines- chlorpromazine (thorazines) and thioridazine (Mellaril) butyrophenones- haloperidol (Haldol) uses: schizophrenia, other disorder with psychotic symptoms, tourettes, acute mania...alleviate positive symptoms of schizophrenia but have little to not effect on negative symptoms side effect: anticholinergic (dry mouth, urinary retention, blurred vison, tachycardia, gastric distress, sexual), extrpyrimidal (parkinsonism, dystonia (muscle contractions and spasms), akathisis, tardive dyskinesia (involuntary movements of face, tongue, jaw) Tardive- can be alleviated to some degree by gradually withdrawing from the drug neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS)- rare life threatening side effect (muscle rigidity, high fever, sweating, unstable blood pressure, altered mental statue, autonomic dysfunction)...usually develops in first two weeks....discontinue drug immediately
Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors
block reuptake of norepinephrine atomoxetine (strattera) uses: first non-stimulant approved for ADHD, ages 6 and over, adolescents, adults Side effects: decreased appetite, dizziness, fatigue, irritability, sexual dysfunction, menstrual cramps, risk of suicidal thoughts and actions in children and adolescents
Problem-solving therapy
boost problem solving skills, positive problem-solving orientation, develop and apply rational problem solving style
Phi and Tetrachoric coefficients
both variables are dichotomous, the phi coefficient is used used when both variables are artificially dichotomized
Gender differences in aggression
boys and girls show similar aggression prior to 1 year old boys become more aggressive and girls become less agressive after that boys more likely to engage in overt aggression girls more likely to engage in relational aggression (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995)
Central Nervous System
brain and spinal cord- Protected by meninges (three layers of tissue) and cerebrospinal fluid that circulates in the space between the meninges, the central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain
Neuron
brain- has about 100 billion neurons and about 10 times as many glial cells (glia- provide physical support, nutrients, and means of cleaning debris in the nervous system) cell body dendrites axon
strategies for improving group performance
brainstorming- express as many ideas as possible, avoid criticizing the ideas of other members, build on each other's ideas but individuals working alone produce a higher number of good ideas than the same number of individuals working together (mullen et al., 1991) effectiveness of brainsotmring improved when persons are trained in brainstorming, trained facilitator leads the brainstorming session, and/or group member brainstorm electronically rather than face to face
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)
breaks down norepinephrine and serotonin. making them more available at synapses phenelzine (Nardil) and tranylcypromine (Parnate) uses: Atypical depression (increases appetite, hypersomnia, rejection-sensitivity, mood reactivity, symptoms of anxiety) side effects: dry mouth, nausea, weight gain, dizziness, sedation, insomnia, tremor, tachycardia, sexual overdose can cause seizures coma and cardiac arrest combined with drugs or food with amino acid tyramine can cause potentially fatal hypertensive crisis...avoid beer, wine, aged, cheese, smoked meat, soy sauce, avocados, bananas, eggplant, yogurt, tomatoes
fatigue and rest breaks
breaks useful for reducing fatigue and maintaining productivity through the day...reduce errors and accidents most effective before fatigue sets in and performance begins to lag
Racial microaggression
brief and commonplace verbal, behavioral, and environmental indignities (types- microinsults, microinvalidations, microassaults)
Miller-Tiedeman and Tideman's decision making model
built on last card identified two kinds of relaity 1. personal reality 2. common reality to develop careers they must be aware of both realities personal authoritative reality- thought, action, direction, or behavior the individual feels is right for him/herself common reality- what they say you should do, get an education so you can get a job post-modern drivel
norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors
bupropion (wellbutrin, zyban) used for depression and smoking cessation
Gender role identity development
by 3, children have an established gender role identity greater impact than biological sex on children's self esteem, masculinity and androgyny is associated with higher levels of self-esteem gender role differences heighten after marriage and children, there may be a reversal of gender roles in middle age
measurement error
by definition is random, does not affect all examinees in the same way
Rejected children
by peers actively dislike and maybe bullied, disruptive, poor social skills, report feeling lonely less likely to experience improvement in peer status when they change peer groups
Neglected children
by peers shy, fewer than average interactions with peers, rarely engage in disruptive behaviors, desire being alone, not particularly lonely or unhappy outcomes worse for rejected children
Early motor training
can affect milestone timing...can affect interest/skill in certain complex activities (i.e. biking, riding, swimming)
public presentations
can be used if info is disguised and not identifying information is included
Regression and ANOVA
can be used to substitute for one way anova if independent variable has multiple levels you can dummy code them and then use them as the X variable in the regression equation
persons ordered or mandated to undergo examination or treatment
can conduct examination without consent and over the objection of the examinee
Matching
can control for the effects of a specific extraneous variable...id subjects who are similar in terms of status on the extraneous variable, the grouping similar subjects and randomly assigning members of the matched group to the treatment groups useful when sample size is small and random assignment cannot be counted on to ensure equivalency among groups in terms of extraneous variable
providing services in emergencies
can provide services so they are not denied in an emergency services discontinued as soon as the emergency is over and appropriate services are available
providing therapy to clients served by others
can refuse if someone is receiving the same services or is seeking to triangulate may be appropriate to provide different or complimentary services
Americans with disabilities act
can't discriminate based on disability, when they are qualified and can perform the job with or without reasonable accomodations (1990, amended 1994) excludes people currently engaging in illegal use of drugs, drug testing not prohibited by ADA, does protect past substance users
Apraxia
cant execute purposeful movements despite normal motor and sensory functions ideomotor apraxia- cant mimic or perform on request but may perform spontaneously constructional apraxia- cannot draw or copy simple figure or arrange blocks in a pattern
Anti-seizure drugs
carbamazepine (tegretol) and valproic acid (depakote) also found to be effective for treating mania...stabilize mood by altering serotonin levels uses- dysphoric mania and mania with rapid cycling side effects- nausea, vomiting, lethargy, tremor, atraxia, visual disturbances, slight risk of liver failure and aplastic anemia
Krumholtz's Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making
career decisions results from experiences of planned and unplanned encounters with others, institutions, and events in each person's environment four types of influences on decision making 1. genetics and special abilities (appearance and personal characteristics) 2. environmental conditions and events (social, cultural, economic, and political influences) 3. learning experiences (primary instrumental learning, rewards, and punishments, and classical conditioning) 4. task approach skills (personal standards of performance, work habits, emotional responses) developed from interactions among the three other influences forming worldviews and beliefs about self that affect occupational aspirations and actions
career counseling
career planning assistance
chi square test
categorical or nominall data (yes, no, no opinion) (political party) used when frequencies, or number of subjects within each category (as opposed to the mean scores on a measure, are given yields chi square statistic- indicates whether obtained frequencies in a set of categories differ significantly from what is expected under the null hypothesis (might be useful for your study on values) observed versus expected frequencies show up in the boxes
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
categorized as open or closed
dichotomous thinking
categorizing experiences in one of two extremes
vascualat neurocognitive disorder
caused by cerebrovascular disease acute onset n partial recovery or progressive course risk- hypertension, hypotension, heart disease, diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoking
chromosomal abnormalities
caused by extra chromosome, missing chromosome, or an abnormality in chromosome structure Prader-Willi syndrome- deletion of 15th paternal chromosome (mental retardation, chronic overeating, obesity, obsessive compulsive behaviors, and distinctive physical features)
diabetes mellitus
caused by undersecretion of insulin leads to high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia), causes increased appetite with weight loss, frequent urination, increased thirst, frequent infections, fatigue, apathy, sexual dysfunction, kidney failure, stroke, heart attack oversecretion of insulin causes hypoglycemia, which involves intense hunger, weakness, headaches, visual disturbances, palpitations, anxiety, depression, and confusion
communication networks
centralized- all communication passes through one person or position (chain of command), efficient for simple and mundane task decentralized- flows more freely, best when tasks are complex and cooperation is necessary
criterion cutoff
certain minimum standard or criterion performance SAT for admission
personality in adulthood
certain traits change over time- women increase in self-efficacy, assertiveness, and independence....men get better with nurturance and interpersonal orientation agreeablness and conscientiousness increase, neuroticism decreases, extraversion and openness remain stable
conformity to social norms
change in attitude, belief, behavior cause by social pressure compliance is changing behavior as the result of the request of another person or group of people
code switiching
changing to another language during a conversation if they cant express self adequately, want to show solidarity, or express a different attitude toward the listener
coercive family interaction cycle
children increase in aggressive as they imitate parent aggression, then they are reinforced for acting aggressively when the parents eventually give in
Remarriage and Stepparenthood
children living with biological parent and stepparent have worse outcomes than living with both parents younger children accept more readily stepfather may have good outcomes for boys (anxiety, anger, other adjustment problems) rx to stepfather is often distant, disengaged, and unpleasant rx to stepmother- more frequent interactions, but can be abrasive worst when remarriage is in early adolescence
cognition enhancers
cholinesterase inhibitors that inhibit breakdown of acetylcholine tacrine hydrochloride (cognex) donepezil hydrochloride (aricept) rivastigmine (exelon) galantamine (razadyne) uses: slow down memory loss, donepezil approved for alzheimer's and dementia by FDA...other drugs approved for only mild dementia side effects: diarrhea, nausea, loss pf appetite, weight loss, stomach pain cogex can cause liver failure and other serious side effects so it is no longer commonly prescribed
Nativist theories of language
chomsky- language caused by innate, biologically determined factors innate language acquisition device (LAD)- evidence: universal characteristics of language, brain lateralization for language, language is best acquired during a sensitive period
Mechanisms of genetic inheritance
chromosomes- 22 of 23 pairs are identical in size and shape, the 23 is the sex chromosome DNA
conflicts between ethics and law, regulations, or other governing legal authority
clarify nature of conflict, make known their commitment to the ethics code, take reasonable steps to resolve conflict this standard can't be used for violating human rights
couple and family therapy
clarify who is the client and the type of relationship psychologist will have with each person get them to agree on specific goals let them know they could get divorced discuss with all family members your views on seeing people individually
migraine headache
classic -begins with aura (specific visual, motor, sensory symptom) common- does not begin with aura low level of serotonin produces constriction of blood vessels in the brain treat with anti-inflammatories, ergotaminem SSRIs, and other drugs that act at serotonin receptors, beta blockers, thermal biofeedback, autogenic training
experimental neurosis
classical conditioning when forced to discriminate between similar stimuli...animals exhibit odd behaviors...hostile after being docile etc.
personality disorders
cluster a- odd cluster b- emotional cluster c- fear can diagnose under 18 if symptoms present for a year...except antisocial
test-retest reliability
coefficient of stability "time sampling"- sources related to time are the sources of measurement error practice effects longer interval between administrations, the more susceptible scores or to the effects of random erron....therefore- lower test-retest reliability coefficient drawbacks- spuriously high if there is a very short interval between administrations not appropriate to use when measuring unstable variables such as mood only for tests not appreciably affects by repetition
substance use disorder
cog, behavioral, physio symptoms two or more characteristic symptoms for at least 12 months (impaired control, social impairment, risky use, tolerance/withdrawal)
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
cognition dependent on social, cultural, and historical context learning occurs on two levels: interpersonal and intrapersonal "private speech"- speech children use to guide their own actions, first aloud, then internal Zone of Proximal Development- gap between what a child can currently do alone and what he/she can accomplish with help from parents or more component peers (scaffolding and pretend play help people get in the zone)
Leiter International performance scale
cognitive abilities 3-75+... match pic response cards to corresponding pics on easel. useful for non-english speaking and language or hearing impairment
Arbitrary inference
cognitive distortion- drawing conclusion without evidence
selective abstraction
cognitive distortion- focusing on partial information, abstracting rest
Stroop Color-word interference test
cognitive flexibility, selective attention, processing speed frontal lobe lesions poor performance=depression, mania, ADHD, schizophrenia
Attention
cognitive process of attending to environmental and internal stimuli sustained- focus over time divided- focus on more than one stimulus simultaneously selective- focus on more stimulus while filtering or ignoring irrelevant stimuli
PTSD treatment
cognitive processing therapy- combines psychoed, exposure, cognitive restructuring exposure involves writing and reading a detailed narrative of the event EMDR also works
Therapeutic factors in group
cohesiveness, installation of hope, universality, imparting info, altruism, corrective re-experiencing, develop socializing techniques, imitative bx, interpersonal learning, catharsis, and existential factors------most important? interpersonal learning, catharsis, and cohesiveness
Neo-Piagetian Theories
combine piaget's approach with information processing theories- development divided into stages that represent changes in cognition, emphasize change sin specific cognitive processes (Case, 1985)
polygenic inheritance
combined effect of two or more gene pairs on a single characteristic
contingency contract
combines reinforcement and punishment effective when... short and long term goals are specified target behaviors are observable and measurable indicate reinforces and sanctions for compliance and la k thereof respectively specify procedures for renegotiating /terminating the contract agreed upon and signed by all parties
MDD treatment
combo of meds and therapy- tricyclics, SSRIs, CBT, IPT, ECT combo somewhat more effective than any treatment alone
superstitious behavior (operant conditioning)
come from coincidental pairing of particular behavior and reinforcement
factors that affect attitude change
communicator characteristics- competence, trustworthiness, often short-term influence, "sleeper effect" over time people tend to remember a message but forget its source communication characteristics- one sided better in a biased or uninformed house, two sided better when there is disagreement and being well-informed about the issue
Cost Effectiveness Analysis (CEA)
compare costs and benefits of two or more interventions when benefits are measurable but cannot be expressed in monetary terms (symptom improvement, relapse rate, number of patients who drop out of treatment prematurely)
t-test for independent samples
compare two means derived from independent (unrelated) samples when subjects are randomly assigned to groups df=n-2, n= total subjects
mental age
comparing an examinee's score to the average performance of others at different age levels
pairwise comparison
comparison between two means
marginal means
comparison of means between variables, see page 91, factorial anova
complex comparisons
comparisons involving combined means
Holding the extraneous variable constant
completely eliminates the effects of an extraneous variable...including only subjects that are homogenous in terms of their status on the extraneous variable - problem- results of study can't be generalized to populations who are not sampled
cognitive theories of motivation
complex decision making process of weighing costs and benefits
item response theory
complex mathematical approach to item-analysis derived from item characteristic curves- depict each item in terms of of how difficulty the item was for individuals in different ability groups curves indicate three things (item parameters) 1. item's discrimination (slope of curve) 2. item difficulty represented by point on the ability axis where probability of correct response is .50` 3. probability that an examinee can answer the question correctly by guessing....represented by point at which curve crosses the Y axis
subjective measures of performance
complex, less concrete (motivation, ability to supervise, problem-solving, effectiveness working with others) disadavantages- raters not motivated, don't understand ratings, and can be biases
Sternberg's Triarchic Model
componential (analytical)- methods that are used to process or analyze information experiential (creative)- how unfamiliar tasks and circumstances are dealt with practical (contextual)- how people respond to their environment
pica
compulsive eating of nonnutritive substances such as clay or paint one month
interscorer reliability
concern when scoring depends on rater judgments....essay tests and behavioral observation scales increased if raters are well trained an know they are being observed scoring categories should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive
content validity
concerns primarily the extent to which the test items adequately and representatively the content area to be measured generally of concern in educational achievement tests industrial settings psychology licensing exam rests on the judgment and agreement of subject matter experts need high correlation with other tests that purport to sample the same content domain
Disinhibited social engagement disorder
condition in which a child shows no inhibitions whatsoever in approaching adults...lack of reticence, overly familiar must be evidence that child has experienced "extreme insufficient care"
Effectiveness research
conducted in real world...better external validity...good research uses both approaches
cost minimization analysis
conducted to compare two or more interventions that are known to have similar benefits in order to determine which intervention can be delivered at the lowest cost
pons
connects two halves of cerebellum relays sensory and motor information arousal, sleep, respiration
personality tests
conscientiousness is an accurate predictor of job performance and training success across a wide range of settings personality tests that measure specific characteristics are more accurate predictors of job performance than those measuring more global traits personality tests are better at contextual performance (enthusiasm, effort, and other behaviors that contribute to the social and psychological environment of an organization) while cognitive tests are better at task performance
conflicts with legal authority
consider appropriateness of complying with court orders when compliance creates potential conflicts with professional standards of practice
consideration v. initiating structure
considerate leaders- person focused, human relations emphasis initiating leaders- task-oriented, focus on goals, ensure subordinates follow rules, clarify subordinate and leader roles leader can be high or low on both dimensions
time series design
considered to be a quasi-experiment by some
reliability
consistency of measurement
random notes
consultation if oyu want to extend scope of competence...if not, make a referral determine if client's lack of trust is due to a mental disorder or an adaptive response to prejudice and discrimination
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
contains afferent (receptive) and efferent (motor/effector nerves)..carry info to and from the brain and spinal cord to and from the muscles and glands somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system
Neuronal cell body
contains nucleus, mitochondria, and other specialized structures and is responsible for the cell's protein synthesis
Midbrain
contains reticular activating system (RAS) and substantia nigra
hindbrain
contains the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum
forebrain
contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system
medulla oblongata
contains vital centers that control heart rate, breathing, blood pressure and digestion stimulates coughin, swallowing, salivating, and other reflexive actions damage is often fatal
schedules of reinforcement
continuous- after every bx occurrence intermittent- reinforcing some of the time
experimental research
control confounding variables to see if one variable causes another
hypothalamus
controls autonomic nervous system and endocrine system via its influence on the pituitary gland 1. maintains body homeostasis (temperature, metabolism, other functions) 2. controls motivated behaviors (eating, drinking, sex, aggression, maternal behavior) 3. involved in physical expression of strong emotions (rage, fear, excitement) suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) regulates circadian rhytyms, sends signal to pineal gland to release melatonin mammillary bodies- play a role in memory, damage to these and thalamus (due to thiamine deficiency cause by chronic alcoholism) causes Korsakoff's syndrome (anteorgrade amnesia, retrograde amnesia, confabulation)
zero-order correlation
converse of partial correlation correlation between two variables is determined without regard to any other variables when zero order correlations are computed, all other variables are ignored even if they might contribute to the relationship
non-linear transformation
converting raw scores to percentile ranks will result in a change in the shape of the distribution transformation that results in a change in the distribution's shape
self-promotion
convey positive info through actions and statements
Sequence of language development
cooing 1-2 months babbling 4-6 months, by nine months babbling sounds narrow to those of language exposed to echolalia and expressive jargon 9 months, imitiate adult speech sounds and words without understanding of meaning First words 10-15 months, Holophrastic speech 12-18 months, combining single word with gestures and intonation to express a phrase or sentence Telegraphic speech 18-24, two word sentences that contain the most critical words rapid vocab growth 30-36 months, by age 3 children typically use about 1000 words and understand 3-4 times that many words, also ask questions and use sentences containing 3-4 words development of complex grammatical forms 36-48 months, correctly use the word "to be", uses possessives and prepositions, construct longer and more complex sentences
Schema (Beck- CT)
core beliefs about self and world...often come from early life...adaptive or maladaptive
split brain patients
corpus callosum cut to relieve epileptic seizures surgery did not cause severe changes in personality but did lead to odd behaviors when picture presented to left field of vision only (could not verbally identify object or pick out object with right hand, but could pick it out with left hand) when presented to right field of vision only (could verbally identify object and pick it out with their right hand, but not able to do so with their left hand)
t-test for correlated samples
correlated samples are those that are related to each other in some way pre-test, post-test design df=n-1, n= number of pairs of scores
factor loading
correlation between a given test and a given factor range from +1 to -1 can be squared to determine the proportion of varaibility in the test accounted for by the factor
autocorrelation
correlation between observations at given lags (every second or every fourth observation)
monotrait heteromethod coefficient
correlations between two measures that assess the same trait using different (hetero) methods convergent validity, this correlation should be high
fees for services
couples...who's responsible for payment? don't bait and switch can use collection agencies when client doesn't pay discuss insurance shortchanging sessions with client and come up with plan sliding scale fees are acceptable if fair and serve the client's best interests
education and training programs
course requirements must meet recommended standards and requirements of the dicipline, ensure information presented in course is accurate and unbiased can't require students or supervisees to reveal personal information unless 1) this requirement is clearly identified up front or 2) information is necessary to evaluate or assist student whose personal problems pose a threat to self or others/or are preventing them from performing competently in their training/professional activities if therapy is a requirement of the program, students must have option of selecting a therapist not-affiliated with the program
Paraphilic Disorders: Treatment
covert sensitization- pairing with aversive stimulus orgasmic reconditioning
critical vs sensitive periods
critical- limited time in which organism is biologically prepared to acquire behavior, but needs appropriate environmental stimuli for it to happen sensitive- optimal times for the development of human capacities during which person is particularly sensitive to environmental influence, but those capacities can develop at an earlier or later time
demand characteristics
cues in the research settingthat allow subjects to guess the research hypothesis subjects behaves differently than they would in real world settings
neurocognitive disorder due to HIV infection
damage to subcortical areas trouble learning executive function psychomotor slowing apathy social withdrawal low IQ older agesomatic symptoms of depression predict progression to aids and HIV related dementia
Parasympathetic nervous system
deactivates responses that the sympathetic nervous system activates and is active during states of relaxation...decreased heart rate, activation of digestive and elimination processes, and conversion of glucose to glycogen and fat
Theories of forgetting
decay, interference, cue-dependent, ebbinghaus forgetting curve
Social relationships in adulthood
decrease with age socioemotional selectivity theory- change in social goals related to change in perception of time left in life, move from open-mindedness to constrained social goals have 2 functions knowledge acquisition- when time is open ended emotional regulation- when time is constrained
Intellectual disability
deficits in intellectual function confirmed by clinical assessment and standardized testing deficits in adaptive functioning (without support) onset during the developmental period
huntingtons disease
degenrative disease cause by autosomal dominat gene...abnormalities in basal ganglia and cortex glutamate, ach, gaba, and dopmine abnormalities symptoms- depression, anxiety, clumsiness, figeting, uncoordinated, atheosis (slow movement), chorea (jerky movements), difficulty swallowing, dementia...high suicide risk in individual
bulimia features
dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, metabolic shift, dental problems, menstrual issues
shape of the theoretical sampling distribution of stats
depends on the degrees of freedom----t an F theoretical sampling distributions are actually a family of curves not always normally shaped...have mathematically fixed properties that permit us to calculate the probability that an obtained sample statistic could have been drawn from a population with a given value, the value that would exist if the null hypothesis was true
Depersonalization/derealization disorder
depers- feelings of unreality, detachment...being an outside observer of thoughts, feelings, behavior dereals-sense of unreality or detachment with regard to one's surroundings reality testing in tact...but there is significant distress
Persistent depressive disorder
depressed mood on most days for at least two years and at least two of the following (insomnia/hypersomnia, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, impaired concentration/decision making, and feelings of hopelessness)...cannot have been without symptoms for more than two months...significant distress and impaired functioning
program design
design training based on cost, content, characteristics of trainees effective= teaching skills necessary for the job
mastery tests
designed to determine whether a person can attain a pre-established level of acceptable performance all or none score basic reading, basic math tests
McClelland's Need for Achievement
desire autonomy and personal responsibility, measured from TAT cards, prefer moderately difficult goals, seek recognition for their efforts put in effort, stay on job longer and perform better, entrepreneurial success need for power- control of others, prestige need for affiliation- good interpersonal relationships
case studies
detailed examination of a single case (single person, group, phenomenon) can't draw conclusions on nature of relationships between variables (lack internal validity) results not generalizable to other cases (lack external validity) useful as pilot studies for identifying variables that can be studied in a more thorough and systematic manner
cones
detect color center of retina in region called the fovea
Flextime
determine own daily schedule as long as they work the total hours and are present at work during certain core hours (10-3)..increased job satisfaction, productivity, and decreased absenteeism...effects of flextime on performance aren't clear
needs analysis (training)
determining if and what kind of training is necessary...four parts: organization analysis, task analysis, person analysis, demographic analysis
reasons people conform
deutsch and gerard (1995) 2 reasons 1. informational influence- using others as a source of info on difficult or ambiguous task 2. normative influence- go along because of group pressure, what to belong and avoid criticism
job analysis
developing and validating assessment instruments identifying measures of job performance assisting in the development of training programs job-oriented techniques- focus on task requirements of the job worker-oriented techniques- identify knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics that are required for successful job performance (education, adaptability, 20/20 vision, etc.) methods include interviews, questionnaires, direct observation, work diaries position analysis questionnaire- 194 job elements, 6 divisions 1. informational input 2. mental processes 3. work output 4. relationships with other persons 5. job context 6. other job characteristics job rated in terms of importance of each of these
PTSD
diagnosis- exposure to traumatic event, re-experiencing the event, negative alterations in cognition and mood, alterations in arousal associated with the event exposure to...death, injury, sexual violence...direct or vicarious in children under six...learning event occured to caregiver can be cause
counterbalancing
different subjects or groups of subjects receive treatment in a different order latin square design- ordering the administration of treatment so that each appears once and only once in every position
cause of adverse impact
differential validity- selection procedure is a good predictor of success for one group but not anoter research suggests differential validity is rare and when it occurs, happens just as often to majority as minority group unfairness- one group scores consistently lower on selection test but both groups perform equally well on the job, could still be a valid predictor but those who score lower are less likely to get hired (is there data on this???)
dominant response
difficult task- failure, inhibition easy task- success, facilitation
reticular activating system (RAS)
diffuse set of interconnected neurons from spinal cord to midbrain regulates sleep/wake transition and screens incoming sensory information, especially during sleep...arouses higher brain when something shouls be paid attention to (mother waking at faintest baby cry)
Effects of divorce on parents
diminished capacity to parent continues two years post divorce inconsistent discipline- vacillate between detachment and punitiveness mothers more harsh, fathers more indulgent or permissive
directional and non-directional statistical tests
directional (one tailed) test- used to test directional hypothesis nondirectional test- nondirectional hypothesis
antisocial personality disorder
disregard failure to conform impulsivity irritability linked to conduct disorder usually remits in middle age causes: heredity, family characteristics (high negativity, low warmth, inconsistency) lack of empathy low arousal treatment: no empirically supported treatments, cbt strategies, rules/structure
Taste and smell in infants
distinguish all tastes at birth prefer sweet taste respond different to unpleasant odors
organizational justice
distributive justice- fair outcomes like hiring, evals, raises, layoffs Procedural justice- fairness in process/procedure in which outcomes are allocated (best work outcomes) interactional justice- exchange between individual/supervisor and third party (combines informational and interpersonal justice)
delirium
disturbance in attention that develops over short period and at least one other cognitive disturbance memory disorientation language perception causes: age dementia depression Male impairment in vision/hearing dehydration malnutrition alcohol.meds functional dependence severe illness treatment: education environmental manipulation antipsychotics
stanine scores
divide distribution into nine equal intervals stanine 1- lowest ninth of distribution "standard nine" mean of 9 and standard deviation of about 2
maintaining competence
do it
releasing and explaining test results
do it unless it will cause substantial harm, which you have to justify (i.e. seriously misunderstand results Hipaa says- only when it is likely to endanger life or physical safety explain this to the client if you have concerns
in-person solicitation
do not engage, directly, or through agents in uninvited in-person solicitation of business from actual or potential therapy clients/patients or other persons who because of particular circumstances are vulnerable to undue influence
exploitative relationships
do not exploit clients students or trainees in any way
sexual intimacies
do not have sex with current clients 2 years after therapy acceptable in only most unusual circumstances...must demonstrate that sexual activity is not exploitative consider 1. time passed 2. nature of therapy 3. circumstances of termination 4. client's personal history 5. current mental status 6. likelihood of adverse impact 7. did you say or imply anything???? also do not mess around with people close to the client no therapy for people you have slept with
other harassment
do not knowingly engage in behavior that is harassing/demeaning based on diversity factors
duplicate publication of data
do not publish as original data that which has already been published
testimonials
do not solicit from current clients...undue influence
conflict of interest
do not take on professional role when personal, scientific, professional, legal, financial or other interests or relationships could reasonably be expected to 1) impair their objectivity, competence, effectiveness or 2) expose the person or organization with whom the relationship exists to harm or exploitation
Gay or lesbian parents
does not increase the risk of negative developmental outcomes in children
correlational research
does not manipulate the variable of interest...measured rather than manipulated has not internal validity, impossible to infer causal relationship finding an association used for the purpose of prediction...status of predictor variable predict the status of criterion variable random assignment and experimental control is impossible
frustration-aggression hypothesis
dollard (1939)- defined frustration as the result of interference with attainment of an important goal and proposed that frustration always leads to aggression and that aggression is always preceded with frustration the original hypothesis has been modified several times...berkowitz (1971)- frustration creates a readiness to act aggressively by eliciting feeling of anger and hostility, but that aggression only occurs in the presence of an aggressive cue
Dominate v. recessive genes
dominant beats recessive unless each parent contributes a recessive gene recessive traits- red hair, congenital deafness, Type O blood dominant traits- Type B blood, dark hair, normal hearing homozygous- alike gene pairing, both dominant or both recessive heterozygous- one dominant and one recessive
Co-therapists in group
don't disagree if group is dysfunctional or immature
unfair discrimination
don't do it based on race, ethnicity, gender....
sexual relationships with students/supervisees
don't do it unless they are in another program and you won't ever evaluate them
plagiarism
don't present another persons work or data as your own....even if other work or source is cited occasionally
improper complaints
dont do it
overgeneralization
drawing conclusion based on single event and applying to other events
menopause
drop in estrogen (hot flashes, mood swings, urinary incontinence, vaginal changes, increased risk of osteoperosis...ERT and HRT (replacement therapies)...alleviate symptoms and reduce risk of osteoperosis and heart disease, but increase risk of breast cancer, nausea, headaches, weight gain, depression
Anti-alcohol drugs
dsiulfiram (antibuse) naltrexone (revia, vivitrol) anitbuse inhibits alcohol metabolism...nausea, vomiting, shortness of breath, tachycardia naltrexone- opioid receptor agonist, reduces pleasure and craving for alcohol uses: alcohol use and dependence side effects: disulfiram (in absence of alcohol)- drowsiness, skin rash, headache, restlessness, impotence, metallic.garlic taste in mouth overdose can cause seizures, low blood pressure, chest pain, shortness of breath naltrexone side effects- stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, headache
Tension headaches
dull and diffuse mild to moderate pain experienced as tight band of pressure around the head abnormalities in serotonin and other neurotransmitters over the counter and prescription pain meds
auditory pathway
ear canal to eardrum amplified then by three small connecting bones- ossicles- and transmitted to another membrane (oval window) movement of oval window exerts pressure on cochlea liquid...produces movement in hair cells which are auditory receptors...these cells translate vibrations to neural activity, which travels via the auditory nerve to the thalamus and auditory cortex in the temporal lobe
Early emotions
early emotions appear in predictable order at birth- basic primary emotions (interest, disgust, distress) several months later- sadness, joy, surprise, anger, fear year 2- self-conscious emotions, envy, empathy, embarrassment 30-36 months- guilt, shame, pride self-conscious emotions attributed to several factors (awareness of rules, evaluate him/herself against the rules)
Autism treatment
early intensive behavioral intervention
three temperament groups
easy children- cheerful, adapt easily, regular schedule slow to warm up- sad, tense, take time to adapt, withdraw from new experiences, schedules are off difficult children- respond to new experiences with irritability, difficult to soothe, irregular feeding and sleeping schedules
lithium
effect dopmine, norepinephrine, serotonin lithium cabronate (eskalith) and lithium citrate (cibalith) uses: bipolar disorder side effects: nausea, diarrhea, metallic taste, weight gain, fine hand tremor, fatigue, mild cognitive impairment lithium toxicity-- vomiting, ab pain, the runs, coarse tremor, slurred speech
main effect
effect of one independent variable by itself
interaction
effect of one independent variable depends on level of othe independent variable-- don't interpret main effects without considering interaction effects, you can be seriously misled interpret main effects with caution when there is an interaction
Fiedler's Contingency Theory
effectiveness determined by combo of leader style and situation Least Preferred Co-worker Scale- High LPC leaders describe least preferred co-worker in positive terms favorable situations allow leader to control and influence workers (relationship with subordinates, structure of the task, leader's ability to enforce compliance) low LPC- best in very favorable and very unfavorable situations high LPC- best in moderately favorable situations
Quality of Work life interventions
effectiveness increase when workers are satisified, motivated, and committed interventions- job restructuring, redesigning jobs, Quality circles may improve production, but effects are often temporary QCs need to be supported by management and listened to
Weber's Bureaucracy
effectiveness maximized when organization had bureaucratic structure with formal rules and regulations, impersonal treatment of employees, division of labor, hierarchical structure, rational/efficient approach bureaucracies tend to be overly rigid and inefficient, research supports this...low job satisfaction
interaction effect
effects of IV at different levels of other IVs
environmental psychology
effects of physical and social environment on perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors
Interaction between history and treatment
effects of treatment don't generalize beyond the setting and/or time periodin which the experiment was done
process consultation
effort to help team members understand and alter processes that are undermining their interactions communication decision making conflict resolution individual roles in groups
aversive racism
egalitarian unacknowledged negative opinions of outgroup members deny being prejudiced but avoid interacting with outgroup members
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
eight intellectual abilities (linguisitic, logical-math, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist) rarely operate independently but instead are used simultaneously and complement each other as people solve problems
Conduction with neurons
electrochemical process by which information in received and processed in a nerve cell resting potential- inside is negatively charged while outside in positively charged depolarization triggers an action potential (electrical impulses that travels through the cell), which operates on the all-or-none principle...whatever the stimulation received by the neuron, if it meets minimum threshold the magnitude of the action potential is always the same speed of conduction is affected by two factors 1. larger diameter axon equals greater speed of nerve impulse 2. some axons are covered in myelin, the thicker the myelin, the greater the speed
counter conditioning techniques
eliminate anxiety or fear response by pairing conditioned stim with an unconditioned stim that promotes incompatible response
histrionic personality disorder
emotionality and attention seeking
schacter and singers cognitive arousal theory
emotions are combination of physical arousal and cognitive attributions of that arousal specific emotion experienced depends on the attributution "epinephrine study"- enivornmental cues often determine attributions for arousal
Three Core conditions of person centered therapy
empathy- work to understand clients experience and convey it....Congruence- be genuine, open, honest, and consistent...Unconditional positive regard- care about the client, value them, accept them without judgment
Total Quality Management
emphasis on product quality, flattening of traditional management hierarchy, increased teamwork, reduced ratio of managers to non-managers increased emphasis on cooperation and fairness in treatment of employees skill variety task variety Autonomy, participation, empowerment Task significance feedback
organizational change strategies
empirical-rational- give all the information/data and people will respond rationally normative-reeducative- change attitudes, values, and relationships to adjust culture and social norms power-coercive- rewards, punishment, legitimate authority for coercion
factors that affect memory
encoding specificity- similarity of learning and recall circumstances help, context-specific (same environment), state-dependent (person is in same physical or psychological state) arousal- Yerkes-dodson law: there is an optimal level of arousal needed for performance on memory tasks....inverted U, depends on complexity of the task, moderate arousal is best amnesia- anterograde: recall infor before trauma but struggle to retain info after truama, retrograde: can't recall info before trauma but remember what has happened since Misinformation effect- distortions of memory about event result from incorporating inaccurate or misleading info about event after it occurred (altering only one or two words in a question can significantly impact memory of event) Rehearsal- Maintenance: repeating information, most useful for keeping info in short term memory, Elaborative: Making information meaningful with association, connecting long and short term memory Mneumonic devices: Verbal: acronyms, acrostic (phase where the first letter stands for something you want to remember), Visual: method of loci (imagine walking through a room and place each item somewhere in the room), keyword method: good for remembering a pair of items (visual image that represents both items)
strategies for preventing groupthink
encourage members to be skeptical and critical, at least one member asked to play devil's advocate, group member encouraged to consult a wide array of experts before making final decision, leader refrains from stataing his/her preferences at the beginning of the decision making process
endorphins
endogenous morphine neuromodulators- decreases sensitivity to pain and produces feelings of pleasure
benzodiazapines
enhance GABA actiivty (inhibitory) diazepam (valium) alprazolam (Xanax) clonazepam (klonopin) lorazepam (ativan) triazolam (halcion) uses: anxiety, insomnia, muscle spasms, seizures, moderate to severe alcohol withdrawal symptoms side effects: drowsiness, sedation, ataxia, incoordination, motor disturbances, amnesia, reduced concentration, sexual dysfunction, paradoxicla effects (excitability, anxiety, aggression) addictive- chronic use can result in dependence, severe withdrawal reactions (seizures, delirum, hallucinations, coma) combination with alcohol or depresant can be fatal
controlling for threats to internal validity
ensure that extraneous factors are exerting an equal effect in all groups studied
multiple cutoff
entails indentifying different cutoff scores on a series of predictors...must score at or above cutoff on each predictor to be predicted as successful on the criteiron
Nature/nurture debate
epigenetic view that development is the result of bidirectional exchange between genetics and environment (Gottlieb, 2004)
Intermittent Explosive Disorder
episodes during which a person acts on aggressive impulses that result in serious assaults or destruction of property...verbal and physical twice a week for three months
adverse impact
equal employment opportunity commission (EEOC)- uniform guidelines on employee selection procedures when selection procedures (i.e. tests etc.) produce a substantially different rate of selection for groups based on age, race, gender, etc. 80% rule- when selection rate for minority is below 80% of majority group may be permitted when there is bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)...job related or business necessary
hippocampus
essential for memory consolidation (short term to long term)
long term memory
essentially unlimited and permanent
assessing student/supervisee performance
establish process for providing timely and specific feedback to students and supervisees and to provide information about that process to students and supervisees at the beginning of class or supervision
fidelity and responsibility
establish relationships of trust with those who they work, aware of responsibilities to society and their communities should contribute part of professional time for no compensation
multiple regression
estimate applicants score on a criterion based on his or her scores on two or more predictors compensatory technique- applicant that gets a low score on one predictor can make it up by doing better on another
mandated and permitted disclosures of confidential information
ethically permissible
Autism etiology
evidence for genetic contribution, brain irregularities (amygdala, cerebellum, serotonin, GABA, other neurotransmitters)
conditioned stimulus
evolves from neutral stim, brings out conditioned response after stimulus
maximum performance
examinee's best possible performance, or what a person can do achievement and aptitude tests
Separation anxiety disorder
excessive fear/anxiety of separation from home or attachment figures....at least 3 symptoms (excess distress at anticipating or experiencing separation, worry about losing attachment figure, refusal to leave home, physical symptoms in response) at least four weeks in kids or adolescents...6 months in adults school refusal in adolescence is more about depression than separation anxiety
barter
exchanging therapy for clerical, housekeeping, or other ongoing services creates a potentially harmful multiple relationships only acceptable when not exploitative or clinically contrindicated
social loafing
exert less effort when working on task as a part of a group, reduced when individual contributions to the group are mad identifiable
James-Lange theory
experience autonomic arousal and interpret feelings as emotion we're sad because we cry
correlational research
experimenter does not manipulate independent variable use predictor variables (IV) and criterion variables (DV) to distinguish them from experimental variables in studies what effect does IV have on DV
expert vs. fact witness
expert- person with special training, knowledge, skills, and experience in an area relevant to the resolution of the legal dispute and is allowed to offer an opinion as testimony in court" there are no standards for expertise....so cross-examiners can challenge them fact witness- testifies to what they have seen, heard, or otherwise observed....not allowed to offer opinions or address issues they don't have personal knowledge of or respond to hypothetical situations...needs consent of client or court order
eigen values
explained variance of each factor in a factor matrix
Leader member exchange theory
explains how various relationships with leaders develop out-group members- formal roles, low decision making in-group- high decision making, trust, resources leaders should create opportunities for entry into in-group move from stranger, acquaintence, to partner
noise
exposure to high intensity noise can negatively affect exposure on cognitive tasks most adverse impact on performance when unpredictable and uncontrollable
Standard scores
express raw scores distance from the mean in terms of standard deviation units tells us how many SDs a score is above or below the mean don't have problems associated with developmental norms and percentile ranks
Response to prolonged separation
extended separation at 15-30 months .... typical cycle of protest, despair, and detachment... irreversible negative effects on cognitive, emotional, and social development... separation prior to three months exhibited no significant problems
organizational commitment
extent to which person identifies with the organization and is willing to work to help the organization achieve its goals greatest when there are opportunities for personal growth and responsibility moderate to strong negative correlation with absenteeism and turnover may increase resistance to change
confounding variables
extraneous variable that can influence relationship
personality and affiliation
extroverts more likely than introverts to seek affiliation with others, this may be due to different levels of cortical arousal...extroverts tend to have low arousal level, seek social interaction to increase their arousal to an optimum level...introverts have high arousal and seek isolation to maintain comfortable levels of arousal
classical extinction and therapy
face the conditioned stimulus enough without the unconditioned stimulus that anxiety decreases
communality
factor loadings are squared and added to determine the proportion of variance of a test that is attributable to the factors this is communality (h squared) this represents "common variance" because these factors are also accounting for variance in the other tests included in the analysis test's reliability consists of two components- communality- that part of true variability shared with other tests specificity- that part of true variability unique to the test itself test's reliability is at least as high as its communality (lower limit of test's reliability)
variations of factorial anova
factorial anova for repeated measures...use if all levels of independent variable are applied to single group of subjects mixed (split plot anova)- consists of more than one independent variable and at least one repeated measures (or within-subjects) variable...same subjects measured at different times
Multiple IVs
factorial design- study with more than one independent variable combined every level of one independent variable with every level of the other independent variable(s), we would have a factorial experimental design
job characteristics model
factors that influence motivation, satisfaction, and output skill variety- more skills= more meaning task identity- whole piece of work more meaningful than tasks involved task significance- job has clear importance to others autonomy- jobs more meaningful if they allow for independence and freedom feedback- built in feedback=more meaning job diagnostic survey and job characteristics inventory assess these- improvements in motivation, satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover model works well in "growth need strength"
type II error and beta level
failure to reject the null when it is false we do not have significant difference to reject null when in fact a difference does exist beta- probability of making a type 2 error, not known to the researcher at the outset of the study, usually can't be determined even after the study, though there are some post-hoc methods for estimating likely values of beta
Malingering
faking symptoms for personal gain
Gambler's fallacy
false belief that the likelihood of a random event is affected by or can be predicted from previous independent events
Wholeness (family therapy)
families more than the sum of their parts, individuals best understood in the context of families
Homeostasis (family therapy)
families resist change, seek stability
Origins of aggression
families- reliance on coercion, inadequate monitoring of children's activities
cause of anorexia
family- upper/middle class, domineering, overprotective, depressed mother, uninvolved dad, excessive evidence on weight on diet psych- perfectionists bio- heredity, endocrine and neuroteansmitter abnormalities
Driver's decision making styles
fast-acting- minimal info, choose good enough solution uni-focus- use info to produce only one course of action 1. decisive- uni-focus 2. flexible- satisficing, multi-focus 3. hierarchic- maximizing, and uni-focus 4. integrative- maximizing, multi-focus 5. systemic- combines 3 and 4, maximizing, but can shift focus successful manager understans decision making style, work with people with other styles, match their style to job that suits them
Death and Dying
fear of death peaks in middle age Kubler-Ross (1969)- denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance: don't necessarily occur in a fixed sequence moreover, hope is a feeling terminally ill patients have that Kubler-Ross didn't describe
Agoraphobia
fear/anxiety about at least two to five situations: using public transportation, being in open spaces, being in enclosed spaces, standing in line or being in a crowd etiology- genetic and environmental factors...low warmth, demanding, and overprotective family climate treatment- in vivo exposure with response prevention...better with significant others involved
Head start
federal government 1965...initial gains in IQ tests often not maintained however kids less likely to be placed in special ed, have better attitudes toward school, have higher achievement test scores, less likely to repeat a grade and drop out of high school lower risk for teen pregnancy, unemployment, and committing criminal acts
gender and affiliation
females prefer to affiliate in dyads, males prefer to affiliate in larger groups...women are more concerned about intimacy in their relationships, men are more concerned with power
anima/animus
feminine and masculine aspects of self
social comparison theory
festinger (1954)- learn about self when comparing self to others, especially when lack of cognitive information...mostly to similar others, sometimes downward comparison
raising and lowering cutoff score
fewer true and false positives and more true and false negatives increases ratio of true positives to false positives lowering criterion cutoff scores, there will be more false negatives and true positives and fewer true negatives and false positives in many situation- criterion cutoff score is not flexible....predictor cutoff score is more flexible once cutoffs are set- predictor's functional utility can be calculated to determine the increase in the proportion of correct hiring decisions that would result from using the predictor as a selection tool, relative to when it is not used
axon
fiber...sometimes quite long...that carries information away from cell body, most neurons have only one axon, but they usually have several brahnces (collaterals) with each branch leading to a terminal button
ADHD hyperactivity symptoms
fidgeting and squirming leaving seat talking excessively can't play/be quiet interrupting and intruding
rational-economic model of decision making
find optimal solution with all information often not practical
insurance companies
find out why the information they request is need and, if request is valid, release only the relevant information cover letter- states that info is confidential and specify who can review it
Zajonc's (1976) confluence model of intelligence
first born kids have higher IQs than later kids...decrease in intellectual stimulation and resources as more kids are born
Schizophrenia treatment
first gen anti-psychs- chlorpromazine, Thioridizine, haloperidol...aleviate positive symptoms, little effect on negative symptoms second gen anti-psychs- clozapine, risperidone, olanzapine, and ariprazole...reduce positive and negative symptoms, less likely to produce tardive dyskenesia cbt, social skills training, support, psychoed, fmaily therapy (too much expressed emotion in family)
Filter theory of selective attention
first of the "bottleneck theories"- of all the information presented to us only a little gets through....when two bits of info come at us, one wins our attention while the other is processed later or lost the winner enters short term memory...where it is analyzed for meaning dichotic listening task- listen to different auditory stimuli in each ear simultaneously and then repat what you just heard... (734) (215)...subjects more likely to recall 734215 than 723145
age and sleep
first six month- only rem and non rem phases...in first 2-3 months, sleep period begins with rem, then the sequence reverses sleep time, stages 3 and 4, and rem sleep all decreas from childhood to adulthood infancy- rem is 50% of total sleep period, only 20% in adulthood sleep gets less frequent and ther are more problems with age
Major depressive disorder
five or more symptoms of a major depressive episode with at least on symptom being depressed mood (anhendonia, appetite, sleep, weight, psychomotor, fatigue/low energy, worthlessness, excessive guilt, low concentration, sucidal ideation, suicide attempt)....most of the day everyday for at least two weeks
Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model
five stages of cultural development for oppressed persons- Atkinson, Mortenm & Sue, 1998: conformity, dissonance and appreciating, resistance and immersion, introspection, and integrative awareness
intermittment reinforcement
fixed ratio- after fixed number of responses variable ratio- after variable number of response fixed interval- after fixed period of time variable interval- after an unpredictable amount of time variable ratio- fastest and steadiest responding during acquisition, greatest resistance to extinction fixed interval- scallop effect, responding increases toward the end of each interval
exposure and response prevention erp
flooding graduated exposure in vivo imaginative group exposure works self-help works interoceptive exposure- expose to physical symptoms of panic attacks
Tiedeman and O'Hare's Decision Making Model
focused not only on the "making of a living" but on the "making of a life"...based on Erickson's theory career related correlates of each of erickson's eight psychosocial crises resolutions differentiation- realization that career is not fitting with one's personality, different choice then consider and then action taken....this is known as implementation might not always lead to reintegration and process could take place many times in the life of the individual
Object-relations theory
focused on impact of early relationships (objects), people driven by human connection rather than sexual/aggressive drives
strategies for gaining compliance
foot-in-the-door technique- start with a small request to get someone to agree to a later larger request door-in-the-face technique- make a large request likely to be refused and follow it up with a smaller, more reasonable request...Cialdini et al. (1975): 50% of students complied with the second request, compared to 17% when info presented alone
informed consent (b)
for persons legally incapable of giving informed consent 1. provide an appropriate explanation 2. seek the person's assent 3. consider person's preferences and best interest 4. obtain appropriate position from a legally authorized person
therapeutic-forensic role conflicts
forensic therapy- disclose potential risks and make efforts to refer to another qualified practitioner.....too much of a risk, dual relationships if referral is not possible...seek judicial review and direction, consider the risks, think about spearating services out in time
Inteference Theory
forgetting happens when information learned before or after affects storage of forgotten info proactive interference- forward effect, previously acquired similar information interferes with ability to recall new information retroactive interference- backwards effect, newly acquired similar information interferes with ability to recall previously acquired information
amygdala
formation of emotional memories
Bayes' Theorem
formula for obtaining a special type of conditional probability...primarily used to revise conditional probabilities based on additional information allows you to take into account additional information to come up with a more accurate conditional probability
malpractice
four conditions must be present for a claim of malpractice 1. psychologist must have been involved in a professional relationship with the client that established a legal duty to treat the client 2. there must be evidence that the psychologist breached that duty 3. the client must have suffered harm or injury 4. there must be evidence that the breach of duty caused harm or injury
banduras observational learning
four mechanisms 1 attention 2 retention 3 motor reproduction 4 motivation (self, external, and vicarious reinforcement, self-efficacy) more likely when model is similar to the observer
Behavioral consultation
four overlapping stages 1. Problem identification style- operationally define problem 2. Problem analysis stage- functional analysis 3. Treatment implementation stage 4. Treatment evaluation stage
Levinson's Seasons of a man's life
four periods- pre-adulthood, early, middle, and late adulthood early transition (20)- form the dream Age 30 transition- reevaluate choices, become more realistic and revise life structure Age 40- stress and reorganization...dissatisfaction can lead to mid-life crisis late adult transition (60-65)- reconcile the dream with the reality of their lives, accept mortality, prep for retirement and old age midlife crisis not supported by research
bases of social power
french and raven (1959), raven (1993)- six bases of social power 1. reward power- can provide desired outcomes 2. coercive power- can provide unwanted outcomes 3. legitimate power- status 4. referent power- desirable, attractive, personality 5. expert power- special knowledge/experience 6. informational power- person's access to information
sample distribution
frequency distribution for scores of any sample chosen from a population.....distribution of all possible sample values (mean, median, mode) less variability than the population distribution
pitch
frequency of sound waves one hertz= one cycle per second audible pitch in 20-20,000 hertz
germinal period
from conception to implantation eight to ten days after conception
embryonic period
from end of second week to eight weeks after conception most susceptible to structural defects CNS is susceptible to teratogens through all of gestation
Lobes of the cerebral cortex
frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital
Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence
general ability (g) specific ability (s) all mental tasks require these two kinds of ability
External validity
generalizability of results in research study
secular trends
generational differences in physical growth and development (menarche average age in industrialized countries has declined due to nutrition and health care improvements)
cause of apnea
genetic disorders, menopause, obesity, endocrine disorders and meds
MDD etiology
genetic- 1st degree bio relatives 2-4 times higher co-occurence than general pop low levels of norepinephrine low levels of serotonin high cortisol Seligman's learned helplessness model (1978) Lewinsohn's behavioral theory (1974) Beck's cognitive theory (1976) Rehm's self-control model (1987)
genotype vs. phenotype
genotype- information encoded in genes based on collection of alleles phenotype- observable characteristics that are affected by both genes and environment
Kohler-Insight Learning
gestalt psychologist studies done with chimp named sultan- aha experience restructuring of problem 1. learner perceives situation as a whole 2. learner perceives and tries to understand various elements of a situation 3. as a result the learner is suddenly able to grasp the solution to the problem
informed consent for recording voices and images in research
get it, unless... 1. research consists of naturalistic observation in public places, and recording will not lead to personal identification or harm 2. research design includes deception, and consent to use recording is obtained through debriefingc
boundaries of competence (c)
get the right training, education, consultation, supervision and study when you are going to do new things
informed consent for therapy
give all information that may influence desire to begin therapyy as early as feasible nature of treatment, potential risks, finances etc.
leniency
give all ratees positive ratings
token economy
give secondary reinforcer as rewards specify target behaviors identify tokens identify backup reinforces create system for recording the delivery and removal of tokens specify plan for transitioning from tokens to praise and privileges
WAIS-IV
global ability comprised of numerous interrelated functions ages 16-90- Full scale IQ, index scores, and subtest scores Working memory index Verbal comprehension index Perceptual reasoning index Processing speed index subtest (M= 10, Sd=3) full scale IQ and four index scores (M=100, SD=15) interpreted carefully when there is a difference of 1.5 SD between any two index scores or subtests that contribute to same index can compare to scores of clinical groups (alzheimer's, ADHD, and Traumatic brain injury)
treatment for bulimia
goal is to restore normal eating family/couple therapy cbt anti depressants nutritional counseling
EPPP
goals is to "evaluate the knowledge the the most recent practice analysis has determined as foundational to the competent practice of psychology"
Goal-setting theory
goals serve two purposes- basis for motivation, direct behavior most important factor- conscious acceptance of and commitment to the goals success maximized when goals are specific and moderately difficult management by objective (MBO)- boss and employee agree to specific, measurable goals
method of presentation
going first is most influential when both messages are back to back (primacy effect) going last is best when there is time between the first and second message (recency effect)
narcissistic personality disorder
grandiosity, need for admiration, lack of empathy
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
greater emphasis on the ego (positive identity) trust v. mistrust autonomy v. shame/doubt Initiative v. Guilt (ambition and responsibility, too many demends for self-control leads to excessive guilt industry v. inferiority- productive work and cooperation identity v identity confusion intimacy v isolation- inability to establish close relationships, fear of rejection and isolation generativity v stagnation- contribute to younger generation ego integrity v despair
genetic influences on intelligence
greater genetic similarity= higher correlation between IQ scores twins (together)- .85 twins (apart)- .67 frat twins (together)- .58 sibs (together)= .45 sibs (apart)= .24 parent and child (together)= .39 Parent and child (apart)= .22 adoptive parent and child= .18
normal distribution and percentile ranks
greater range of percentile ranks in middle of the distribution than on either extreme change in raw score in the middle of distribution results in much greater change in his or her percentile rank than the same raw score change at the distribution extreme
magnitude of the population difference
greater the difference between the population means under study, the more likely the researcher wil lbe able to detect these differences affect it by increasing the difference between levels of the independent variable increasing alpha increases power, but also increases probability of making type I error if type I error more serious than a Type II error....one should therefore set alpha low (i.e. .05, .01) type II error more serious in new treatment for deadly disease...if you conclude it doesn't make a difference when it does the effects would be devastating...so might set alpha higher in some cases
reducing bias in language
guideline 1- describe appropriate level of specificity (gender over sex, specify age range instead of saying over 65, say mexican american instead of hispanic american) guideline 2- be sensitive to labels, ask people what designation they prefer, avoid using one group as the standard against which other groups are judged....dont compare lesbians to "normal women"" guideline 3- acknowledge participation, use an active voice
stress
hardiness and social support reduce negative effects on stress on health
Goodness of fit model (thomas and chess)
healthy psychological development depends on match between child's temperament and environmental factors, especially the behaviors of the child's parents
balance theory of attitude change
heider (1958) people desire consistency, focuses on consistency between 3 entities between two or three people (object, issues, event)
substantia nigra
helps control movement. degeneration of dopmine producing neurons in this structure is linked with Parkinson's plays a role in reward seeking and addictive behavior
forced choice checklists
helps reduce social desirability and other rater biases
lateralization of function
hemispheres dominate certain behaviors left- written and spoken language, logical/analytical thinking, expression of positive emotions right- spatial relationships, creative/holisitic thinking, expression of negative emotions "dominant" hemisphere is responsible for language- why???
Hereditary influences on development
heritability index is used to estimate the degree to which a particular trait can be attributed to genetic factors...ranges from 0 to +1.00, 50% of individual difference in IQ can be explained by genetic factors (.5)
anxiety and affiliation
high anxiety subjects Schacter (1959) study said they wanted to wait with another subject for their electric shock..."misery does not love just any kind of company, it loves only miserable company" p. 24 serves need for social comparison or need for cognitive clarity
authoritarian personality theory
high degree of conventionality, rigidity in thinking, submissiveness to authority, and intolerance of difference fascism scale (adorno and colleagues, 1950)- correlates with ethnic and racial prejudice
stress-buffering hypothesis
high level of perceived social support can buffer a person against the effects of stress on physical and psychological health
daycare
high quality daycare has no consistent negative effects...may improve intellectual abilities in low income children...may be less compliant... but may be more self-sufficient, adaptable, and cooperative
long-term potentiation
high-frequency of neurons increases sensitivity and the structure of dendrites...these changes believed to underlie memory formation
burnout
higher among women, single/divorced employees, people with little opportunity for promotion, professionals who deal with other people often workaholics are compulsively driven out of insecurity and lack of fulfillment in their personal lives healthy workaholics get satisfaction from work- free from burnout
prefrontal cortex
higher order cognitive functioning, working and prospective memory, emotion regulation, motor responses damage to dorsolateral area= dysexecutive syndrome, impaired problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, distracted, motor perseveration, apathy medial frontal area= pseudodepression (apathy, low motivation, reduced verbal output) orbitofrontal damage= pseudopsychopathy (sex, swearing, facetious sense of humor, inappropriate social bx, lack of concern for others) schizophrenia, bipolar, ADHD- linked with pfc trouble
temperature and aggression
higher temperatures linked to increased risk of assault, rape, murder, and domestic violense....curvilinear relaitonship (increases number of assaults up to 85 degrees, the a decline) (Rotton & Cohn, 2000)
Tower of London
higher-order executive functioning and working memory poor performance=frontal lobe damage, ADHD, autism, depression moving objects around stationary pegs, follow rules
biographical information (biodata)
highly predictive of job performance when they have been empirically validated advantage- useful in predicting turnover (.77 and ,79 for whites and african americans respectively)
threats to internal validity
history- external event that affects scores or status of dependent variable maturation- internal event that affects dv (fatigue, boredom, hunger, physical/intellectual development) testing- experience with pre-test can make person test-wise Instrumentation- change in instrument from pre-test to post-test can cause an affect, could be raters assessment abilities improved over time statistical regression- extreme scores fall close to the mean on re-testing (IQ tests), can be threatened when extreme scores are used as research subjects, extremely depressed persons are likely to appear less-depressed on re-testing selection- pre-existing subject factors that account for scores on a dependent variable differential mortality- two or more group, people who drop out differ in systematic ways from people who remain in the study experimenter bias- researcher may unconsciously communicate expectations to the subjects (teachers preconceived notions of student ability affects grades (Rosenthal and Jacobsen, 1968) (experimenter expectancy effect, rosenthal effect, pygmalion effect)...can be overcome by double blind technique
thyroxin
hormone released by thyroid gland that controls metabolism
Aggression in children
hostile- intent to harm someone instrumental- intent to get something based on aggression
safety and accidents
human error accounts for 50-80% age (young) heat noise booze poor vision poor safety attitudes emotional instability pessimism low trust depression training is preventative (focused on safe behaviors and attitudes toward safety) 1. positive themes better than scare tactics 2. safety poster not effective..only if they are specific 3. management commitment to safety programs is a key contributor to success 4. providing incentives helpful when combined with specific info and management commitment
Formal operational stage
hypothetical deductive reasoning- arrive at and test alternative explanations for observed events propositional thought- ability to evaluate the logical validity of verbal assertions without making reference to real-world circumstances adolescent egocentrism- Inability to separate own abstract thoughts from those of other people (imaginary audience, personal fable)
Systemic family therapy strategies
hypthesiszing, neutrality, circular questioning (ask each family member of their perception of event to introduce new info), positive connotation (reframe problematic behavior as good), Paradoxical prescriptions, family rituals (designed to alter family games)
ratio data
identical to interval scales- but absolute zero point multiplication and division require ratio scales dollar amounts, time, distance, height, weight, frequency of behaviors per hour
anchoring and adjustment heuristic
identifying an initial starting point (the anchor) and then making adjustments up and down from that point when estimating a frequency or other quantity
Marcia's identity statuses
identity diffusion- no crisis or commitment identity foreclosure- commitment but no crisis identity moratorium- crisis but no commitment identity achievement- resolved crisis and committed to identity
multiple relationships (b)
if a potentially harmful multiple relationship comes up...take steps to resolve it
reporting ethical violations
if a violation will do substantial harm, report it might include referral to state or national committees doesn't apply when intervention would violate confidentiality rights or when psychologists have been retained to review the workof another psychologist whose professional conduct is in question
Code vs. the law
if ethical standard is higher than the law, you must meet the ethical standard if the code conflicts with law,, you make known your commitment to the code and work to resolve the conflict
persons not ordered or mandated to undergo examination
if examinees decline after learning of the nature and purpose of eval...postpone, adivse them to contact their attorney, notify retaining party about their unwillingness to proceed
HIPAA
if hipaa provides more protection than state laws...follow hipaa...and vice verse in the other situation
face validity
if it appears valid to examinees, administrators, and untrained observers
(b)
if psychologists will be precluded by law or by organizational roles to provide info to certain groups or people...they will let those groups/people know beforehand
informal resolution of ethical violations
if someone does wrong, bring it to the attention of the person if an informal resolution feels appropriate and individual does not violate confidentiality rights
Homoscedasticity
if the dispersion of scores is equal throughout the scattergram, we have homoscedascity if there is more dispersion at some parts of the scattergram than at others we have heteroscedasticity...amount of scatter in the scattergram is not uniform (variability of X is different at different levels of Y)....implies the magnitude of the relationship between two variables depends on what level of the X or Y variable you are considering
single subject designs
if two or more subjects are treated as one group, this is also considered a single subject design, well suited to research behavior modification...dv measured several times in multiple phases
regression
if two variables are correlated- it is possible to construct an equation that could be used to estimate the value of one variable based on the value of the other regression equation predictor variable criterion variable
boundaries of competence (d)
if you can provide services, do it and get the training so that people are not denied
inability to provide consent
if you determine this but it has not yet been adjudicated...take reasonable steps to protect their rights and welfare....suspend service, notify attorney and retaining party
neurocognitive disorders
impaired cognition attention executive function learning memory language perceptual motor social cognition
synthesis of protein or RNA
important for formation of long term memories...drugs that block this process prevents formation of long term memories
Factitious disorder
imposed on self or another...falsifying psychological symptoms...taking on the "sick role"
broca's area
in frontal lobe for most people, one of the primaty language areas of brain...damage= problems in expressive and written language, broca's aphasia, speak slowly and with difficulty, few words, poor articulation, difficulty repeating, anomia, aware of deficits
informed consent (c)
in mandated service...let the person know the nature of the services, including confidentiality limits if any
reinforcment
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows...positive or negative
focus on legally relevant factors
in reports and testimonies....typically provide info on examinee's functional abilities, capacities, knowledge, beliefs....address their opinions and recommendations to the identified psychological issues
informed consent to research (b)
in use of experimental treatments, clarify... 1. experimental nature of the treatment 2. services that will or wont be available to contorl groups 3. means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made 4. treatment alternatives if person does not wish to participate or wants to drop out 5. compensation for monetary costs of particpating
techniques based on aversive counter conditioning
in vivo aversive counter conditioning covert sensitization
Dissociative amnesia
inability to recall important personal information - most often related to a stressful experience - that can't be explained by ordinary forgetfulness dissociative fugue- personal travel or wandering away from home with amnesia localized amnesia- inability to recall any events in a circumscribed period of time selctive amnesia- inability to recall some events in that time generalize damnesia- uncommon, includes loss of identity and skill/semantic knowledge
sampling error
inaccuracy of sample value- or more precisely, the difference between a sample value (referred to as a statistic) and the corresponding population value (referred to as a parameter) inferential statistical methods involve using sample stats to estimate population parameters
substance etiology
incentive sensitization theory- repeated activation of dopamine and reward leads to craving/compulsion tension reduction hypothesis self-medication hypothesis positive and negative reinforcement
modifiers of ethics codes
included in standards when they would.... 1. allow professional judgment on the part of psychologists 2. eliminate injustice and inequality that would occur without modifier 3. ensure applicability across broad range of activities conducted by psychologists 4. guard against a set of rigid rules that might be quickly outdated
basal ganglia
includes caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and putamen with substantia nigra and cerebellum, these structures make up extrapyramidal motor system involved in control of posture, gross muscle movement and coordination of movements on the right and left sides of the body process and relay info necessary for control of voluntary movement, the outward expression of emotion, sensorimotor learning abnormalities in BG linked to tourette's, huntington's, parkinson's, schizophrenia, mood disorders, OCD, ADHD
population distribution
includes every single score in the population
forebrain
includes hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
gender dysphoria
incongruence between assigned and expressed gender identity gender dysphoria in children- strong preferences for cross gender role, strong preference for opposite sex playmates, strong preference for toys played with by the opposite adults- want to be treated as opposite gender, conviction that one has the typical feelings and reactions of opposite gender post transition specified must be distinguished from non-conformity
cognitive dissonance theory (attitude change)
inconsistnecy between attitude and behavior creates dissonance options to reduce 1. change attitude 2. change behavior 3. get new information to eliminate inconsistency 4. reduce importance of consistency festinger and carlsmith (1959)- paid people to lie to others about task, more money to lie helps you maintain your self-concept because there is less dissonance
Theory Z
incorporation of Japanese managerial philosophy American- short-term employment, individual decision making, individual responsibility, rapid evaluation and promotion, specialized career path, segmented knowledge of the organization Japanese- Long-term employment, Consensual decision making, collective responsibility, slow evaluation/promotion, nonspecialized career path, holisitic knowledge of organization Theory Z combines best aspects of Japanese and American philosophies- consensual decision making, slow promotion, holistic knowledge of organization, individual responsibility, long-term employment, moderately specialized career path
Seleective Serotonin Reuptake inhibitors
increase availability of serotonin at synapse fluoxetine (prozac), setraline (zoloft), paroxetine (paxil) uses: MDD, dysthymia, oCD, panic disorder, social phobia, binge eating, premature ejaculation side effects: nausea, appetite, sexual, dizziness, agitation, headaches, insomnia combining with TCA or MAOI can cause serotonin syndrome (altered consciousness, agitation, sweating, tremor, rigidity
schizophrenia etiology
increased volume in lateral and third ventricles of the brain reduced size of hippocampus and amygdala hypofrontality- impaired performance on certain cognitive tasks dopamine hypothesis- elevated dopamine levels or hypersensitive dopamine receptors....expanded to include norepinephrine, serotonin, glutamate maybe an imbalance of norepinephrine and dopamine levels- maybe 2nd generation anti-psychotics improve the blance between them there's also a genetic contribution
compressed work week
increases number of hours worked per day and decreases days worked in a given work period research is mixed- positive effects on supervisor ratings and performance, job satisfaction, not a great impact on job performance and absenteeism, productivity usually unaffected
"Flynn" effect
increasing average IQ attributed to improved nutrition, better education, other environmental factors
monotrait-monomethod coefficients
indicate correlation between the measure and itself, and are therefore reliability coefficients
developmental norms
indicate how far along the normal developmental path an individual has progressed disadvantage- they dont permit compariosn of individuals at different age levels, because SD not taken into account
standard error of measurement
indicates how much error an individual test score can be expected to have used to construct a confidence interval a type of standard deviation if reliability coefficient is 0, the standard error of measurement will be equal to the standard deviation of test scores
ipsative measure
individual him or herself is the frame of reference in score reporting edwards personal preference schedule examinees express a preference for one item over others, rather than responding to each item individually
Motivational Interviewing
influenced by bandura, rogers, and transtheoretical model- enhance intrinsic motivation principles of treatment 1. empathy 2. develop discrepancy 3. roll with resistance 4. support self-efficacy (OARS) open ended questions affirmations reflective listening summaries
functional brian imaging
information about brain structure and activity PET- small amounts of radioactive material, blood flow, glucose metabolism, oxygen consumption fMRI- detects change in brain oxygenation
programmed instruction
information broken down into logical, organized, sequences not effective for teaching many complex skills useful for teaching content knowledg peopl can progress at their own pace
primacy effect
information presented first usually has the greatest impact on impression formation, even when contradictory information is presented later
Information Processing Theories
information processing theories focus on specific cognitive processes (memory, attention, comprehension) and emphasize quantitative (rather than qualitative) changes in cognition
beta-blockers
inhibit activity of sympathetic nervous system by blocking beta-adrenergic receptors (slowing heart rate and lowering blood pressure) uses: treat hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, migraine headache, essential tremor, alleviating physical symptoms of anxiety, less effective for alleviating cognitive and psychic symptoms side effects: bradycardia, hypotension, sexual dysfunction, fatigue, nausea, vision changes, dizziness, depression...abrupt withdrawal can cause head aches, tremors, confusion, hypertension
septum
inhibits emotionality lesions in rats lead to septal rage syndrome (hyperemotionality and vicious behavior)
Striving for superiority
innate drive to competence and effectiveness
borderline personality disorder
instability in relationships self image affect improvement of symptoms over time causes: problems in separation/individuation kernberg- caregiver unpredictable splitting linehan- pervasive emotional dysregulation treatment- dbt
third party payors
insurance fraud 1. bill missed appointments if practice is not agreed upon by insurance company in advance 2. routinely waiivng copayments without insurance company agreeing 3. providing inaccurate info to insurance company, billing for different types of therapy
Object Constancy
integrated and stable internal representations of self and others
amygdala
integrates and directs emotional reactions, attaches emotions to information it receives from the senses, mediates defensive and aggressive behavior damage may cause lack of emotional response, inability to recognize facial and vocal expressions in emotion in monkeys, bilateral lesions to amygdala and anterior temporal lobe produce Kluver-Bucy syndrome (reduced fear, docility, altered diet, psychic blindness, hypersexuality)
personality traits
intelligence, drive, creativity, stress tolerance, self-confidence, integrity...more typical of leaders than non-leaders no single set of traits that distinguishes good leaders from poor ones...moderated by characteristics of supervisors, type of task, nature of the work environment
loudness
intensity detemrined by amplitude of sound waves and measured in decibels (db)..normal conversation is 60 db, pain threshold is 120 db
language
interact in the language requested by the client if not possible, offer a translator with cultural knowledge and professional background can also use a paraprofessional
methods for reducing prejudice and discrimination
intergroup contact- contact hypthesis (direct contact will reduce prejudice and discrimination), under certain conditions 1) contact involves individual interactions 2) members of groups have equal status 3) opportunities for groups to work together and achieve mutual goals 4) cooperation and equality are supported by social norms and authority figures superordinate goals- aronson (1978), jigsaw classroom, required students in newly desegregated schools to work together on assigned by dividing student in each classroom into groups, dividing the material to be learned into subtopics, having each student in each group be responsible for one subtopic and teach it to the other groups....students in jigsaw classrooms less prejudiced, liked school more, and had higher self-esteem, academic achievement scores of minority student improved, scores of white students remained about the same
Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)
internalizing and externalizing behaviors of children and adolescents....includes rating for parents, teachers, caregivers, and self-report for adolescents
Stroke
interruption or severe reduction of blood flow to the brain ischemic- blocked artery hemmorhagic- weakened vessel ruptures or leaks risk factors- hypertension, artherosclerosis, atrial fib, other types of heart disease, diabetes, smoking, over 55, African American, male, family history of stroke
enuresis
involuntary discharge of urine twice a week for 3 consecutive months
democratic leadership
involve subordinates in decision making process subordinates more satisfied, more creative, better relationships with leader, more likely to continue working when leader is not there
amgygdala
involved in attaching emotional content to memory
cerebral cortex
involved in higher order cognitive, sensory, emotional, and motor functions more developed in humans than in other animals
Norepinephrine
involved in mood, arousal, dreaming, learning, autonomic responses abnormal levels linked with depression, mania, panic disorder
frontal lobe
involved in motor behavior, expressive language, higher level cognitive functioning
hippocampus
involved more in memory and learning than emotion memory consolidation bilateral destruction of amygdala, hippocampus, and medial temporal lobes produces severe permanent, anterograde amnesia alzheimer's linked to degeneration of neurons in the hippocampus
multiple sample chi square test
involves adding another variable in addition to the one that gives rise to the classification categories df= (C-1)(R-1), R represents the number of rows
single sample chi square test
involves collecting categorical data from only one sample of individuals df=C-1, C represents number of categories
norm referenced interpretation
involves comparing an examinee's score to norms...different types of norm referenced scores
interval recording
involves observing the subject at a given interval and noting whether the subject is engaging or not engaging in the target behavior during that interval most useful for behaviors that do not have a fixed beginning and end
protocol analysis
involving the collection and analysis of verbatim reports subject asked to think aloud as they are performing a task researcher records everything subject says (record is referred to as a protocol) analyze data in attempt to involve cognitive processes involved in performing the task doesn't involved traditional quantitative techniques (analysis based on researcher's interpretation of the verbal protocol)
variance
is the average of the squared differences of each observation from the mean first get the mean, then look at how far each score is from the mean, then square that distance, then take the average of the squared differences....measure of how scores diperse around the mean greek letters- population values roman letters- sample values see equation
statistical inference
it allows us to draw conclusions about population parameters even though we only have sample statistics to work with
work-family conflict
job dissatisfaction burnout low productivity depression psychological distress marital issues women experiencing more conflict and stress than men work problems predict conflict for men family problems predict conflict for women
job knowledge tests
job specific, used when people have previous experienc/training and are good predictors of performance dye et al. (1993)- increase when job complexity and job test similarity increase
optic nerves
join at the optic chasm visual signal travels via each optic tract to geniculate nucleus in thalamus and primary visual cortex in occipital lobe
simulation heuristic
judging the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to mentally simulate (imagine) the event
availability heuristic
judging the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall information about the event
Representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of an event based on resemblance to typical case rather than on base rate information
pragmatics
knowledge about how to use language communicate effectively with others...includes being familiar with rules of conversation
Cue dependent forgetting
lack of retrieval cues leads to forgetting tip of the tongue phenomenon
Psychotherapist stress
lack of success biggest source of stress
Cognitive theories of language
language acquisition motivate by child's desire to express meaning
Behavioral theories of language development
language results from reinforcement and imitation mothese- simple, slow paced, high pitched recasting- rephrasing child's sentence in a different way
bilingual education
language-minority children in good quality bilingual programs do as well in acquiring English skills and learning subject matteras well as or even better than peers in English only immersion programs
gate control theory of pain
large nerve fiber carrying infor on touch, pressure, and vibration inhibits transmission of pain by small nerve fibers large fiber activation "closes the gate" massage heat cold
sample size and power
larger the sample size, the greater the power
Schizophrenia course and prognosis
late teens-early thirties onset early to mid 20s for males....late 20s for females better prognosis for late or acute onset, precipitating event, femal gender, god premorbid adjustment, insight into the illness, a brief duration of active phase symptoms, a family history of a mood disorder, and no family history of schizophrenia
enuresis causes
lax toilet training stress circadian rhythm problems
Hersey and Blanchards situational leadership model
leader- task and relationship orientation best style depends on maturity of subordinates (responsibility) low both- telling style is best (high task, low relationship) low ability, high willing- selling is best (high both) high ability, low willing- participating (high relationship, low task) high both- delegating (low both)
avoidance learning
learn to avoid undesirable stim by engaging in behavior in response to cue that undesirable stim is coming mowrer 1939- said this combined classical conditioning and negative reinforcement, conditioned stim prompts avoidance which allows removal of unconditioned stim
biofeedback
learn to control physiological response (involuntary or made difficult due to trauma/disease)---EMG feedback (muscle tension, treats chronic pain, incontinence, motor impairment), EEG feedback (brain waves, treats anxiety, depression, insomnia, pain, seizures, storke recovery, ADHD (similar to benefits of stimulant drugs), Thermal (skin temperature, treats Reynauds disease, migraines, most effective when combined with autogenic (verbally cued) relaxation
cerebral cortex
left- positive emotions, lesions can produce "catastrophic reaction", depression, anxiety right- negative emotion, lesions lead to indifference reaction, sometimes inappropriate euphoria
Type B personality
less vulnerable to stress
Phillips return on investment (ROI)
level 5 program eval...is the juice worth the squeeze
Communication theory (family therapy)
levels- report (literal), command (metacommunication, nonverbals reflecting relationship) Double bind communication- conflict between report and command that can't be commented on, linked to schizophrenia Symmetrical v Complementary interactions- s=based on equality and lead to competition and conflict; c= based on inequality, leads to dominant and submissive reactions
Super's career and life development theory
life-space, life-span predictable sequence, each stage mastered for progress key concepts- self-concept, life span, career maturity, life-space, and life-career rainbow
Factors affecting the Pearson r
linearity- assumes a linear relationship between the two variables involved...but some reltionships are curvilinear not the appropriate correlation coefficient to assess nonlinear relationships (Eta)
assumptions of regression
linera relationship between X and Y line of best fit in the scattergram- higher correlation = closer dots error score=difference between actual and predicted criterion scores- assumed to be normally distributed with a mean of zero correlation between error scores and actual criterion scores is assumed to be zero, and the relationship is assumed to be homoscedastic
attribution dimensions
locus- internal/external stability- stable/unstable scope- global/specific happy couples make relationship enhancing attributions (example- attribute partner's positive actions to internal, stable, and specific factors unhappy couples make relationship diminishing attributions
two ways to determine interaction effects
look at boxes with cell means...see page 91, cell means across the top increase, cell means across the bottom decrease...if there with no interaction the means would move in the same direction you can also look at the direction of change moving down (columns) no interaction equals parallel lines on chart
Structural family therapy
look at repetitive patterns of interactions between family members and subsystems----Boundaries (implicit rules that determines the amount and type of contact involved), rigid= disengagement, diffuse= enmeshment
z scores
look up equation a measure of how many standard deviations a given raw score is from the mean distribution has mean of 0 and standard deviation of 1 permit comparisons across different measures and tests...shape of distribution doesn't change linear transformation- transformation of scores in which the distribution's shape does not change
see bottom of p. 98
looks at appropriate parametric and non-parametric tests given the design of the study
Prospect theory
loss aversion- tendency to be more influenced by potential losses than gains when making a decision people are not adverse to risk but loss this is why gamblers make riskier decisions after loss...get it back
parkinson's
loss of dopmine producing cells in substantia nigra..affects functioning in basal ganglia, thalamus and cortex four symptom categories- tremor, rigidity, postural instability, bradykinesia (slowness of voluntary movement) 40% with comorbid depression 20% of these people develop depression before impairment in motor functioning
contralateral neglect
loss of knowledge or interest in one side of body and environment on that side...often involves right parietal lobe
shaping
lovaas 1966 successive approximation reinforcing actions that get closer and closer to desired behavior
chronic stress
low performance absenteeism physical and mental health problems job satisfaction, high autonomy, power, social support, good health, ability to perform- all connected to lower levels of stress interventions work when they target the cause of stress
integrity tests
low validty for predicting job performance select employees with reduced probability or counterproductive job behaviors (sabotaging, stealing, drinking, using drugs, fighting)
Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)
main inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS involved in motor control and anxiety regulation abnormal levels affect sleep, eating, anxiety and seizure disorders, parkinson's and huntingtons
maintaining test security
maintain integrity and security of test materials do not give client MMPI to complete at home and don't give the items away in a publication
recordkeeping
maintain records until notified that all appeals have been exhausted....send any unique components of the record to the retainer before destroying the record
maintaining confidentiality
maintained except when (1) the client has waived his or her right to confidentiality 2) identifying info is adequately disguised or removed 3) breach is required or permitted by law
cerebellum
maintains balance, coordinates movements, controls posture damgae can produce ataxia (slurred speech, severe tremors, loss of balance)
glutamate
major excitatory nerurotransmitter in CNS involved in long-term potentiation- essential for memory formation abnormal levels contribute to anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and schizophrenia overactivity (excitotoxcitity) linked to seizures, stroke, traumatic brain injury, alzheimer's, huntington's, parkinson's
Fee Arrangements
make appropriate provisions when the costs of services is greater than anticipate or the client's ability to pay for services changes in some way avoid providing professional services on the basis of contingent fees
Autocratic leadership
make decisions alone and instruct subordinates what to do highest productivity when work is routine
logistic regression
make predictions about which criterion group a person belongs to different from discriminant function analysis- does not rest on assumptions of multivariate normal distribution and homogeneity of variance and covariance also predictors in logistic regression can be nominal as well as continuous (unlike DFA- continuous variables) used with dichotomous dependent variables...person is in one of two criterion groups can be extended to 3 or more dependent variable categories- polytomous logistic regression
reasonable accomodation
making facility accessible t opeopl with disabilities, job restructuring, adjusting work schedules, modifying exams, providing qualified readers or interpreters
Teacher behaviors
male and female teachers interact differently with male or female students consistent with gender stereotypes... males more likely to receive praise, attention, and feedback from teachers that fosters academic achievement teachers more likely to give male students help in answering questions describe good male (active, aggressive, assertive, adventurous, curious) and female (calm, conscientious, appreciative, cooperative, sensitive, dependable, mature, mannerly) students in different ways
Fragile X Syndrome (Martin-Bell Syndrome)
males and females combo of physical, intellectual and behavioral deficits (mental retardation, facial deformities, speech abnormalities)
Group differences in intelligence
males and females do not significantly differ differ on some specific abilities like verbal (female) and spatial/math (male) differences decline with age and are affected by environmental factors whites outperform African Americans by a standard deviation...gap has narrowed since the 1970s (not know if it's genetics, environmental factors, or test bias)
gender and aggression
males are more aggressive than females..difference greater for physical than verbal aggression...females more likely to engage in relational aggression, which involves harming a person's relationships
factitious disorder treatment
managing rather than curing the disorder, strong therapeutic alliance, supportive therapy, and consistent care
ethical standards
mandatory and enforceable cited in a charge of ethical misconduct brought against psychlogist by an ethics committee not exhaustive
Specific phobia
marked fear of or anxiety about a specific about or situation...avoid it or endure it under significant distress (animal, natural environment, blood-injection-injury, situational, and other) etiology- heredity, neurotransmitter abnormalities, dysfunctional cognition, observational learning, classical conditioning treatment- exposure with response prevention, in vivo, exposure combined with applied relaxation for claustrophobia....blood-injection-injury: exposure with applied tension
sex therapy
masters and johnson: pairing activities associated with performance anxiety with activities that promote pleasure and relaxation
semantics
meanings expressed in words and sentences
cell means
means inside the boxes
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
means of more than two groups are compared, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) what is the probability that these means are from the same population? F ratio- if the vlaue of F is statistically significant, then the means are significantly different and the null hypothesis is therefore rejected...only tells you there is a difference in group means...doesn't tell you which groups differ from other groups when an ANOVA yields significant results, post-hoc tests must be conducted to identify exactly where the significant differences lie
heterotrait heteromethod coefficients
measure different traits using different methods low correlation here provides further confirmation of discriminant validity
heterotrait-monomethod coefficients
measure different traits using the same method discriminant validity, this correlation should be low
kappa coefficient
measure of agreement between two judges who each rate a set of objects using nominal scales
Columbia Mental Maturity Scale- Third edition
measure of general reasoning ability ages 3.5-11.9 which drawing does not belong to the others, no verbal response required developed for kids with cerebral palsy, kids with brain damage and sensory impairment
Kuder-Richardson formula 20
measure of inter-item consistency used when test items are dichotomously scored
sum of squares
measure of variablity of a set of data between group sum of squares and within group some of squares (summed together) first step in calculating the F ratio
z scores
measure the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation
Peabody Picture Vocabulary test- 4th edition
measures receptive vocab 2.5-90+ 4 pics on each of 228 cards, match stimulus word to pic on card good for speech and motor impairment
limbic system
mediates emotional components of behavior contains amygdala, septum, cingulate cortex, and hippocampus
auditory cortex
mediation of auditory input damage= agnosia (cant distinguish sounds), auditory hallucinations, other weird stuff
gender differences in behavior
men are somewhat more aggressive, competitive and task-focused than women women somewhat more sensitive, cooperative, and people focused
gender differences in communication
men talk for longer periods than females do, are more likely to ignore previous statements by others, and interrupt more often for the purpose of gaining control of the discussion females more likely to interrupt to provide support or express interest, use modifier and qualifiers, and attach tag questions to statements these are due to differences in gender roles of subordination and dominance
Heuristics
mental shortcuts that people use to quickly form judgments or make decisions
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
method of performance measurement that rates behavior in terms of a scale showing specific statements of behavior that describe different levels of performance set of "behavioral anchors" (critical incidents) is created, with each anchor being tied to a numerical point on a likert scales (7- very concerned if client is distressed...1- often late and often cancels sessions) advantage- information useful for feedback disadvantage- time consuming, useful for particular job
self-serving bias
miller and ross 1975 people tend to attribute their failures to situational factors but successes to dispositional factors
psychostimulants
mimic action of norepinephrine and dopamine in the brain methylphenidate (ritalin, concerta) pemoline (cylert) amphetamine-dextroamphetamine (adderall) uses: ADHD, narcolpepsy, decrease motor activity and impulsiveness, increase attention side effects: insomnia, decreased appetite, weight loss, stomach ache, dysphoria, growth suppression in kids, exaggerate tics
Narcotic-analgesics
mimic bodies natural pain suppression opiates- opium, morphine, codeine synthetic and semi-synthetic opioids- heroin, methadone, oxycodone, hydrocodone, meperidine uses: pre-operative medication to induce relaxation, acute and chronic pain, methadone for detox side effects: dry mouth, nausea, pupil constriction, hypotension, cough suppression, sexual dysfunction, respiratory depression, overdose- decrease pulse rate, convulsions, coma, death...pleasure decreases, use is to stave off withdrawal
Goals of existential therapy
minimize neurotic anxiety and tolerate existential anxiety through authentic therapeutic relationship
sex hormones in adult males
minimum level of testosterone need to maintain sex drive...added above minimum has no additional effect
factors that affect conformity to minority
minority influence (Moscovici, 1976; Hollander; 1958) minority... 1. present info consistently without appearing inflexible 2. are more likely to get majority members to reassess their beliefs 3. needs idiosyncrasy credits, history of conforming to group norms, contributing something special to the group, or being the group leader
Techniques of solution focused therapy
miracle question, exception questions, scaling questions (how severe), formula first session task
Diagnostic overshadowing
misdiagnosing a problem by focusing on a salient characteristic that has nothing to do with the problematic issue (i.e. sexual orientation)
Sympathetic nervous system
mobilizes body's resources and prepares for "fight or flight response" causing increased heart rate, pupil dialation, increased blood flow to extremities, inhibition of digestion, conservation of energy stores to glucose
discrepancy and attitude change
moderate amount of discrepancy is best...too high or too low will not change anyone's mind (highly credible communicator is best for this)
job satisfaction
moderately and negatively related to absenteeism and turnover (-.40) significant relationship for poor performers but not for good performers correlation to performance is positive but weak (.14)...moderated by degree to which pay is connected with performance (more positive when pay is tied to performance) related to both physical and mental health better predictor of longevity than physical health or tobacco use
self-monitoring
monitor and adjust behavior to fit situation
MAOIs
monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Actor-observer effect
more likely to attribute others bx to dispositional factors but attribute your own behavior to situational factors
factorial anova
more than one independent variable....when a study involves two independent variables a factorial anova=two way anova...three way anova if three independent variables
Kruskal-Wallis Test
more than two groups are to are to be compared essentially an analysis of variance for rank ordered data
Genralized Anxiety Disorder
most days for six months or longer...3 or more symptoms (one or more symptoms for children) (restlessness, feeling on edge, being easily fatigued, poor concentration, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance) etiology- genetic factors, bx inhibition, neuroticism, automatic catastrophic thoughts treatment- CBT, psychoeducation, relaxation training, cognitive restructuring, exposure, relapse prevention.....benzos, SSRIs, anxiolytics (buspirone)
conduct disorder treatment
most effective b4 adolescence and when family interventions parent management training multi systemic treatment functional family therapy
training
most frequent types of training are... ...occupation specific technical training... ...followed by computer-related and managerial-supervisor training 3 basic steps in training program development 1. needs analysis 2. program design 3. program education
mode
most frequent value multimodal and bimodal works too
random assignment
most powerful method for controlling extraneous variables...purpose to obtain equivalency among groups (will be distributed to groups equally) the "great equalizer"
Type A personality
most vulnerable to stress on job (competitive, urgent, hostile, anger, impatience)
Expectancy theory
motivation a function of three variables 1. effort will lead to successful performance (expectancy beliefs) 2. belief that successful performance will result in certain outcomes (instrumentality beliefs) 3. desirability of those outcomes (valence)
Responses to basic anxiety
moving toward others, moving against others, moving away from others (healthy persons use all three, neurotic people use one)
cyclothymic disoder
multiple hypomanic and depressive symptoms that do not meet the criteria...sugnificant distress and impaired functioning..symptoms must be present for at least half the time...person cannot go more than two months without symptoms duration: 2 years in adults, 1 year in children
multiple relationships
multiple relationship occurs when a psychologist is in a professional role with a person and 1) at the same time is in another role with the same person and 2) is related to a person closely connected to that person, or 3) promises to enter into another relationship in the future dont do if it will impair your objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing your functions as a psychologist if they won;t cause impairment or harm they are not unethical
referral fees
must be based on actual costs for making the referral and not on the referral itself
informed consent for assessment
must do it unless... 1. testing is mandated by law 2. implied b/c its a routine activity 3. purpose of testing is to evaluate person's capacity to make decision
multiple cutoff
must score above a minimum cutoff point on each predictor to be hired non-compensatory technique- useful when minimum level of competence in multiple domains is necessary to succeed
employee assistance programs
must treat confidential information the same way
services transmitted and stored electronically
must use coding and other techniques that restrict access to identifying information
Montessori method
natural initiative, abilities, and interest practical life skills- skills needed for independence and self-reliance sensory skills- special materials and activities language and math skills- variety of materials for this physical, social, and cultural skills- individualized physical activities and activities designed to promote shared responsibility mixed results- some studies show benefits while others show no differences
unconditioned stimulus
naturally produces target response
vestibule training
near the job training, physical simulation or replication of the actual work (apollo 13) good when the consequences of errors are too serious for on the job training
dependent personality disorder
need to be take care of, clinging behavior, fear of separation clearly excessive, not just cultural norms
Positive/negative feedback (family therapy)
neg feedback- info/actions that maintain status quo, pos feedback- cause deviation, instability, change
DSM- personality inventories
negative attachment detachment antagonism disinhibition psychoticism
symbolic racism
negative racial affect with belief that members of other groups violate trad conservative values do not support affirmative action and welfare sears 1988
skewed distributions
negative- more scores on right and long tail to the left...easy test positively skewed- more scores on left, long tail to the right...very few high scores...hard test tail tells the tale
mild neurocognitive disorder
neurocognitive disorder in which the decline in cognitive functioning is modest and does not interfere with the ability to be independent
dopamine
neurotransmitter active in the basal ganglia, limbic system, and frontal lobes involved in movement, learning, moods, stimulant effects, opiates, nicotine abnormal levels linked with depression, schizophrenia, tourette's, ADHD, huntington's, parkinson's
serotonin
neurotransmitter involved in anxiety regulation, mood, memory, aggression, pain, sleep, appetite, and sexuality low levels linked with depression, aggression, PTSD, OCD, bulimia
acetylcholine
neurotransmitter produced by cholinergic neurons found in CNS and PNS, involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, sexual behavior, sleep...can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on the location, causes muscles to contract heart and respiratory muscles degeneration of ACH receptors in hippocampus associated with memory loss in Alzheimers
Hearing development in infants
newborn's hearing only somewhat less sensitive than an adult preference for human voice after birth, recognize mother's voice, and distinguish between vowels auditory localization- there at birth, goes away at 2-4 months, comes back at 12 months (turning head toward direction of sound)
Thomas and Chess temperament theory
nine dimension activity levels rhythmicity adaptability approach/withdrawal threshold of responsiveness intensity of reaction quality of mood distractibility attention span/persistence
Fetal period
ninth week until birth organ systems are less vulnerable to teratogens...but exposuse can affect organ functioning and growth, also impaired intellectual and emotional functioning
non-parametric tests
nominal or ordinal data or when the assumptions of a parametric test are severely violated
multiple hurdle
non-compensatory- must also meet minimum level of performance on multiple predictor to be hired predictors administered one at a time in predetermined order...others only given if successful at previous levels saves time and money
eta
nonlinear coefficient anxiety and children's learning (pattern is a U of inverted U)
assumptions of parametric tests
normal distribution homogeneity of variance- variance of all groups is equal independence of observations- scores within the same sample or group should not be correlated with each other if assumptions are not met, use of parametric tests can lead to misleading results...minor violation of the first two assumptions will not invalidate results of the test parametric tests not not robust with regard to the independence of observations assumption
relationships between mean, median, and mode
normal distribution- all equal positively skewed- mean greater than median, median greater than mode negatively skewed- mode is greater than median, median is greater than mean
Healthy cultural paranoia
normal distrust and suspicion in respones to oppression and racism...black client may not disclose to white therapist...different from functional paranoia (pathological condition characterized by pervasive mistrust and suspicion)
anorexia treatment
normal weight behavioral and cbt interventions family therapy- family lunch
personal space
north americans, british, and scandinavians require more personal space than arabs, latin americans, and french (sommer, 1969) men prefer more than women in most social situations, but results are inconsistent most space needed 1. male/male 2. female/female 3. male/female
Correlation and causality
not equivalent ice cream consumption does not cause boating accidents but if two variables are causally related there will be a correlation between them necessary but not sufficient condition of causality
ambivalent racism
not overtly prejudiced, recognize racial inequities believe in meritocracy and are willing to accept different outcomes because they believe these are the result of taking advantage of opportunities
type 1 error and alpha level
null hypothesis rejected when it is true- concludes that a difference exists when it really does not alpha level- probability of making type one error, level of significance (p level, .01-.05)...alpha level is set by researchers so he or she always has probability of making a type 1 error .05- results of statistical test indicate there's a 5% or less chance of the null hypothesis being true, then the researcher will reject the null retention region and rejection region under the curve...we reject null if its under .05, this is the same as reaching a particular significance level
null v. alternative hypothesis
null-hypothesis of no difference alternative- experimental hypothesis, th IV impacts the DV when null is rejected, alternative is accepted and vice-versa null implies no rx between IV and DV- implies sample means are drawn from same population alternative- there is a rx between IV and DV, implies sample smeans are sufficiently different to conclude they come from different populations
factors that affect effectiveness of classical conditioning
number of conditioning trials- more equals stronger cr...but crash is never really as strong as ur order and timing 1. delay conditioning: overlap of CS then us 2. trace conditioning- CS before us 3. simultaneous conditioning- some time delay conditioning most effective
naturalistic research
observed and recorded in its natural setting or in a setting as similar to the natural one as possible this type of research controls to threats to external validity like the hawthorne effect study lacks internal validity different than analogue research- lab results applied to the real world
classical test theory
observed score = true score + error
frequency recording
observer keeps count of the number of times the target behavior occurs
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
obsession with orderliness, perfectionism, and control limits flexibility, openness, and efficiency does not involve obsessions or compulsions
criterion contamination
occurs when a raters knowledge of a person's performance on an assessment instrument affects how the rater evaluates the person's performance when they are on the job
operant extinction
occurs when reinforcement is withheld from a previously reinforced behavior and the behavior is decreased or eliminated
Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
old block reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin at synapse Major Depressive disorder (hopelessness, anhedonia, vegatative symptoms) dysthymic disorder panic attacks agoraphobia obsessive compulsive disorder enuresis chronic pain side effects- dry mouth, constipation, blurred vision, gastro, sexual, drowsy, weight gain, confusing, memory, sometimes heart problems, sometimes suicide
sexism
old-fashioned sexism- women inherently inferior to men modern sexism- believe women are no longer discriminated against and resent women's demands for special treatment Glick and Fiske- combines hostile and ambivalent sexism, hostile- women as opponents who try to deceive and control men, benevolent- women need protection and are deserving of adoration, strong endorsement of one type is often associated with strong endorsement of another type
drugs and age
older age = decrease in metabolism= extend half life of drugs= increased risk of toxicity
Delusional disorder
one month or more of delusions...overall functioning may not be markedly impaired erotomanic- they love me grandiose- remarkable talent or discovery jealous- they are unfaithful to me persecutory- conspired against, cheated on, spied on, maliciously maligned somatic- abnormal body functions or sensations mixed- more than one theme unspecified- cannot be determined or does not match specific type
insulin
one of the hormones released by the pancreas stimulates uptake of glucose and amino acids into cells
brief psychotic disorder
one or more characterisitc symptoms...at least one of the top three duration- one day to less than one month...eventual return to functioning...often follows exposure to stressful event
Social anxiety disorder
one or more situations when one might be exposed to the scrutiny/negative evaluation of others, at least 6 months etiology- heredity, behavioral inhibition, conditioning, observational learning, cognitive biases treatment- exposure with response prevention, cognitive re-structuring, social skills training, anti-depressant drugs, anti-anxiety drugs, beta-blockers
somatic symptom disorder
one or more somatic symptoms that cause distress and anxiety or persistent thoughts about the seriousness of symptoms present for at least six months
hypertension
one third of the adult pop primary- dont know cause, age, obesity, stress, family hx, smoking, high sodium are risk factors secondary- causes by kidney disease, blocked arteries, diabetes, endocrine disorders, pregnancy, sleep apnea
interviews
only moderately accurate in predicting job performance validity depends on the content of the interview... situational interviews have higher ratings than job-related, which have higher validity than psychologically based interviews structured have higher predicitive validity than unstructured (.51 to .38) structured board interviews using consensus ratings are the highest corrected validity
cofd- course/prognosis
onset 2-7 years old, 65-85% recover...symptoms at age 8 a good predictor
racism
opinion polls, psychology, and legislation suggest racism is declining in the United States continues in contemporary, subtle forms
Freud's theory of psychosexual development
oral- birth to a year, fixation may result in habits like thumb sucking, nail biting, overeating in adulthood anal- 1-3 years, fixation produces anal retentiveness (obsessive punctuality, orderliness) or anal explusiveness (messiness and disorder) Phallic- 3-6, oedipal(boys) and electra(girls), sexual desire for opposite sex parent, if conflict is resolved, child identifies with same sex parent and superego is formed Latency- 6-puberty, sex repressed and dormant, solidifying superego by playing and identifying with same sex children and internalizing the values of society Genital- post-puberty, mature sexuality
ordinal data
ordering of categories we don't know anything about how much more or less of the attribute is possessed by the individuals rank data, high-moderate-low, strongly agree-strongly disagree
Law of Readiness (Thorndike)
organism must be ready/motivated to act in order to form connection between response and consequence
Systems approach
organization is open system receiving input from within and without, changes in one part affect all other parts, situational/contingency approach Assumptions 1. Workers have diverse needs 2. organizations vary in terms of structure, culture, and other characteristics 3. There is no one strategy that will work for all people in all organizations at all times
Beck's Cognitive behavior therapy
originally for depression...how we feel and act is largely determined by how we think
Partial (focal) seizures
originate in localized area in one side of the brain, and affect one side of the body...may spread and become more generalized simple partials don't cause loss of consciouness, but have uncontrollable movements, sensory symptoms, and autonomic symptoms complex partials begin with an aura, alteration in consciouness, automatisms temporal lobe seizures- automatisms, auditory hallucinations, , other sensory phenomena, deja vu, depresonalization, autonomic symptoms
Neurotic anxiety
out of proportion to cause...unconscious, and rooted in lack of responsibility
dependent variable
outcome variable
hyperthyroidism
over-secretion of thyroxin (Grave's disease), speeds up metabolism, increase appetite, weight loss, accelerated heart rate, nervousness, agitation, heat intolerance, insomnia, decreased attention span
Mistaken (unhealthy) style of life
overcompensation for feelings of inferiority and guided by goals that reflect self-centeredness
Language errors
overextension- using word to broadly underextension- using word too narrowly overregulation- age 3-4, child misapplies general rules for plurals or past tense to exceptions
effects of divorce on children
painful emotions behavioral problems moderated by child age and gender- preschool children have most negative outcomes in the short run, long term consequences may be worse for older kids difficult for kids to understand reason for divorce boys more obviously struggle, girls have a sleeper effect (problems later on) parent's relationship following divorce is a big factor frequent contact and good relationships with parents are important
in vivo aversive conditioning
pair undesirable behavior with real aversive stimulus booster sessions may be needed
covert sensitization
pairing imaginative scenes of target behavior with scenes focused on adaptive alternate behavior overcomes et hi ical and practical problems with in vivo aversion
classical conditioning
pairing neutral stim with unconditional stim...neutral stim becomes conditioned stim
cluster a
paranoid- distrust,suspicious schizoid- detachment from Rxs and restricted emotion schizotypal- low rx ability, distorted thoughts, behavioral eccentricities
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
parent and student rights regarding student records maintained by institutions that receive federal funds 1.) parents and eligible students have right to access student's records and challenge its content 2.) can't release student records without eligible student or parent consent except in certain circumstances (release to professional who have a legitimate educational interest in student, to authorized individuals for financial aid decisions, to another school where the student is tranferring) 3.) "Educational records" include a psychologists evaluations and other materials maintained by psychologist for the educational institution..personal and individual notes aren't included 4.) records that are no longer useful or relevant for the student or the educational institution are to be destroyed (exceptions: records for research purposes and records for which a review request is outstanding)
minors
parent or legal guardian has right to obtain info revelaed by the minor in therapy except in legally defined situations have parent and legal guardian agree at beginning of therapy what will and won't be disclosed
Reducing aggression
parent training programs social skills training- alternative ways of resolving conflict, cognitive strategies for interpretation of behavior, empathy training (Berk, 1991)
Separation anxiety disorder- etiology
parental overprotectiveness and insecurity resulting from a loss and other trauma...often precipitated by major life stressor
primary motor cortex
part of the pyramidal motor system (neuron pathway from motor cortex to spinal cord).....voluntary motor, fine movement, speed, strength lesions= contrlateral motor weakness, paralysis, apraxia (problems coordinating complex movements
ADHD
pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity for six months, onset before 12 years old, apparent in two settings....impairs social, academic, or occupational functioning at least six symptoms for persons under 17...five symptoms for over 17
conduct disorder
patterns of behavior in which the rights of others or basic social rules are violated 3 symptoms for twelve months 1 symptom for six months aggression to people and animals destruction of property lies theft
effects of job characteristics
pay = more satisfied...more autonomy, challenge, control two things that determine perceptions of fairness- 1. extent to which pay is related to level of performance and 2. comparable worth (is my pay comparable to others in the same position)
ADHD inattention symptoms
paying attention to detail sustaining attention not listening not finishing work forgetful in chores
hawthorne effect
people behave differently due to the mere fact of participating in research
Need theories of work motivation
people exert effort when that effort will help them meet certain needs
Etic perspective
people from different cultures are essentially the same and mainstream theories apply equally well
Emic perspective
people from different cultures differ in important ways and some theories may be inappropriate
social learning theory and aggression
people learn aggressive behaviors by observing others (bandura)...bobo the clown children watching aggression awarded or given no consequence are more likely to behave aggressively than those who watch the aggression be punished...but if they subsequently got an award for being aggressive all three groups were more aggressive...reward more important than learning for performing the behavior repeated exposure to media violence creates hostile expectation bias which causes people to act more aggressively watching violent porn reinforces myths about rape for men and women and may increase willingness of male viewers to act aggressively toward women
Transtheoretical model
people pass through predictable stages of change 1. Precontemplation- no plan 2. Contemplation- ambivalent, but sees need 3. Preparation- intending action in next 30 days 4. action- do it 5. Maintenace- at least six months 6. Termination- confident Factors that affect motivation 1. decisional balance 2. self-efficacy 3. temptation Goals: move through stages
social identity theory
people seek to maintain and enhance their self-esteem view in groups in positive ways and relevant out-groups in negative ways, which can lead to prejudice and discrimination against out-group members
item difficulty index
percentage of examinees who answer it correctly p=.80, 80% got it right....higher p=easier item most like .50 for maximum variability in scores lower if measure of mastery difficulty of test items should be halfway between one and level of success expected by chance alone
percentile ranks
percentage of individuals in the standardized group scoring below the individual's attained raw score...70th- scored better than 70% of other who took the test percentage score- items on the test percentile rank- other scores in the distribution flat, rectangular distribution...in each given range of percentile rank there will be the same number of scores
human relations approach
performance affected by social factors like attitudes to supervisors/co-workers and informal group norms Hawthorne effect- special attention workers received as research participants associated with increased productivity (influenced the development of this theory)
erectile disorder
performance anxiety faulty expectations
advantages of factorial anova over multiple one way anovas
permits assessment of both main effects and interaction effects
hardiness
perosnality style characterized by three traits 1. perosnal control 2. commitment 3. challenge personal control seems to be the most important
participant modeling
person observes model perform behavior and then perform behavior themselves with assistance from the model coping model- initially exhibits fear but overcomes it, more effective than a mastery model who shows no fear from the start
audience characteristics of persuasion
personality- low self-esteem, high self-monitoring, low need for recognition more impressionable mood- easily persuaded in good mood, but this depends on strength of argument (strong argument more persuasive for those in bad mood, weak argument more persuasive for those in good mood) forewarning- being told about persuasion and given counterarguments/weak arguments creates and innoculation effect
Existential therapy
personality/bx reflect struggle with "ultimate concerns of existence"...death, isolation, meaninglessness, freedom
subjective rating techniques
personnel comparison systems, critical incidents, behaviorally anchored rating scales, behavioral observation scales, forced choice checklists
elaboration likelihood model
persuasive message can change a person's attitude by the peripheral route or central route peripheral- cues other than the message (i.e. attractiveness of the communicator), when someone is apathetic, uniformed or in positive distractible mood) central- careful processing of the message, well-informed, thinks the message is important, and is in a negative or neutral mood...central better than peripheral for long-lasting attitude change
Neuropathic pain
phantom limb pain, may be due to inappropriate signaling of pain by neurons psych factors dont cause it but can play a role in course and sensitivity treated with anitdepressants, opioids, anticonvulsant drugs, topical analgesics, transcutanous nerve stimulation
phi
phi includes.... past, present, and future mental health condition provision of health care to the person past, present, or future payments for health care provided to the person phi doesn't include psychotherapy notes (given greater protectiuon and don't have to be released to patients or third party payers
gender issues in organizations
physical appearance- works against women for executive roles good for men leadership style- women need to be more concerned with interpersonal relationships and task accomplishments than men, females more likely to be participatory, men more likely to be directive and autocratic evaluations- women seen as worse, especially when they use male styles, men who use female styles are not viewed less favorably gender wage inequality- women earn 60 cents for every dollar earned by males organizations don't usually work for compensatory equality and some would claim they are inherently biased against women
attraction to romantic partner
physical attrcativeness is a priority, for women physical attractiveness is less important than status and resources
factors that affect attraction
physical proximity- exposure effect (can lead to dislike when initial interaction is unpleasant) similarity- birds of a feather flock together competence- most attracted to competent people when they occasionally commit a small blunder, this humanizes them and makes them seem more approachable reciprocity- more likely to be attracted to people who are moderately selective in liking or others, gain-loss theory predicts evaluations that change over time have a stronger impact on liking than do evaluations that are consistently positive or negative---i.e. we are more attracted to people that start disliking us and then change their minds over time physical attractiveness- what is beautiful is good, we believe beautiful people have many other desirable categories
maslow's need hierarchy
physiological safety social needs esteem needs self-actualization needs workers exert effort to lowest unsatisfied needs not much empirical support but need importance is related to job level
sampling with replacement
pick a sample from the population, record the sample value, and then return the sample to the population before we choose our next sample
administrative model
pick first solution that is minimally acceptable, good when bound by internal and external constraints
rotating
places the factors in a new position relative to the tests two general strategies for rotation: orthogonal and oblique orthogonal- factors that are independent of each other oblique- factors that are correlated with each other to some degree different types of orthogonal rotations- varimax, quartimax, equimax choice of rotation depends on researcher's theoretical assumptions communality can be calculated by squaring and summing the factor loadings only when the factors are orthogonal following a rotation- the eigenvalues may change...so eigenvalue is usually applied to unrotated factors only
cingulate cortex
plays a role in emotional regulation and pain perception
hypothalamus
plays role in physical expression of emotion through pituitary gland
Point-biserial and Biserial coefficients
point-biserial- relates to one continuous variable and one dichotomous variable (i.e. income level and gender) biserial coefficient- two continuous variables are correlated with one artificially being made dichotomous (income level and high or low scores)
Popularity with peers
popular children have- good social skills, outgoing, empathic, share and cooperate with others, intelligent, self-confident, enthusiastic, better able to control negative emotions
Apnea treatment
positional therapy, nose strips, oral appliances continuous positive airway pressure
Maternal employment
positive and negative effects positive- greater life satisfaction for mom, higher self-esteem, better family and peer relations, less gender stereotyped in beliefs and attitudes...positive effects more for daughters than sons (problems in academic achievement) negative- child depression and anxiety, poorer negative outcomes
internal validity
possible to determine whether a causal relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables or determine that it doesn't one group pre/post test design does not have internal validity...subject to confounds ensured when comparing two groups only if groups have equivalence on every variable except for the independent variable
causes of insomnia
precipitating events chronic daily stress
peer ratings of performance
predict performance, supervisor ratings, promotions, training success 360 degree performance rating include ratings from multiple people (supervisors, peers, subordinates, clients)
concurrent validation
predictor and criterion data collected at or about the same time most appropriate for tests designed to assess current status on a criterion
health belief model
predicts whether person will engage in health related behavior behavior based on the following 1. perceived susceptibility- risk of getting illness 2. perceived severity- seriousness of illness 3. perceived benefits- positive consequences of engaging 4. perceived barriers- difficulties of performing behavior interventions based on this model involve accurate information, boost self-efficacy, and cues for action (reminder cards and calls)
Attachment signs
preference for mom at 4 months clear signs of attachment at 6-7 months social referencing- read emotional reactions of mothers and caregivers separation anxiety- peaks at 14-18 months and declines stranger anxiety- strong negative reactions to strangers at 8-10 months of age, peak at 18-24 months, affected by situational factors
Theories of prejudice and discrimination
prejudice and discrimination are often supported by stereotypes, which are beliefs about members of a group that are overgeneralized, inaccurate, and/or resistant to change
Body dysmorphic disorder
preoccupation with at least one defect or flaw in appearance, minor or unobservable to others, repetitive behaviors or mental acts related to the perceived flaw...distress and impairment
illness anxiety disorder
preoccupation with having serious illness without having symptoms, performance of excessive health-related behaviors/avoidance of medical care (?) six months or more
grade equivalent scores
primarily used in the interpretation of educational achievement tests...computing the average raw score obtained by children in each grade scores on different tests not necessarily comparable....you can get equivalent score higher than you grad level and still be in the bottom half of the class (in this case, scores have a non-normal distribution)
Lazarus and folkman transactional model of stress
primary appraisal- threat or not secondary appraisal- can I deal(resources) cognitive reappraisal- continual monitoring
techniques related to factor analysis
principal components analysis cluster analysis
power
probability of rejecting the null when it is false..or declaring a difference when one really exists probability of not making a type II error the sensitivity of the statistical test- if a true difference exists in the population, we want a statistical test that is sensitive enough (powerful enough) to detect the difference not known before study and cannot be precisely calculated even after the study
confidence intervals
probability that a person's true score lies within a range of plus or minus 1 standard error of measurement of his or her obtained score is 68% +/- 1.96 standard error of measurement includes the true score 95% of the time +/- 2.58 standard error of measurement includes the true score 99% of the time
multicolinearity
problem of significant overlap between predictor variables...cant tell what makes the difference as a predictor or if they are different....new predictors don't add significant value to the model
resistance to change
problem unless employees given skin in the game for decision making
Specific learning disorder
problems in academic skills, 6months despite interventions slow/effortful word reading reading comprehension spelling written expression number facts/calculation mathematical reasoning substantially low given age
personnel selection
process of determining whether job applicants have knwledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics required by the job
impression formation
process of integrating information about a person to form an overall impression
Feature integration theory of visual attention
processing of visual stimulus has two stages 1. detection of features (pre-attention)- rapid, automatic, parallel processing of shape, color, and orientation) 2. Integration of features- features of a stimulus are processes serially (one at a time and more slowly), focused visual attention---results in perception of stimulus as an integrated whole (how is this possible?)
Rorschach
projective personality test 10 symmetrical ink blots- color mix Free association phase Inquiry phase Location (where on the card) Determinants (form,color, texture) Content (objects perceived) Popularity Form quality (card and content match)
integrity
promote accuracy, honesty and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology
general guideline 3: accountability
promotion of human welfare is the primary principle guiding the professional activities of all members of the psychological service unit
emotion-in-relationships model
proposes a person experiences strong emotions in a relationship when partner violates expectations and affects progress toward goal (closer to goal = positive emotion, hinders goal= negative emotions)
Decay theory
proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time...physiological changes in the brain leave a memory trace...not well supported,
within group norms
provide a comparison of examinees score to those of the most nearly comparable standardization sample....include percentile ranks and standard scores
psychological services delievered to or through organizations (a)
provide info to clients and those directly affected by services when appropriate nature and objectives intended recipients which are clients relationship with each person probable uses of services and info who will have access to info limits of confidentiality
normative measures
provide measure of absolute strength of each attribute measures by the test...answer every item can be compared to those of other examinees
general guideline 2: Programs
provide services in ways consistent with ethical guidelines, don't violate civil rights, maintain adequate records, ensure confidentiality
structural brain imaging
provides information about the basic structure of the brain and allows clinicians or researchers to see abnormalities in brain structure CT- costs less and less time MRI- 3d images
Major theories of gender role identity development
psychodynamic theory- resolved through identification with same sex parents social learning theory- rewards and punishments children receive for gender-appropriate and gender inappropriate behavior and children's observation and imitation of same-sex models gender schema theory- develop schemas of masculinity and femininity that they use to perceive and encode information about themselves and others, combo of social learning and child's own active processes cognitive developmental theory- Kohlberg's three stages, 2-3 yo child recognizes they are male or female, followed by gender stability and gender constancy at age 6 or 7
construct
psychological variable that is abstract not directly observable but inferred
boundaries of competence (b)
psychologist get training in how diversity factors affect services, teaching, and research
preamble
psychologists committed to increasing scientific and professional knowledge to improve conditions of society, organizations, and individuals protect human and civil rights protect freedom of inquiry, research, teaching, and publication
cooperation with other professionals
psychologists cooperate with other professional in order to serve clients mor effectively and appropriately
unfair discrimination against complaintants and respondents
psychologists do not deny persons employment, advancement, admission, tenure or promotion, based solely on having made or their being a subject of an ethics complaint
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
psychologists strive to benefit those who they work with and take care to do no harm
reviewers
psychologists who review materials provided for presentation, publication, and grants respect the confidentiality of and the proprietary rights of those who submitted it
sampling distribution of mean
pull multiple samples from population, calculate means.....place all those means in a distribution all samples must have the same size
interpreting and naming factors
purely statistical phenomenon. if the eigenvalue is large enough....it is assumed that factor represents a real trait being measured by some or all the tests in the analysis factors are usually "rotated" before interpretation involves re-dividing the test's communalities so that a clearer pattern of loadings emerges
transformed scores
purpose is to increase interpretability of raw scores z scores t scores stanines percentile ranks
cluster analysis
purpose of cluster analysis is to place objects into categories differences between cluster analysis and factor analysis 1. cluster can be done with any kind of data...not just interval or ratio 2. latent variables= factor analysis, cluster is just categories- not necessarily traits/variables 3. not designed for use in studies where there is an a priori hypothesis regaridng categories objects will cluster into divide people who engage in particular behavior into subtypes
self-handicapping
purposefully sabotaging own performance to save face
Therapist-client matching
race and ethnicity- inconsistent results
quasi-experiemntal design
random assignment to groups is not possible...often involves use of intact groups next best in terms of providing internal validity
Ways to increase external validity
random selection naturalistic research single and double blind research counterbalancing
random assignment versus random selection
random selection- refers to mehtod of selecting subjects for research study random assignment- takes place after the subjects have been selected
Efficacy research
randomized clinical trials...controlling as many aspects of treatment as possible...maximizes internal validity...minimizes external validity
True experimental designs
randomly assign subjects to different groups different levels of a manipulated independent variable
Mann Whitney U
rank ordered data when a study involves two independent groups used when... 1. when study data is rank ordered 2. when one starts with interval/ratio data bu finds assumptions of parametric tests are not met, so data is converted into ranks
Spearman's rho
rank-order correlation coefficient simply rho as well correlate two variables that have been ordinally ranked
operant strength of behavior
rate of animals response during acquisition. and extinction. phases of behavior
duration recording
rater records the elapsed time during which the target behavior or behaviors occur
Adolescent drug use
rates of alcohol, cigarettes, and cocaine decreased from 2002-2010, ages 12-17 13.6% alcohol 8.3% cigarettes 0.2% cocaine 7.4% marijuana male low ses history of phys or sex abuse low parental warmth/involvement gateway substances ---All predict substance abuse
personnel comparison systems
rating and employee by comparing him/her to other employees in rank order system paired comparison, every employee is compared with every other employee on every aspect of job forced distribution system (categorize employees into a predetermined distribution, i.e. top 10% through bottom 10%) reduce the effects of certain rater biases (central tendency, leniency, strictness)
Kirkpatrick's evaluation model
reaction criteria- affective response to quality, relevance of training (work utility) learning criteria- pre/post and end of course tests behavior criteria- impact of intervention on individual's behavior or performance in the workplace results criteria- impact of training on broader organizational goals and objectives
Cognitive distortions (Beck- CT)
reasoning errors
working with ethic, linguistic, and cultural differences
recognize limits of competencies and expertise seek consultation and make referrals to appropriate experts when necessary recognize the importance of ethnicity and culture make efforts to correct any prejudices or biases consider cultural beliefs and values of the client when providing intervention, not only differential diagnostic issues
continuous recording
recording all the behavior of the target subject during each observation session narrative description in chronological order
OCD
recurrent obsessions, compulsions, or both...must be time consuming...level of insight (good/fair, poor, absent) prevalence- 1.2% 12 month...higher rates in male children, 50:50 male to female adults etiology- heredity, low serotonin, abnormalities in several brain structures (orbitofrontal cortex, caudate nucleus) treatment- meds (TCA, zoloft, SSRIs), exposure with ritual prevention, CBT
trichotillomania
recurrent pulling out of hair which results in hair loss after repeated attempts to stop
panic disorder
recurrent unexpected panic attacks- persistent concern about having other attacks/consequences thereof and significant maladaptive change in behavior that is related to the attacks....at least four symptoms (palpitations, dizzyness, sweating, trembling/shaking, shortness of breath, depersonalization, chest pain, fear of losing control, derealization)...rule out other medical conditions that produce panic-like symptoms etiology- genetic, classical conditioning, certain cognitive biases treatment- CBT and pharmacotherapy, Panic control therapy....CBT combines psychoed, cognitive restructuring, relaxation-based strategies, interoceptive exposure (exposure to physical panic symptoms), and in vivo exposure....meds (SSRI, TCA, benzos)
punishment
reduce behavior positive- applied following behavior negative- taken away following behavior
cofd- treatment
reduce stress by avoiding correction and interruption asking fewer questions reducing disagreements habit reversal training 1. awareness training 2. competing response training (diaphragmatic breathing) 3. social support
Culture-fair tests
reduced cultural content and use nonverbal format to reduce cultural loading associated with language...most attempts are unsuccessful
standardization
reduces measurement error, helps to ensure that any differences between examinees' scores on a test are due to "true" differences in scores rather than random factors unrelated to what the test is measuring
privilege
refers more narrowly to a person's legal right not to have confidential information revealed in a legal proceeding holders of privilege are legally competent adults client has right to decide wave of privilege therapist can claim privilege on clients behalf when asked to disclose confidential information during a legal proceeding
Affiliation
refers to a desire to associate with others and is considered to be a fundamental motive or need
standard error of the mean
refers to expected error of a given sample mean extent to which a sample mean can be expected to deviate from its corresponding population mean Serror/mean= sd/square root of N N=size of sample, sd= standard deviation of scores in the population you can see the error becomes smaller as the fraction's bottom term (sample size) becomes larger (inverse relationship)
variability
refers to how spread out scores are range variance standard deviation
forensic psychology
refers to professional practice by any psychologist applied to the law to assist in addressing, legal, contractual, and administrative matters must consider a variety of factors with respect to competence and scope of service
item discrimination
refers to the degree to which the test item differentiates among examinees in terms of behavior that the test is designed to measure item has good discriminability if more high scorers than low scorers answer it correctly
Life space- Super
refers to various social roles adopted at different points in the life-span five figures illustrate aspects of career development 1. life career rainbow 2. archway of career determinants 3. ladder model of life, career stages 4. cycling and recycling model of career tasks 5. web model for bases of career maturity
gender stereotypes
reinforce sexism men are more competent by both men and women males and females both tend to devalue performance of women who engage in tasks usually performed by men...attribute achievement of women to luck rather than ability male and female mental health professional use similar adjectives to describe healthy adult and healthy male....use different and less positive adjectives to describe a healthy female
incentive theory
reinforcement theory of motivation...used primarily in organizational settings extrinsic rewards are the most flexible defined benefit pension raised productivity by 6% (Cornwell & Dorsey, 2000)
factors that determine reinforcement effectiveness
reinforcment after target behavior short interval between bx and Reinforcement move from continuous to intermittent schedule verbal, gestural and physical prompts up front for behavior which can be gradually removed as behavior is learned
multiple correlation coefficient
relationship between two or more predictor variables and and the criterion variable the higher the value of multiple R= the stronger the relationship between the combo of predictor variables and the criterion variable highest when predictors highly correlated with criterion, but not highly correlated with each other never lower than correlation between any one predictor and one criterion can never be negative- calculation doesn't allow it can be squared in order to facilitate its interpretation- proportion of variance in the criterion variable accounted for by combination of predictor variables
thalamus
relays sensory information to the cortex for all senses except olfactory (which is transmitted directly to amygdala in the limbic system) also involved in language, memory, motor activity
Neurotransmitters
releases by neurons to transmit information to other neurons and organ and muscle cells
relationship between reliability and validity
reliability needed for validity, but not sufficient for validity reliability coefficient puts ceiling on validity coefficient check formula p. 55 (test construction), for precise estimate of upper limit of validity coefficient
response burst
removal of reinforcer does not initially produce extinction. Behavior temporarily increases then gradually declines. (Parent training with older child temper tantrums---parent ignores, child screams louder & more frequently initially)
Order effects (carryover effects and multiple treatment interference)
repeated measures design when exposed to more than one treatment
Rumination Disorder
repeated regurgitation of food at least a month
Goals of reality therapy
replace failure identity with success identity through adoption of responsibility...instruction, modeling, role play, contracts, confrontation, humor...steps (WDEP)...wants, doing, effectiveness, positive plans for improvement
cognitive therapy goals
replace maladaptive thinking, collaborative empiricism (reattribution, redefining, thought recording, socratic questioning, behavior rehearsal/scheduling/exposure)
REBT- Goals and techniques
replacing irrational beliefs with effective ones, disputation (actively confront and challenge beliefs)
child abuse
report when reasonable suspicions that abuse occurred or is occuring don't need to report adults report unless perpetrator is still victimizing children may but not required to file report when outside of psychologist role
f ratio
represents comparison between two estimates of variance between group variance (treatment variance)- represents the degree to which groups as a whole differ from one another within group variance (error variance)- represents the degree to which subjects within experimental groups differ from each other if the null is true, two estimates of variance should be about the same...if there's an effect the variances should be different fraction: variance between groups/variance within groups...if top is large and bottom is small we have a large ANOVA statistic and that's good
Shadow
repressed, disowned, and undeveloped aspects of self
records
requirements vary from state to state, irs requires you keep records for at least seven years, or three years after minor turns 18, whichever come later balance possibility that records may be needed with the problem of having unnecessary documented information exist out there use passwords specify professional will for how records will be transferred or disposed of can't withhold records that are needed for emergency treatment simply because you haven't been paid
standard 1
resolving ethical issues
respect for people's rights and dignity
respect dignity and worth of all people, rights of privacy, confidentiality and self-determination try to eliminate biases based on those factors
spiritual worldviews
respect them....consult with spiritual leaders when appropriate
speed test
response rate assessed digit symbol subtest of the WAIS-IV
Automatic thoughts (Beck -CT)
response to events- not always in awareness...depression (negative cognitive triad of self, other, and world)
stimulus control
response to stimulus a bit not stimulus b...a=discriminative stimulus, b= s-delta stimulus involves combination of operant and classical conditioning
Interaction between testing and treatment
results of research in which pre-tests are used might not generalize to cases in which pretests are not used pretest may sensitize subjects to the purpose of the research study or otherwise increase susceptibility to respond to the treatment pretest sensitization
contralateral representation
right hemisphere controls left side of body and vice versa exceptions are olfaction and vision
divorce
risk factors- interaction patterns ratio of positive to negative interactions- stable relationship = 5 positive interactions to every negative interaction four horsemen of the apocalypse criticism defensiveness contempt stonewalling
syntax
rules of grammar that determine how to order words to form sentences and phrases
Objective measures of performance
salary work days missed number of absences do not measure many other important factors, may not be useful in evaluating performance of complex jobs
conflicts between ethics and organizational demands
same as conflicts with law
psychological test
samples of behavior ideal rather than a reality- no test is perfectly standardized or perfectly objective
House Path-goal theory of leadership
satisifaction and motivation maximized when they believ leader is helping them toward their goals 1. helps finds ways to achieve goals 2. removes obstacles to goals 3. rewards subordinates for accomplishing goals instrumental leaders- guidelines, rules, expectations Supportive- relationships Participative- support sub decision making achievement oriented- challenging goals and encourage higher performance best leadership style depends on attributes of situation
Interval data
scaled at equal distances but the data has no absolute zero point scores on most standardized tests, temperature scales addition and subtraction can be performed , but multiplication and division cannot
true negatives (valid rejections)
score below cutoff and suck on criterion
false negatives (invalid rejections)
score below cutoff but turn out to be successful on criterion
false positives (false acceptances)
scored above cutoff but suck at job
norms
scores of a representative sample of a population on a particular test different types of norm referenced scores (t scores, percentile ranks) 1. obtained from sample truly representative population for which the test was designed 2. indicate examinees standing on test as compared to other persons...permits comparison of individual's performance on different tests 3. drawback- don't provide absolute standard of good or bad performance (always provide relative standards of performance)
predictive validation study
scores on predictor collected first and criterion data collected at some future point better for tests designed to predict future status
discriminant function analysis
scores on two or more variables are combined to determined whether they can be used to predict which criterion group a person will belong to
histogram
scores plotted on horizontal axis and frequency of occurrence on each score is plotted on the vertical axis
cortisol
secreted by the adrenal cortex helps regulate blood glucose levels undersecretion leads to Addison's disease, which involves muscle weakness, faitgue, low blood pressure, decreased appetite, weight loss, irritability, depression and darkening of skin pigmentation oversecretion causes cushing's disease, which involves obesity, hypertension, inpaired concentration, memory, depression, anxiety and decreased libido saliva test used to monitor stress levels
hormones
secreted from endocrine glands- travel through blood influencing functioning of organs
privacy rule
see above, applies "covered entities"...psychotherapists and health care providers triggered when health care provider transmits phi electronically in connection with health care claims, health care payment, enrollment or disenrollment in a health plan, or other specified transaction
forensic psychology and multiple relationships
seek to minimize detrimental effects by avoiding dual relationships
one sample t test
seldom used compare mean of single sample to known population mean df=n-1
selection procedures
selection techniques that are predicitive of job performance 1. cogntive ability tests 2. job knowledge tests 3. work samples 4. interviews 5. biographical inventories 6. assessment centers 7. personality and interest tests
DSM- Severity measures
self and clinician report admin at initial interview and during treatment to monitor progress
Stress
selye- general adaptation syndrome alarm- hpa axis activated, increases epinephrine and norepinephrine increases blood sugar heart and respiration rate muscle tension resistance- pituitary releases acth, stimulates adrenal glands to release glucocorticoids, increase metabolism. and keep blood sugar high exhaustion- glands lose ability to.maintain elevations, we are exhausted this isn't true anymore
rods
sensitive to brightness, black, white grey periphery of retina
Pain in infancy
sensitive to pain at birth early exposure can cause higher responsiveness to pain later
classroom training
separate training facility more perosnalized attention given to trainees no worries about slowing production or costly errors downside: not acutally doing the job
chaining
sequences of response that must be linked together to form behavioral chain can be backward or forward
interrupted time-series design
series of measurements on the dependent variable is interrupted by the administration of a treatment (multiple measures allow one to rule out many threats to internal validity like, maturation, regression, and testing) problem- history threat to validity, event that occurs at same time as treatmentcan acocunt for observed changes in post-test phase (can control for this with two group time series design)s
boundaries of competence (a)
serve, teach and research in bounds of competence, education, training, experience,
general guidelines
set of aspirational statements intended to improve, quality, effectiveness, and accessibility of psychological services teaching, research, and writing do not fall in the purview of the general guidelines
cluster head aches
severe non throbbing pain that last fr 15-90 mins more than once a day over several weeks or months, unilateral- behind one eye, but may spread to face, cheek, or temple treat with oxygen therapy, sumtripan, other tripan, or local anesthetic
sexual harassment
sexual solicitation, physical advances, verbal or nonverbal conduct of a sexual nature 1. unwelcome, offensive, or creates a hostile workplace/educational environment and this is made known 2. sufficiently severe or intense to be abusive to a reasonable person in the context
consultation
share only info that is relevant to purposes of consultation
substances induced disorders
shared features- clinical symptoms, disorder develops within one month of use, not accounted for by another disorder, does not occur exclusively during delirium, causes significant distress/impairment alcohol intoxication alcohol withdrawal alcohol withdrawal delirum alcohol induced major neurocognitive disorder caffeine intoxication opioid withdrawal sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic wd stimulant withdrawal tobacco withdrawal
social judgment theory
sherif and hovland (1971) people more likely to be persuaded by a position when its in their "latitude of acceptance" rather than "latitude of nonacceptance" or "latitude of noncommitment" what they consider acceptable versus unacceptable versus neither accepting or rejecitn but willing to consider
dendrites
short fibers that project outward from cell and respond to stimulation from other cells (carry info to cell body)
professional psychologists
should have a doctoral degree from an accredited institution
major neurocognitive disorder
significant decline in functioning in at least one cognitive domain
behavioral-observation scales
similar to bars in terms of advantages and disadvantages the rater includes how often the employee performs each critical incident, always, sometimes, never
principal components analysis
similar to factor analysis- usually similar results 1. both techniques used for same purpose 2. in both you derive a factor matrix 3. eigenvalues indicate explanatory power of each construct, compared by squaring and summing factor loadings in the unrotated factor matrix's column 4. underlying elements are ordered in terms of their explanatory power two differences 1. terminology- principal component and eigenfactor instead of factors 2. assumption of PCA is that the total variance in a variable consists of explained variance and error variance....in factor analysis it is assumed to be composed of communality, specificity, and error...no distinction between communality and specificity in PCA 3. in PCA the factors are always uncorrelated...i.e. there is no such thing as an oblique rotation in PCA
Reversal (or withdrawal) design
simple AB design problem- possible that any observed change in behavior is due to historical event and extraneous factor single-subject design, treatment is withdrawn, data collected to see if behavior returns to original level includes ABA design and ABAB design- number of advantages, confirm treatment is responsible for change, and subject is left back in condition that researcher is trying to change (why is this good????!!!!)
AB design
single baseline phase and a single treatment phase...two points of data collection
calculating expected frequencies
single sample chi square- expected frequencies depend on nature of the null hypothesis, but often they are calculated simply by dividing the total number of subjects by the number of cells 100 subjects 2 cells---------50 expected frq multiple sample chi square- expected frequency for any cell= column totalXrow total/N column total=sum of observations within a column containing that cell row total= sum of observational within a row containing that cell N=total number of subjects
single and double blind research
single- not informed of the purpose of the study and don't know what treatment they're assigned to double- evaluators don't know either
sinus headaches
sinusitus- dull throbbing pain and pressure around the eyes, cheeks and forehead pain worsened by sudden movement of the head, , leaning foward and cold damp weather
premature ejaculation
six months, experienced on all or almost all occasions of sexual activity Senate focus- non demand pleasuring start stop technique squeeze technique zoloft ssris
female orgasmic disorder
six months, causes significant distress Senate focus directed masturbation kegel exercises
Sensorimotor Stage
six substages 1. early reflexes- birth to a month 2. Primary circular reactions- 1-4 months, repeat pleasurable actions with body 3. Secondary circular reactions- 4-8 months, repeat pleasurable actions with regard to objects and people 4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions- 8-12 5. Tertiary circular reactions- 12-18 months, deliberately change actions to discover the consequences of doing so 6. Emergence of representational thought- 18-24 months, develop mental representations Object permanence and deferred imitation (the ability to imitate an observed act at a later point in time)
music at work
slight positive effect on productivity if the work is repetitive, simple, and mundane. no consistent positive or negative effects for complex tasks workers like the idea of music in the workplace
bilingualism in children
smaller vocab to start but catch up in school temporary and permanent benefits- cognitive flexibility, divergent thinking, and metalinguistic awareness
morphemes
smallest units of meaning in a language and includes simple words (go, car)
phonemes
smallest units of sound that are understood in a language
item analysis
so reliability and validity can be built into the test from the start qualitative- related to content of test quantitative- measurement of item difficulty and item discrimination
maintenance of romantic relationships
social exchange theory- relationship with continue if benefits of relationship exceeds its costs equity theory- satisfaction and maintenance of close relationship depends on belief that there is balance in each partner's input-outcome ratio
avoidant personality disorder
social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation long for intimate relationships
Goals of solution focused therapy
solution builidng- 1. describe the problem, 2. work together to define realistic therapy goals, 3. explore times when problems wer less severe and explore why, 4. feedback, encourage, suggestions, 5. Evaluate progress and next steps
parietal lobe
somatosensory cortex- input and integration with other information (touch, pressure, kinesthesia, pain, temperature)
pain
somesthetic senses include: cutaneous senses (receptors sensitive to pain, temp and pressure) kinestheic senses (muscles and joints, detect body position and movement) vestibular senses (recpetors in inner ear, sensitive to gravity, balance, and acceleration)
Irrational beliefs (REBT)
source of problems and not meeting goals
causal attributions
specific type of social judgment that involves determining the cause of behavior
Father-child relationship
spend less time with kids than mothers mothers caregive more fathers play more- rough and tumble
Interpretation of the Pearson r
square it- percentage of variability in one measure that is accounted for by variability in the other measure reliability coefficient is an exception to this rule....never squared, always interpreted directly
standard deviation
square root of the variance expected deviation from the mean of a score chosen at random higher SD, the more scores in a distribution are likely to deviate from the mean
what to memorize for test
standard deviation curve percentages z score of +1 is equivalent to percentile rank of 84 and is therefore the cutoff point for the top 16%, -1 is percentile rank of 16 z score of 2 is 98 percentile rank, -2 z score is 2 percentile rank
mean square
statistical measure used to estimate between- and within-group variance between group variance is estimated by Mean Square between, which is equal to the Sum of Squares between divided by the df between within-group variance is estimated by Mean Square Within which equals the Sum of Squares within divided by the df within
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
statistical strategy for increasing internal validity...statistically adjusting the data post-hoc matching- after data are obtained, DV scores are adjusted so subjects are equalized in terms of status on one or more extraneous variables does not control for extraneous variables that the researcher has not identified and measured
client tests positive for HIV
still legally and ethically ambiguous APA 1991 1. legal duty to protect third parties from HIV infection should not be imposed 2. specific legislation to this effect is considered it should only permit disclosure when provider is aware of identifiable third party, provider has good reason to think third party doesn't knwo risk, client refuses or is unreliable for informing third party 3. providers who operate under these laws in good faith should not civilly or criminally liable for decision
stimulus generalization
stim similar to discriminative stimulus elicits some response
ADHD tretament
stimulant meds (benefits for 80% of persons) Combination of meds and behavioral treatment most successful
temporal lobe and memory
stimulating certain parts of right temporal lobe can produce deja vu experience medial temporal lobe involved in forming strong declarative memories (absence observed in patient HM after lobectomy)
Sexual development and behavior
stimulation from hypothalamus and pituitary gland to gonads, which secrete sex hormones puberty initiated by increase activity in hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis...genetically programmed but affected by other factors too
stimulus generalization
stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CResponse
termination of therapy
stop when it is no longer benefiting the client or is harming the client...provide termination counseling avoid termination because of actions of third party payers who won't pay for treatment.....referral isn't always the best course of action appeal the insurance company and work with client to figure out payment options
temporal lobes
storage of long-term declarative memories
impression management
strategies to control impression others have of them
random selection
stratified- taking a random sample from each of several subgroups of total target population (ensures proportionate representation) cluster- naturally occuring group of individuals (multistage cluster sampling involved successively selecting smaller clusters...states, districts, schools, classrooms)
Carroll's three stratum theory
stratum III= general intelligence stratum II= eight broad abilities (fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory and learning) stratum I= specific ability (language, reading, writing)
Temperament
strong genetic component contributor to personality most stable over lifespan when initial measure is administered when the child in 2 years old
interest tests
strong interest inventory kuder occupational interest survey useful for vocational counseling and predicting job satisfaction, job persistence, and job choice not great at predicting occupational success
Conformity to peers
stronger for positive than negative behaviors at 14-15 it is strongest for positive, neutral, and negative behaviors....then begins to decline with age older teens report most peer pressure to drink alcohol, have sex, and engage in other risky behaviors parents have more influence on values, choice of career and other life decisions
skill utilization
strongest predictor of job success for a wide variety of jobs
brain imaging techniques
structural and functional are the two types
levels of processing model (language)
structural-encodong physical properties phonemic- sound properties semantic- meaning
cooperation
studies with non-zero-sum games in which one players win does nt necessarily result in another player's loss...prisoner's dilemma game players more likely to use cooperation (remain silent) when they're able to communicate with each other before the game, when importance of cooperation is emphasized before the game, when players play the game repeatedly
serial position effect
study for memorization of words...primacy and recency effect distraction after info kills recency effect
psychophysics
study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them fechner- 2 kinds of thresholds absolute- weakest stimulus a person can detect (at least 50% of the time) difference threshold- just noticeable difference (JND), vary depending on type of stimuli and initial intensity
blocking
studying effects of extraneous variable to determine if and to what degree it is accounting for scores on the dependent variable involves making the extraneous variable another independent variable you can then separate the effects of independent and extraneous variables matching is designed to ensure equivalency blocking is used to determine the effects of the extraneous variable
childhood onset fluency disorder (cofd)
stuttering
crowding
subjective or perceived state that may arise when there is high population density effects depend of the circumstances- preexisting mood (crowding intensifies mood, whether positive or negative) adversely affects performance on complex task but not simple tasks
middle cerebral artery
supplies blood to parts of frontal, temporal and parietal lobes, and the basal ganglia the one most often involved in stroke hemiplegia, visual loss, aphasia as result of stroke
anterior cerebral artery
supplies frontal lobe, parietal lobe, corpus collosum, caudate nucleus leg hemiplegis, impaired judgment, personality change and incontinence as a result of stroke
posterior cerebral artery
supplies thalamus, temporal lobe, occipital lobe blindness, agnosia, visual deficits, language impairment and memory loss as a result of stroke
self-verification theory
swann, pelham, krull (1989)- people seek confirmation of self-concept whether it is positive or negative...interact with people who confirm self concept, pay attention to info that confirms self-concept, believe consistent info, more satisfied with self-verifying relationships
normal distribution
symmetrical bell curve, most fall in the middle
rods and cones
synapse with bipolar cells which synapse with ganglion cells axons of ganglion cells form optic nerve where the optic nerve leaves the retina contains the photoreceptors, which creates the blind spot
Transmission between neurons
synaptic transmission- chemical process that involves release of nuerotrnamsitter into synaptic cleft two processes terminate this- reuptake (terminal buttons take up excess nuerotransmitters) and Enzymatic degradation (enzymes break down neurotrasnmitter and remove them as waste)
premenstrual syndrome
syndrome involving physical and emotional symptoms occurring in the 10 days before menstruation significant distress and interference with daily activities
somatosensory agnosia
tactile agnosia (cant id objects by touch) asomatognosia (cant recognize own body parts) anosognosia (cant recognize own symptoms
media presentations
take precautions to make sure statements are 1) based on knowledge, experience, and best practice standards, 2) consistent with ethics code, and 3) does not indicate a professional relationship has been established with the recipient
avoiding harm
take reasonable step to avoid harming anyone I come into contact with
misuse of psychologists work
take reasonable steps to correct or minimize the misuse or misinterpretation
boundaries of competence (e)
take reasonable steps to ensure the competence of their work in the weak areas so you don't do harm
delegation of work to others
take reasonable steps to... 1) avoid delegating work to persons who have multiple relationships with those being served 2) authorize only responsibilities they can be expected to perform competently 3) make sure they do things competently
Memory in Infancy and childhood
techniques to study it- habituation, imitation, operant conditioning 2-3 months: reocgnition memory, cued recall, and episodic in place infantile amnesia- incomplete development of the brain and lack of language are hypothesized causes for lack of infant memory in adulthood improves at steady rate through childhood improvements in metamemory and metacognition at age 9-10
standard deviation of the sampling distribution
tells you how much a given value (i.e. a given sample mean) can be expected to deviate from the population mean
correlation coefficient
tells you magnitude and direction of the relationship between variables
barnum effect
tendency to accept vague descriptions of oneself (horoscopes) as accurate
fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute behavior to internal factors rather than situational factors
strictness
tendency to give negative ratings to all ratees, form of bias
contrast effect
tendency to give ratings on basis of comparison to other ratees
halo effect
tendency to judge all aspects of a person behavior on a single attribute or characteristic halo can be positive or negative
illusory correlation
tendency to overestimate relationship between events or other variables that are unrelated or only slightly related
false consensus bias
tendency to overestimate the degree to which others are similar to us in beliefs and behaviors
confirmation bias
tendency to seek, interpret, remember info that verifies one's existing beliefs rosenhan (1973) pseudopatient study- actual patients recognized clients weren't ill, but staff and professionals did not can be so strong it creates a self-fulfilling prophecy- expectations about behavior of others leads to fulfillment of those expectations
factor analysis and construct validity
test has high construct validity if it correlates highly with a factor it would be expected to correlate with (factorial validity)
nonparametric tests
test hypotheses based on dependent variables that are measured on an ordinal or nominal scale chi square Mann-Whitney U don't assume normal distribution- distribution free tests generally less powerful than parametric tests when using interval and ratio data and find the assumptions of parametric tests is severely violated....researcher should convert data to ranks and use the appropriate nonparametric alternative
work samples
test that measure a sample of work behavior in standardized, job like conditions...generally good predictors of job performance work samples of motor skills have more validity than work samples of verbal skills advantages: acceptable to applicants, less likely to lead to discrimination against minority groups used to id people who would benefit from training can be part of a realistic job preview in the selection process
predictor cutoff
tests developer attempts to find an optimal predictor cutoff score if examinee scores at or above the predictor cutoff score, he or she is selected....if they score below, they are rejected
typical performance
tests of typical performance tell us what an examinee usually does or feels interest and personality tests
construct validity
the degree to which a test measures the construct or trait worked out over time on the basis of accumulation of evidence
synathesia
the description of one kind of sensation in terms of another 60 different forms grapheme- numbers and letters associated with specific colors Cytowic (1993)- proposed the limbic system is the cause Other says increase neural activity between connected areas sensory deprivation, drug use, and brain damage can also be a cause
range
the difference between highest and lowest values in the set affected by extreme scores and outliers, usefulness limited, tell us nothing about distribution of scores across mean
Range of reaction
the genotype sets the upper and lower limits for possible outcomes of development (phenotypic outcomes)...environmental factors determine where in the range that the phenotype will fall
Law of Exercise (Thorndike)
the more an act or response is used in a given situation, the more strongly the act becomes associated with that situation and consequence
problem with multiple comparisons
the more comparisons that are done, the higher is the probability that at least one Type II error will be made post hoc tests take this into account by controlling the alpha level for individual comparisons, however, they differ in terms of the ampount of protection they provide against this increase in the "experiment-wise" error rate
General Mental ability tests
the most valid predictors of job performance across jobs and settings, with their validity increasing as the complexity of the job increases schmitt et al. (1998)- .51 validity coefficient when cognitive ability tests used to predict job performance rating hunter (1984)- .75 coeffiecient when tests are used to predict performance on a work sample
spontaneous discovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
spontaneous recovery (operant conditioning)
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished reinforcer
Explained variance (or eigenvalues)
the sum of squares of the loadings at the bottom of each factor eigenvalues measure the amount of variance in all the tests accounted for by the factor formula for percentage variance is (eigenvalue X 100)/(# of tests) in most methods of factor analysis....factors are ordered in terms of the size of their eigenvalues (i.e. factor I will explain more of what's going on with the test than factor II....and so on and so forth)
qualitative (descriptive) research
the theory is developed from the data rather than derived a priori (beforehand)...qualitative or descriptive research relied on to help develop experimental hypotheses participant observation non-participant observation interviews surveys case studies
realistic group conflict theory
the theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources robber's cave study (Sherif, 1966)- 12 year olds, conflict reduced by superordinate goals where groups could work together
incremental validity
the usefulness of a selection test in terms of decision making accuracy subtract the positive hit rate by the base rate 70%-50% = 20% incremental validity base rate= proportion of people hired using current selection technique incremental validity is maximized when validity coefficient is large, base rate is moderate and selection ratio is low
ethics codes goals
the welfare and protection of persons and groupswith whom psychologists work and the education of members, students, and the public regarding ethical standards of the discipline
range of scores
the wider the range of sampled behavior, the more accurate the estimation of correlation one way to increase correlation coefficient is to increase the range of observations
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
theory of 1) motivation and 2) satisfaction hygiene factors motivator factors not entirely supported by research...motivators more important than hygiene factors for employee motivation and satisfaction
Taylor's Scientific Management
theory of organizational behavior 1) Use scientific methods to determine best way of doing a particular job 2) divide jobs into most elementary components 3) use piece-rate incentive system in which pay depends on output assumptions- production a function of motivation, workers motivated by money, the average worker needs constant supervision
Criticism of Piaget's theory
theory underestimates the cognitive abilities of children, especially preoperational children not all adults reach formal operational stage..some use formal operational thought only within their areas of expertise
implosive therapy
therapist exaggerates imagined scenes to promote max anxiety...embellishes scenes with weird psychodynamic stuff
substance treatment
therapy drugs support motivational interviewing relapse prevention- relapse results from specific, external, controllable factors cbt
sexual dimorphism
there are sex-related differences in physical appearance of brain size, shape, and volume of corpus collosum, hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum exposure to testosterone/androgens may make the difference
Postmodernism (family therapy)
there is no reality, we create it through social interaction, Goal: deconstruct old views of reality and reconstruct new ones
appeal to fear
these generally don't work unless the message indicates ways to avoid fear and/or increase audiences sense of vulnerability to fear
suppressor variable
third variables that accounts for surprisingly low correlation between two variables test of mechanical ability predicting job performance as mechanic..reading ability for test can be a suppressor variable
awfulizing (rebt irrational belief)
this is the worst thing ever
operant conditioning
thorndike skinner
group decision making
thought to be better than individual decision making but affected by group polarization and group think
surveys
three basic techniques 1. personal interviews 2. telephone surveys 3. mail surveys vulnerable to many threats to validity, often internal validity is not and issue...external validity cna be ensured if random sample of population is selected biased sampling or selection poses a major threat to the validity of mail surveys
Woodcock Johnson IV
three co-normed test batteries, based on Cattell-Horn- Carroll model of intelligence assesses broad and narrow cognitive abilities Achievement- assesses academic skills and knowledge Oral Language- assesses oral language-related skills ages 2-80+
crying in infancy
three distinct cries basic- hunger pain angry attention- distinguished by three weeks cause changes in heart rate, skin conductance, and other measures of physiological arousal in both parents and non-parents different cultures use different methods for soothing a crying baby (western- lift baby to his or her shoulder)
memory multi store model
three memory stores sensory short term long term
Alderfer's ERG theory
three needs- existence, relatedness, growth...does not predict needs arise in hierarchical order
Raven's Progessive Matrices
three nonverbal measures of general intelligence good for non english speaking, hearing impairment or disability which of the alternatives completes the design Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices- 60 matrices, for 6 years old or older colored progressive matrices- easier, shorter version for examinees age 5-11, older adults, and examinees with mental and physical impairments
Piaget's theory of moral development
three stages premoral- birth-5, limited understanding of rules and other aspects of morality heteronomous stage- 5-6, children view rules as absolute and unchangeable and believe in imminent justice...the more negative consequences the worse the act is autonoumous stage- rules are determined by an agreement between individuals, and consequently are alterable...consider the intentions of the actor to be most important....switch to this stage happens because of a decline in egocentricism, social interactions with peers, gradual release from adult vigilance and restraint
Lewin's intrapersonal conflict
three types 1. approach-approach- goals between two equally desirable goals, easiest to resolve 2. avoidance-avoidance- choose between two equally undesirable goals, difficult to resolve, can cause person to freeze or escape situation 3. approach-avoidance conflict- one goal with both desirable and undesirable qualities, when a person moves close to goal, avoidance force becomes stronger, when person moves away from goal, approach force becomes stronger 4. double approach -avoidant conflict- two goals and both have desirable and undesirable qualities, hardest to resolve and often results in vacillation between the two goals
frequency distributions
three types of descriptive stats 1. frequency distribution- numbers of cases that fall at a given category or within a given score range (table, polygon, bar graph), cumulative frequency indicates total number of observations that fall at or below the given category or score 2. measures of central tendency 3. measures of variability
client is a danger to self
to degree that release of info is necessary to prevent danger...release only relevant information
career maturity
to what extent has person mastered tasks related to his vocational stage
timbre
tonal quality of sound the way we distinguish between sounds that have the same loudness and pitch same note played on a piano and sax
Specific learning disorder etiology
toxins malnutrition food allergies hemispheric abnormalities cerebellar-vestibular dysfunction dyslexia
Rancho Los Amigos Levels of Cognitive Functioning
tracks improvements in cognitive functioning following head injury
ways to reduce bias
training for accuracy rather than avoiding errors frame of reference training- help raters recognize multidimensional nature of job performance to ensure different raters have same conceptualizations of job performance
independent variable
treatment variable experimental variable
thorndike
trial and error learning connectionism- connection between response and consequence instru.ental learning- learning to help achieve task
Rigid family triads (structural therapy)
triangulation- parents pull child in two directions, "take sides"; detoruing- reinforcing deviant child behavior because it diverts attention from problems parents have with each other, stable coalition- two family members gang up on a third family member
correct decisions
true null retained when no difference exists false null rejected when difference exists
stages of group development
tuckman and Jensen (1977) 1. forming- not committed to group, uncertain about purpose, rely on leader for guidance 2. storming- power struggles and conflicts develop, subgroups and dropouts 3. norming- cohesion and working together toward goals 4. performing- accomplishing group goals and successfully working through problems 5. adjourning- concluding, mixed feelings about ending group
multimethod multitrait matrix
two distinct traits are being measured using two different methods (self-report and peer ratings)
contingency
two nominally scaled variables (father's eye color and son's eye color)
schizophrenia
two or more active phase symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized behavior, negative symptoms) for at least one month, with at least one symptom being delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech continuous signs of the disorder must have been present for at least six months and symptoms must cause impairment in one or major areas of functioning
dissociative identity disorder
two or more distinct personalities, possession, accompanied by recurring gaps in recall of ordinary events, personal info, or traumatic events that can't be explained by normal forgetfulness not a normal part of accepted cultural or religious practice
Schizophreniform disorder
two or more symptoms (delusions, halluncinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior)...at least one symptoms has to be one of the first three duration of at least one month but less than six months...impaired functioning not required for dx
degrees of freedom
two sources of degrees of freedom for a One-way ANOVA 1. df between (k-1, when k= number of groups) 2. df within (N-k, where N equals the total number of subjects)
one tailed v. two tailed hypotheses
two tailed- states that means are different from each other but we do not know which direction (this will change this) one tailed- states means are different and we know which direction (this will improve this)
reactions to social influence
types of reactions: compliance, identification (be like you), internalization (be more consistent with my values)
Existential anxiety
unavoidabel consequence of life conditions
on-the-job training
under guidance or experienced employer, supervisor, or training instructor rotating employees through several jobs to increase range of skills advantages- cost less disadvantages- carelessly planned and poorly implemented, slowing production rates and increasing accidents, current workers may not make the best trainers
hypothyroidism
under-secretion of thyroxin slows metabolism (reduced appetite, weight gain, low heart rate, cold intolerance, decreased sex drive, fatigue, depression, impaired memory
latent variable
underlying constructs are sometimes referred to as latent variables because the tests in the analysis are not directly intended to measure them purpose of factor analysis is to detect structure of a number of variables principal axis factor analysis maximum likelihood factor analysis all methods of factor analysis begin with the administration of all the terms of interest to the same group of examinees.....then a a correlation matrix is obtained
Schizoaffective disorder
uninterrupted period of illness in which there are concurrent psychotic symptoms and symptoms of a major depressive or manic episode....period of two weeks or more in which psychotic symptoms are present without mood symptoms
Guideline 1:providers
units should have at least one psychologist on board responsible for planning, directing, and reviewing the provision of psychological services limit practice, including supervision to areas of competence
interruption of psychological services
unless covered by contract, psychologists make reasonable efforts to plan for services in the event that they get interrupted illness death unavailability relocation
nominal data
unordered categories into which data may fall numbers may be assigned to nominal categories, but they are merely used as labels that could validly be replaced with names
Enuresis treatment
urine alarm 1 third relapse in 6 months antidepressants, antidiuretic, desmopressin
multiple regression
use of scores on more than one predictor variable to estimate score son criterion variable
Syntaxic Mode
use of symbols that have shared meaning, allowing for logical/sequential thought, meaningful interpersonal communication
canonical correlation
use when there are multiple criterion and multiple predictor variables
parametric tests
used for interval and ratio data t test ANOVA
assessment centers
used for the selection, promotion, and training of managerial level employees multiple methods (simulations, tests, interviews, in groups) in-basket test- simulations to see how person would respond to tasks performed on the job expensive to develop and administer
descriptive statistics
used to describes a set of data collected from a sample
inferential statistics
used to make inferences about and entire population on the basis of sample data
t-test (student's t-test)
used to test hypotheses about two different means cannot be used if there are more than two means involved in the comparison three types 1. one sample t test 2. independent samples 3. correlated samples significance= two means are significantly different and null hypothesis is rejected
one way ANOVA for repeated measures
used when all subjects receive all levels of the independent variable...also when a study involves more than 2 match subject
Multiple baseline design
used when the use of reversal design is not possible...unable to withdraw or reverse the treatment for ethical reasons don't involve withdrawal of treatment apply treatment sequnetially; across different baselines treatment applied sequentially across different behaviors of the same subject (multiple base across behaviors), to the same subject in different settings (multiple base across settings), or to the same behavior of different subjects (multipl base across subjects) if there are predicted effects across multiple baselines....can be more sure that the treatment is responsible for changes
criterion-related validity
useful for predicting an individual's behavior in certain situations scores on predictor test correlated with outside criterion important for tests used in applied situation
standard error of estimate
useful in interpreting individual's predicted score on a given criterion measure can be used to construct confidence interval around examinee's predicted criterion score if validity coefficient is 1, standard error of estimate would be zero
stepwise multiple regression
useful technique if you have relatively large number of potential predictors...but don't want all of them fewer predictors=less time and money to collect data...adding preditors evenetually leads to no increase in value because of multicolinerarity goal- come up with smallest set of predictors while maximizing predictive value forward stepwise regression- start with one predictor and add predictors to the equation one at a time backward stepwise regression- start with all potential predictors and remove predictors one at a time
levels of independent variable
values it could take (drugs, psychotherapy, drugs and psychotherapy...predict outcome on depression)...male and female
positive correlation
variables vary directly
negative correlation
variables vary inversely
unique variance
variance specific to the test and not explained by communality and factor loading is the unique variance (u squared) sum of the true specific variance and error variance
PTSD and culture/gender
varies depending on meaning and context and cultural understandings of distress higher prevalence for females across the lifespan
Serotonin Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs)
venlafaxine (effexor) duloxetine (cymbalta) desvenlafaxine (pristiq) MDD generalized and social anxiety panic disorder
asch study on conformity
vertical lines despite obvious inaccuracy of the confederates, actual subjects gave the same answers 37% of the time
intimate partner violence (IPV)
violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or sexual relationship...physical, psychological, sexual 35.6% of females, 28.5% of males reported being subject to violence, rape or stalking
Changes in adulthood
vision and hearing the first senses to decline presbyopia around 40- difficulty focusing on close objects reduced acuity, sensitivity, depth perception Interferes with reading, driving, and other daily activities decrease in hearing high frequency sounds- presbycusis (starts at 40 but most don't have significant difficulties until after 75)
occipital lobe
visual cortex for processing of visual information damage- blindness, blind spots, after-images, depth perception, alexia (cant recognize printed words), visual agnosia (cant rec objects by sight) damage to occ, par, temp junction= prosopagnosia- inability to recognize familiar faces (can id people from other cues sometimes, voice, dress)
sensory memory
visual= iconic memory auditory= echo memory short period of time
Holland type tests
vocational preference inventory self-directed search strong-campbell interest inventory 2-3 letter code
paraphilic disorders
voyueristic- observing exhibitionistic- exposing genitals froteurristic- touching and rubbing pedophilic- prepubescent children fetishistic- nonliving objects, non genital body parts transvestic- cross dressing, almost exclusively males
escape learning
w organism learns to escape an undesirable stim by engaging in a particular behavior
trend analysis
way of measuring the nature of an effect in a repeated measures design...used when both variables are quantitative...assesses trend of the change in dependent variable over time rather than IV/DV relationship magnitude (linear (no break point), cubic (2), quadratic (1), quartic(3)) break points in Y- point when scores for all subjects change direction in a predictable way assesses which if any trends tested for are significant can be conducted for more than one group of individuals (i.e. is linear trend different for one group as opposed to another)
Cultural concepts of distress
ways cultural groups experience, understand, and communicate suffering, behavioral problems, or troubling thoughts and emotions 1. cultural syndromes 2. cultural idioms of distress 3. cultural explanations of distress
Psychological laws
weber's law- JND for any stimulus increases proportionally to the magnitude of the stimulus fechner's law- logarhythmic relationship between psychological sensation and magnitude of physical stimulus Steven's power law- exponential relationship between psychological sensation and magnitude of physical stimulus, method of magnitiude estimation (1-10 rating of experience) differs for different stimuli- doubling brightness is experienced as doubly bright, doubly temperature experienced as crazy hot
response generalization
when a discriminative stimulus elicits similar responses
discriminant validity
when a test has a low correlation with another test that measures a different construct
deindividuation
when anonymous loss of sense of self awareness that leads to decreased ability to monitor and regulate one's own behavior, reduced ability to think rationally, and loosening of constraints against acting in deviant ways
convergent validity
when different ways of measuring the same trait yield similar results
informed consent to research (a)
when doing it, inform participants about...... 1. purpose of research, expected duration, procedures 2. their right to decline to particpate 3. forseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing 4. potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects 5. any prospective research benefits 6. limits of confidentiality 7. incentives for participation 8. whom to contact for info about research and participant's rights
group polarization
when each group member takes a more extreme view as the result of group discussion myers and bishop (1970)- attitudes toward prejudice polarized after discussion
trait negativity bias
when evaluating others, people often weigh negative information more heavily than positive information
release of information
when in doubt about an appropriate response or course of action, seek assistance from the retaining client, retain and seek legal advice from their own attorney.....formally notify the drafter of the subpoena or order of their uncertainty
differential validity
when multiple predictor variables are used to classify individuals into criterion groups, it is important that each predictor has a different correlation with each criterion variable IQ score has low differential validity because it is correlated with many criterion measures
multicollinearity
when predictors are highly correlated with each other
partial correlation
when relationship between two variables is obtained, but suspected that one or more other variables contribute to it......other variables can be controlled for by "partialing out" its effect
multiple relationships (c)
when required by law, institutional policy, or extraordinary circumstances to serve in more than one role in judicial and administrative setting...take efforts to clarify role expectations to the extent that confidentiality will allow
third party requests for services
when services areprovided at request of third party, clarify at the outset the nature of the relationship with all parties involved
social faciliatation
when the presence of other improves performance
social inhibition
when the presence of others inhibits performance
Canalization
when traits are highly influenced by genotype and relatively resistant to environmental forces (early motor milestones, 3 month old children do not walk)
Wilcoxon Matched Pairs test
when two correlated groups are being compared using rank ordered data used under same circumstances as Mann Whitney U
ceiling and floor effects
which occur when the measure does not include an adequate range of items at the extremes ceiling- doesn't have adequate range of difficult items floor- doesn't have adequate range of easy items threats to internal validity- represent interaction between selection and testing
stanine scores
whole number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores
systematic desensitization
wolpe 1958 training in relaxation construction of anxiety hierarchy to phobic stimuli desensitization-pair relaxation with exposure to CS when desensitized to 75% of hierarchy...they beginning. to face real life stimuli
score adjustment
women and minorities score lower on some tests ways to compensate 1. separate cutoffs 2. within group norming- when using this technique, members of different groups attain different raw scores but have the same norm-referenced score 3. banding- treating scores within a given score range (or band) as equivalent
sex hormones and females
women- sex drive less affected by hormones than other animals, but testosterone can help increase sex drive
bases for scientific and professional judgments
work should be based on established scientific and professional knowledge of the discipline
true positives (valid acceptances)
workers who score above cutoff point and turn out to be successful on the criterion
Multicompetent model of working memory
working memory as a system that provides temporary storage and manipulation of info necessary for complex tasks like language comprehension, learning, and reasoning four components 1. central executive- directs attention and controls the "slave systems" 2. Phonological loop- processes and temporarily store verbal information 3. Visuospatial sketchpad- processes and temporarily stores visual information 4. episodic buffer- integrates verbal and visual information
sibling relationships
young- prosocial, play-oriented middle- both prosocial and conflict/competition sibling rivalry- same gender who are 1.5 to 3 years apart spend less time together in teen years relationships persist into adulthood
social roles and aggression
zimbardo prison study- terminated the planned 14 day study after 6 days