Gender Final

Know why it is harder for women to quit smoking than men.

-Health behavior most closely linked to leading causes of death -Contributes greatly to sex differences in mortality -Adult men smoke more, but adult women have more trouble quitting (e.g., onset of depression, fear of weight-gain, etc.) -Changes in women's and men's rates of lung cancer can be directly tied to changes in their rates of smoking (because lung cancer develops over two to three decades following smoking) -It is the most preventable cause of death; big contributor to stroke and cancers. Smoking in women is related to early menopause, decreased fertility, and complications during pregnancy. -Most strongly linked to lung cancer. It's the leading cause of cancer death in men and women. It's not clear if smoking is riskier in sexes in terms of lung cancer. Studies are mixed. The women are more vulnerable to it in nonsmokers. -Men more likely to smoke across ethnic groups in U.S. there's no sex difference in smoking among LGB but men are more likely in heterosexuals. Men smoked earlier on because it wasn't appropriate for women back then. Later it came to be associated with women's fight for equality. Now the sex difference in smoking has decreased over time. Now lung cancer has declined in men and increased in women. Smoking slows lung developmen among adolescents and is stronger in females. Sexual minorities show that men smoke more. Environmental factors come into play with kids who have friends and family that smoke will smoke too. Mom's smoking more related to daughters than sons smoking. -Treatments to stop it are more successful in men than women. It's not clear if en have higher quit rates since people can also try to quit on their own. Sex differences in quitting was related to age; women quite more when younger but men quite when older. -More difficult for women to quit: it's associated with negative affect and depression and women are more likely to be depressed. If you have a history of it you are more likely to smoke. Women more likely to say it enhances their mood and helps them cope. Quitting is associated with increase in negative mood more in women. So depression interferes with quitting and smoking enhances mood more in women. -Women more psychologically addicted. They get addicted at lower levels and fewer cigarettes. Craving increased more in women following abstinence and negative induction. -Women less physiologically addicted to nicotine. More reinforcing for men. -Women concerned about potential weight gain-say it suppresses appetite more. Concerned if they quit they will gain weight. You do gain weight but not as much as you think. -Motivator for women to quit is pregnancy. If you have lower SES and a partner who smokes, you are more addicted.

Be familiar with sex differences in cardiovascular reactivity.

-Historically, men showed more cardiovascular reactivity to stressful tasks; thought to explain men's greater vulnerability to heart disease -More recently, sex differences in cardiovascular reactivity depend on nature of stressor -Women's and men's reactivity similar when they feel similarly challenged or threatened -Biology important but not sole explanation for sex differences in life expectancy This refers to increase in blood pressure and heart rate when engaging in challenging/stressful task. Ex: taking or receiving grade from exam. Traffic jams, arguments, etc. This may make you more vulnerable to heart disease. Men exhibit greater cardiovascular reactivity which can explain higher rates of heart disease. Men are more reactive than women to a majority of stressor studied in a lab but that may be because it's more relative to them; they're achievement oriented. This would be exams or work. Women thus have greater CV, neuroendocrine and immune activity than men when discussing relationship conflict. Women react to stressor relevant to female gender role.

Know which gender is more likely to perpetrate Intimate Partner Violence (as well as perpetrator characteristics).

-Intimate partner violence refers to psychological and physical violence in intimate relationships (IPV) -Most research shows women and men equally likely to engage in IPV, with females more likely to perpetrate (although most IPV is mutual) -Perpetrators of IPV typically have been exposed to violence in their past -There are 3 types of IPV: Intimate terrorism-rooted in control Violent resistance- violent efforts to resist control (victim's part) Situational couple violence- occasional episodes of violent behavior between husbands/wives precipitated by stressful events -IPV is linked to imbalance in power in female-male relationships, distorted perceptions of male-female interactions, difficulties with emotion regulation, lower empathy; these theories better explain male perpetration IPV is psychological and physical violence that happens in intimate relationships. Women reported higher rates of IPV than men, physical or emotional.Women more likely than men to report being assaulted by an intimate partner, whereas men were more likely than women to report being assaulted by someone else. Men and women equally likely to perpetrate IPV. First, violence is most often mutual in couples and it is not clear that men are more likely to be perpetrators of violence. No evidence that female perpetration of violence is more likely to be self defense and females are just as likely to strike first. Women more likely to do verbal aggression. More likely to throw, slap, kick/bite/punch, and hit with an object. Males more likely to beat up, choke and strangle. Females more likely to initiate violence in relationship and one reason is that it is more acceptable for females to hit their partners. For male and female the characteristics are quite similar. May have history of sexual abuse in childhood or physical and psychological abuse as children or witnessed parent IPV. That link is stronger for those engaged in intimate terrorism rather than situational couple violence. Substance abuse. Relationship problems particularly jealousy. IF you're married, more educated, and have a high SES you are less likely to be victims of PIV. Access to social support helps protect against both perpetration and victimization, more so in women. IPV associated with greater acceptance of gender role stereotypes in women and men and an increase in acceptance of violence among men 5 years later. More common in younger couples.

Understand how the rate of drug use has changed for both men and women since the late 1970s.

-Men use more drugs than women and sex differences increases with age during adolescence -Exception: Women use more prescription tranquilizers and sedatives than men at all ages -Males somewhat more likely than females to be current marijuana users; females somewhat more likely than males to be current users of pain relieving medications and psychotherapeutic drugs -Women quicker to develop physical health problems following drug usage like liver problems, hypertension and gastrointestinal. Women are less likely to seek treatment because they are poorer and have a drug using partner and children and lack child care and fear losing custody. -For both men and women drug use has declined since the 1970s, stabilized in the 1990s and now shows a slight increase. Highest rates are in Indian, Alaskan and Blacks with white and asians at the bottom and hispanics in the middle. Males 12 and older twice as likely to be dependent on alcohol. Sexual minorities engaged more in substance usage. Especially high in lesbians and bisexuals. -Drug use from 12-17 is similar for sexes. Males more likely to be current marijuana users, and females more likely to use pain relieving medication and psychotherapeutic drugs like pain relievers, stimulants, tranquilizers and sedatives.

Be familiar with the role expansion hypothesis.

-Role expansion hypothesis: additional resources gained by multiple roles outweigh the increase in strains that might arise from more roles (applies to both genders) -"When we are on the Lord's errand, we are entitled to the Lord's help. Remember that whom the Lord calls, the Lord qualifies." -Role expansion hypothesis suggests benefits are to be gained from having diverse roles -It may not be the mere accumulation of roles, but the particular combination of roles that is beneficial Role expansion hypothesis: idea that benefits are to be gained from having diverse roles. The additional resources gained by many roles outweigh the increase in strains that might arise from more of them. Resources from one role can be used to buffer strains arising from another role which is called stress buffering. Ex: social support from coworkers may help alleviate distress from family problems. Good for both men and women. The healthiest people are the ones with 3 roles: spouse, parent, and paid worker. The most distressed have none. When it does not help is for instance if you're a single parent and financial needs are greater with presence of kids. The parent role appears beneficial to health only of one possesses the spouse role, at least for women.

Be familiar with the number of hours research shows that women worked longer than men per week.

-Sex differences in division of labor have decreased due largely to increase of women in labor force-even full-time employed women spend more time than men on household and childcare tasks -Research on the division of labor indicates women worked on average 15 hours a week longer than men -Gender-role attitudes, especially husbands', predict division of labor -Power is major determinant of division of labor in heterosexual couples: Homosexual couples have more egalitarian division of labor -Work outside home and relationship commitment also contributors to division of labor -Inequity in division of labor a major source of marital distress for women -Role expansion hypothesis: additional resources gained by multiple roles outweigh the increase in strains that might arise from more roles (applies to both genders) -Value of Equal Power in Marriage document: "To define power in terms of duties performed or worldly status is wrong. Developing trust in one's spouse goes far beyond believing he or she will fulfill specific duties. Rather, it involves identifying, sharing, and appreciating each other's gifts and stewardships and deciding together how best to implement or fulfill each set of gifts at specific points in time throughout life" Women work on average 15 hours longer a week than men including paid employment, household chores and child care. Men are more likely to do the chores that are traditionally masculine like car repair, taking out garbage and mowing but the rest of the chores go to women doing more. The equally shared task is bills.Marriage leads women and men to enact traditional roles and more division of traditional labor especially women. Women more involved in child activities as well as gatekeepers and organizers of them. Women less satisfied with inequitable division of labor. However, both men and women are unhappy when labor is not divided well. Women are less satisfied with less than equitable division of labor due to comparisons with other women.

Know what features of men's and women's social roles seem to affect health.

-When social roles are more similar, sex differences in health diminish -Specific features of men's and women's social roles linked to health -Men's higher mortality compared to women: More job hazards, more miles driven; driving under influence, greater risk-taking behavior -Women's greater morbidity compared to men: More concerned with health, more likely to seek physician care -the nurturant role hypothesis -The gender related traits of agency and communion. Men's social roles include risky behavior like hazardous jobs and driving. It is part of their male gender role. the female social role includes attending to one's own health concerns and taking care of others, which could have negative implications for health. Work injuries: agriculture/forestry, mining, transportation, and construction where men do more work there than women. Also exposed to hazardous substances. Even at home it's riskier like going to the roof to fix a leak. Men drive more than women even when they are together. They're faster and take more risks. Women more likely to wear a seat belt though difference has decreased with men using more than they used to. Men slightly text more while driving. male gender role of risk taking behavior. Activities are riskier and take more risks in activities. More likely to own guns and die from gun accidents. Men engage in riskier sex behavior. So sex, drinking, using drugs, driving, physical activities and gambling are all more in men dying from them. Girls perceive situations as riskier than boys. They will ask more will I get hurt rather than how hurt will I get. Boys associate this more with excitement while girls associate it more with fear. Injuries are often chalked up to bad luck so they aren't deterred from repeating behavior. Parents encourage risk taking in boys. Focus on discipline more than safety for boys and vice versa for girls. risky activities may be linked to male gender role. Participating in sports while injured is afforded high status. Males risk taking increases in presence of other sex; a mate attraction strategy. Females and males show a different pattern of brain activation in response to risky activity.

Know how working outside the home affects women's well-being.

-Women's employment and its effects on health: Women's lower well-being compared to men due in part to women engaging in less paid work and more domestic work -Employed women healthier than non-employed women, even when they have children -Explanations of this: Employment increases self-esteem, sense of accomplishment, more social contacts, sense of control -Evidence suggests paid worker role influences health of both men and women, but effect stronger for men -Explanation: Men are more likely to work outside the home and to the extent greater health is associated with the paid worker role, men reap the greater benefit (differential exposure hypothesis); in addition, society attaches greater importance to men working outside the home, thus the effect of the paid worker role on health may be stronger for men (differential vulnerability hypothesis) -Generally speaking, paid employment is associated with better health for women and men Paid employment is generally associated with better health for women and men. Men are more likely to reap the benefits. As a society, we attach greater importance to men working out of home than women-this is the differential vulnerability hypothesis. People were worried that women who combined work and family roles would suffer role strain and role overload. It was shown that women's lower well being compared to men was due in part to the fact that women engaged in less paid work and more domestic work than men. More hours worked outside the home were associated with higher well being for women, and more domestic hours were with lower well being for women. There are benefits of paid work on health. People who worked full time had lower levels of stress and depressive symptoms than unemployed or part time. Had better eating habits, more physically active, and less likely to smoke and drink. This is for both women and men. Steady workers after birth had better physical and mental health. Employment increases self esteem, instills a sense of accomplishment and provides more social contacts for both men and women. Can also affect one's sense of control if the employment allows it since sometimes it can decrease it. It can enhance control by increasing women's economic resources and power in the family. It can detract though for household responsibilities. Can increase and decrease certain resources. If home demands are low, employed women are less distressed. Women with higher incomes had a heightened sense of control and reduced distress. In total, the healthiest women were those who had kids and employed part time. Had a gain in income not offset by increase in demands.

Which is true of the pay gap? 80%, equivalent, men like to go to lower paying jobs, or there is no gap after _______

A

Be able to distinguish between common eating disorders.

Anorexia nervosa: the most life threatening eating disorder. Primary features are: energy intake restriction, fear of gaining weight, and a disturbed self image in regard to weight. They refuse to maintain a normal weight and weighs less than normal for age, sex, and physical development. Common symptom is amenorrhea. More common in wealthier countries. More common in Whites. occurs in young adulthood and teenage years. Bulimia nervosa: recurrent binge eating followed by inappropriate methods to prevent weight gain like vomiting, intense exercising, or laxatives, diuretics, and enemas. Most common method to purge is vomiting. Foods typically consist of sweets and fats. Characterized by eating large amounts of food and loss of control. Constantly think about food and weight control. Average weight usually but may have been overweight prior. Starts late adolescence. Binge eating: recurrent bing eating without purging or fasting. Eat rapidly and large amounts in absence of hunger, in isolation from others, and feeling s of guilt/disgust with yourself for eating. Usually overweight or obese. It is the most prevalent. The sex disparity is pretty small here. Women say it's more of loss of control. Occurs in young adulthood. Prognosis is more favorable here than the others. Disturbed eating behavior includes symptoms of anorexia and bulimia.

Be able to identify possible reasons for the pay gap with regard negotiation techniques.

Another reason for pay disparity is that men negotiate higher starting salaries than women. They have better outcomes. The difference was smaller when negotiators had more experience, when the bargaining range was provided and when people were negotiating on behalf of someone else. Women's negotiations less successful than men's Women negotiate more strongly for others compared to self Women less likely to negotiate salaries, ask for less when they do and concede earlier. The initial request is strongly correlated with the final outcome: Accumulation of disadvantage. Men expect more money than women, women more concerned it will lead to conflict and will jeopardize relationships with negotiator. Women more likely to believe in meritocracy-that hard work will bring success without having to ask for it. They're more anxious during negotiations and interferes with their performance. Better at it when they are asking on behalf of others. It's part of their gender role and are then more assertive for others. Women make larger requests when they are made on behalf of others while men make larger for themselves. Women are penalized for not being assertive when negotiating on behalf of someone else but penalized when it's for themselves. When requesting for someone else and don't do well they are seen as weak, insecure and naive. When it's for themselves, they are seen as dominant and arrogant. One condition they can negotiate as well is if they have already attained status in their careers.

Be able to differentiate between examples of same cause, different cause, and interactive theories of depression.

Any theory of sex differences in depression must take one of three forms: same cause but cause activated in females during adolescence, different causes but female cause activated in adolescence, or interactive theory where females have more of the cause than males and the cause is activated in adolescence. This is to help explain why the sex differences appear not until adolescence. Same cause theory: the same factor causes depression in both females and males, but that factor must increase during adolescence for females only. Ex: imagine poor body image was equally associated with depression in girls and boys, but that body image increased among girls but not boys during adolescence. Different cause theory: there are difference causes of girls and boys depression and only the cause of girls depression increases during adolescence. Ex: poor body image is associated with depression among girls and being a poor athlete is associated with depression among boys. So it's more prevalent during adolescence for body image and continues for girls, but athletic ability does not change over time. Interactive theory: being female always poses a risk for depression but the events of adolescence activate that risk factor. Ex: females have higher levels of oxytocin than males before and after adolescence and it may be more strongly related to distress in girls than boys. Oxytocin would be the female risk factor. It could interact with events likely to occur during adolescence like interpersonal conflict. Because females have higher oxytocin, the are more likely to react to interpersonal conflict with depression. So it's either the same cause for men and women, different causes for both, or environmental factors interact with predisposing factors to predict depression. Same cause theory: suggests that the same factor causes depression in both females and males, but that factor must increase during adolescence for females only Different cause theory: says there are different causes of girls' and boys' depression, and only the cause of girls' depression increases during adolescence Interactive theory: suggests being female always poses a risk for depression, but the events of adolescence activate that risk factor

Know how "artifacts" may affect sex differences in health.

Artifacts: differences in sex are not real but are due to artifacts. Artifacts are methodological variables that might lead to the appearance of sex differences in health even when differences do not exist. A confounding variable, such as SES, could be an artifact of the relation between gender and health. Another example is the way health is measured. Many of the indexes of morbidity are subjective and may be influenced by they way they're assessed. -Men have higher SES than women -There is also differential treatment of sexes by physicians. However, SES does not explain sex differences in health in U.S. -Men have higher rates of heart disease but women's heart disease more advanced at diagnosis -Women treated less aggressively than men for heart disease and have poorer outcomes Artifacts are one of the six classes of explanation for sex difference in health: Biology, Artifacts, Health behaviors, Men's and women's social roles, Symptom perception, Illness behavior. SES is related to health. Increase in income means increase in health. IF SES measured by earnings, men are higher and if it's by education, women are higher. Sex differences in health perceptions and physical functioning decrease as education increases. Because women have fewer socioeconomic resources than men, education has a stronger effect on health; called resource substitution. Men's higher status to that of women allow them to engage in riskier behaviors like smoking, driving fast ,drinking more, and that education deters men from such risky behaviors so they are more likely to die at lower levels of education. Physicians can respond to the sexes differently. Heart disease leading cause of death in women and men, but the age of onset is later in women than men. So at younger ages men have a higher rate. Mortality from heart disease has declined among men but not women. Why? Women less likely to be referred to treatment, women have more complications and higher mortality rates after treatment-women get older, arteries are smaller, treatments were developed on men, heart disease not taken seriously among women, present less classic symptoms. One reason they may not be referred is because they have higher mortality during procedures. Heart disease is not taken as seriously among women- less likely to get info from doctor about risks of heart disease. They think it may be more psychological distress since women are more depressed and anxious.

Understand how response bias affects men's rate of reporting depressive symptoms.

Because depression is diagnosed based on info people provide about themselves, there may be a response bias on the part of men and women that contributes to sex differences in depression. Men are less likely to report depression because it is inconsistent with the male gender role. Depression has feminine connotations-lack of self confidence, control and passivity. Sex differences in attitudes about it appear in early adolescence. Boys were less willing to use mental health services for emotional problems and viewed people who used them as weird and weak. It becomes more positive with age but the difference remains, even when the level of distress is the same. This difference in adults is limited to Whites. One reason why men are less willing to report depression is they're concerned others will view them negatively. Both women and men say they're less willing to interact with a male with mental health problems than a female. Men are leery of admitting depressive symptoms, saying they are hassles and not depression. May also be less likely than women to realize they're depressed or interpret symptoms as depression. They see it as a female problem and don't associate. Men less willing than women to admit or recognize symptoms of depression People may respond more negatively to depression in men than in women

Be able to identify the most commons reasons for not having children, according to your text.

Childlessness has increased with improved contraception, increased participation of women in the paid work force, and some reduction in the stigma associated with choosing not to have kids. The most common REASONS for not having kids are: valuing freedom, placing high importance on education/careers, and believing that children detract from marriage. Presence of kids is a decline in opportunities for sex and less sexual satisfaction. Economic costs associated with kids and can have financial problems in marriage. Restriction of freedom and role conflict. Parenthood leads to greater changes in women's than men's roles since women take more of a parent role. Regardless of division of labor, women increase contribution to household tasks more when parents.

Understand what is meant by the term "mommy tax."

Family ties-Also contribute to pay disparity: Differential work experience due to time off for children -Family ties also known as 'mommy tax' Of the few women who have made it to the top in the corporate or noncorporate world, half of them don't have kids. One one of three women in Supreme Court have kids. Motherhood is seen as the greatest obstacle left in the path to economic equality for women. The mommy tax refers to the fact that women have primary responsibility for children, which detracts from their wages. When they have kids they may get the maternal wall which means employers view them as less desirable employees and provide them with fewer resources and opportunities. Pay gap is larger with those with children.

Be familiar with the three levels of sexual harassment identified in your text.

Gender harassment: which is sexist comments and suggestive stories Unwanted Sexual attention: leering, attempts at touching, repeated requests for dates Sexual coercion: bribes and threats involving sex, and negative consequences for refusals to have sex They are in order from least to most severe. The first two levels are more similar to hostile environment sexual harassment, whereas the third reflects quid pro quo harassment. There is more agreement that harassment has occurred at the most severe levels. Women are more likely than men to label the same behavior as harassment. Sex differences in perception were larger for hostile environment harassment than quid pro quo. Differences in males and females interpretations are more likely to emerge for ambiguous behaviors like a sexist remark. Men are more likely to endorse different domains of sexual harassment myths; these men usually have more hostile attitudes toward women. Perceptions of sexual harassment vary by culture; those from individualistic cultures more likely to see behavior as sexual harassment and assign responsibility more to the perpetrator and less to the victim than collectivistic. A behavior is more likely to be labeled harassment if perpetrator is male than female. Women assign harsher penalties than men. There is more agreement that harassment has occurred when behaviors are physical like petting or pinching than verbal like comments or innuendoes.

Know how marriage affects health behaviors.

It has a positive effect on both men and women's health behavior, but effects are more pronounced in men. Wives take more responsibility for husband's health than husbands to wives. Married men more likely to endorse preventative health care and less likely to drink alcohol. The same cannot be said of married women. Women do health work more which is monitoring spouse's health, reminding about needed health behaviors like take meds, encouraging preventive behavior, and discouraging risky behavior. In lesbian and gay couples it's more collaborative. Women's health behaviors improve only with marriage.

Be familiar with the body objectification theory.

It is not only body image, but body objectification that is related to depression. This theory states that there are social and cultural forces that sexually objectify women, which lead women to constantly monitor their bodies and evaluate themselves based on their appearance. It has been associated with depression in young tens and adult women and predicts an increase in depression over time. It may play a causal role in getting depression. There is a study that there is decreased performance when viewed by body but that women seek interactions with those who objective them. Participation in sports may be one way to reduce body objectification in women. They have higher body image. There wasn't any difference with boys.

Be familiar with the marital selection hypothesis.

It is possible that health influences marriage. This hypothesis is the idea that healthier people are "selected" into marriage. Individuals tend to match in terms of health when the marry. To study if it is right, you have to see if initial health influences subsequent marital status and whether initial marital status influences subsequent health. One study showed that those who married over a 6 year period started out less depressed than those who did not. Thus, psychological health predicted marital status. However, those who married benefited in terms of reduced psychological distress 6 years later, so there was a reciprocal relation between marriage and health. It is bidirectional.

****Know how a supportive job affects family satisfaction for both men and women in the paid worker role.

Job stress detracts from family satisfaction for both men and women but that the relation is stronger for men. Is this cause the men face more stress or their work interferes more with family life? However, when the outcome is health, it's shown that work conflicts with family life are more hazardous to women. Work interfering with family life is more associated with health . complaints in women than men. One stress that women have from combining both roles is people see them as less competent parents. This is not a source of strain for men. Especially if it is in a masculine job and when working out of personal choice, and when viewed as successful in work. More hours worked outside the home and more job pressures are associated with greater work family conflict, more so for women. Job flexibility is associated with higher quality family roles for women. Women are also more distressed from work family conflict. *******a supportive job is associated with greater family satisfaction for men and women. The paid worker role also can buffer one from the distress associated with caregiving roles at home. When work conflicts with family, work wins out for men and family wins out for women. So men will report greater conflicts of work with family than women. Women are more likely to have flexible jobs, work part time, or not participate in paid labor force which makes it easier to prioritize family. Family stress are associated with lower job satisfaction.

Know what is mean by the term "marital bonus."

Marital bonus (for men): an increase in income granted to men who are married and/or have children compared to single men Both marriage and parenthood are associated with increased earnings for men, whereas the links to earnings for women are less clear. Employers may believe it's more worthwhile to reward single women than married women since they are less likely to let family obligations interfere with work and more likely to see a job elsewhere that pays more money. This marital bonus is alive and well in China. 40% of ads were directly discriminatory in specifying sex of applicant and and a substantial number referred to the preferred marital status. There was greater concern with the marital status of women than men. Women preferred if unmarried and men preferred if married. Believe it's more worthwhile to reward fathers than men without because fathers have a family to support. For women, being married means that they have domestic responsibilities that could retract from work. For men, being married means that they can be more committed to work because they have someone at home to take care of domestic responsibilities.

Understand how women's concern for health differs from men's.

May explain women's lower mortality rates and higher morbidity rates. Women are more likely than men to have a usual place to go when they are sick. They visit physician more frequently than men. More frequent visits to the physician might be counted as higher morbidity but if effective could reduce mortality. Women are more interested in health matters. Ex: think about health and read bout it more often. More likely to search Internet for health info. They are designated as the responsible person for family's health care. *Note: just because they have concerns for health doesn't lead them to do all health promoting behaviors since they exercise less and are more likely to not quit smoking. Health promotion behaviors like preventative health care viewed as inconsistent with masculine. Men may brag about not seeing doctor not taking time off work and engaging in activities that undermine health. Ex: use less sunscreen. Men less likely to see help for mental health problems due to traditional masculinity. Have negative attitudes about getting professional help with psychological problems. Saw this most in Whites and Asians.

Understand sex differences with regard to morbidity and mortality rates in the United States.

Mortality refers to the death rate. In terms of life span, men usually always die younger. Males have higher death rates at all ages. -Women outlive men in the U.S. by 5 years -The sex gap in mortality has narrowed in recent years. -The sex gap can also vary by race and country. -Youtube video says: pattern before birth (male fetuses miscarry more often), they prematurely die more often-and this is a higher indicator of death rate than birth weight, their deaths spike by the time they reach adolescence. Males are born more often to help compensate, haha. Males are bigger on average and the largest of the species tends to live a shorter life. Females do childbearing that may provide hefty body equipment for living, more likely to engage in risky behaviors, commit suicide more often. Testosterone may be a factor. Leading causes of death are: -heart disease, cancer, chronic lower respiratory disease, cerebrovascular disease, and accidents -Lifestyle factors really do play a role in all of these causes of death -Men are more likely than woman to die of most leading causes of death -Men more likely to commit violent crimes and be victims of violent crimes, including homicide. -Women are more likely than men to be killed by someone they know. Morbidity refers to illness or disease. -Women have higher morbidity rates than men, starting after adolescence. -Women perceive their own health to be worse. The exception is the man cold. -Women also report more illness behavior; restrict activities due to illness and they seek medical care, though some illness are harder to detect in women. (We talked about the study where heart attacks are harder to detect in women). Men die younger than women throughout the life span. More boys than girls die at every age. More males born than females; after age 18 there are a greater number of females. The sex difference peaks at adolescence because this is where men engage in greater risky and aggressive behavior. Same amount of males and females are at conception, but the total female mortality during pregnancy exceeds which results in higher ratio of males to females at birth. Males have higher death rates, so women live longer than men. On average women outlive men in the U.S. by 5 years. Women outlive men more across many cultures. -Sex gap in mortality has narrowed: due in part to decrease in heart disease and cancer mortality in men than women and a greater increase in lung cancer in women with more women smoking. -Large race differences in mortality; slightly more in Black than White people due to high mortality rate of Black men. -Sex differences are largest for those with less education in terms of mortality. Men more likely to commit violent crimes and be victims of violent crimes excluding rape. When women are victims, they're almost 10 x as likely to be killed by a male than a female. However, women are 4 x as likely to kill a male than a female. Morbidity rates have increased. People are living longer, but partly since they live with diseases rather than die from them. The increase in chronic diseases accounts for this increase in morbidity. Men suffer more from diseases and death rates of the two leading causes of death but women suffer from more nonfatal chronic illnesses; more painful disorders than men. So women are more likely to be ill and living with a chronic disease. Women perceive health as worse and this difference decreases with age. Women report more illness behavior: behaviors that signify illness. Ex: report more days in bed, mire days with restricted activity due to illness, and more physical limitations. They report more disability and functional limitations than men and this increases with age. Women use health service more. This peaks at childbearing years. Sex differences in morbidity do not appear until adolescence. Boys visit more health care professionals in childhood ad then it switches the rest of the time.

Be familiar with the nurturant role hypothesis.

Nurturant role hypothesis asserts that women's roles require them to attend to the needs of others, and taking care of others interferes with taking care of oneself Socialized to take care of others and that has its costs. They have higher volunteer rates. Social networks increase exposure to disease. Get more minor illnesses. Nurturant role hypothesis: women's roles require them to attend to the needs of others, and taking care of others interferes with taking care of yourself. It leads to caretaking behaviors, which result in fatigue and vulnerability to illness. It leads to greater exposure of communicable diseases and once sick, it prevents you from taking care of yourself. Their involvement with relationships leads to a greater exposure to stress which has effects on their health. Married women suffered more problems than married men especially when they had kids. Married women have greater nurturant role obligations. Contradictions to the hypothesis: married women are healthier than single women. Women with more role obligations report less illness and disability. One way to see this is that nurturant roles lead to more illness but less reporting of illness. Side note: Health behaviors best explanation for sex differences in mortality but limited for morbidity -Different classes of explanations affect men's and women's health with health behaviors for men and social structure for women

Understand the meaning of "intimate terrorism."

One of the three types of IPV: it is rooted in control. It is connected with violent resistance. Intimate differs from other kinds of violence in that it's rooted in control. Violent resistance involves violent efforts on the part of the victim to resist this control. Intimate involves the systematic repetition of violence and the use of the control tactics. 80% of intimate terrorism involves multiple incidents. Men are likely to perpetrate intimate terrorism. Not as common as situational. People involved in relationship with intimate terrorism don't report it. Victims fear retaliation and perpetrators are unwilling to admit or realize they are engaging in it. People in treatment programs more likely to show intimate terrorism and show more male perpetrators and female victims. Control tactics include: using coercion and threats, using intimidation, using emotional abuse like putting her down or calling names, using isolation by controlling what she does, minimizing, denying, and blaming, using children, using male privilege by treating her like a servant, using economic abuse.

Understand how marriage affects health (i.e., which gender reaps greater health rewards).

Overall, marriage benefits health. -The LDS perspective states:A family built on the marriage of a man and woman supplies the best setting for God's plan [and His children] to thrive. -The main effects are this: the direct effects of marriage on health, both psychological and behavioral (i.e., sense of identity, enhanced self esteem; exercising, routine doctor visits) - this hypothesis asserts that health benefits in marriage exist regardless of stress The buffering effects are: the indirect effects of marriage on health that buffer against stressors (i.e., resources to cope with stress, such as emotional or financial support) - this hypothesis asserts that marriage provides protection from stress -The benefits for marriage are stronger than men -The explanation for this: For men, marriage provides greater source of emotional support, alleviates stress, promotes better health behaviors -Men are more satisfied with marriage -Good to note that marriage-health links are bidirectional. The marital selection hypothesis suggests that healthier people are "selected" into marriage Women help men live longer. Being married is advantageous to psychological and physical health for men and women, but men reap better rewards from marriage. The benefits are stronger for men as well. Not married men have high rates of mortality from infectious diseases and accidents if younger and heart disease when older. Men have less depression when married. Married men have lower C-reactive protein. Married people have less risk of stroke and relation is stronger in men. Cohabitation benefits health but not as much as marriage. Benefits of cohabitation differ by race and ethnicity while Blacks view it as an alternative to marriage rather than a trial. The differences between cohabiting and marriage is getting smaller. Why does marriage benefit health? Through physiological processes: psychological and behavioral. Can provide a sense of identity, source of self esteem and a companion to share activities which boost a psychological state. Can promote good health behavior like exercising, decrease risk behavior like smoking and promote early detection of disease with routine exams. These are main or direct effects. Marriage is directly linked to a psychological state or behavior. Indirect or buffering effects provide resources to cope with stress. may help us see a stressful event as less troublesome and resources like emotional and social support to cope. Main effects have married people are healthier regardless of level of stress. In buffering a larger decrease in health from stress is seen more in unmarried than married. Married people are protected form large decrease in health. Has higher levels of social support. Men may still have more advantage. Husbands get more support than wives, especially with emotional support. Wives get more support from friends. However, both are equally likely to provide spouses with social support and support is not all the same. Women provide more effective support. Women more likely to provide when partner is stressed. Provide more support when describing more severe problems. The one kind of support women get more of from marriage is financial. Women more dissatisfied with marriage. Men more optimistic about marriage. Women's roles change more after marriage. Their accomplishments often go unnoticed.

Be familiar with the rate of obesity for men vs. women among Whites.

Overweight and obesity is determined by: Determined by body mass index (BMI) -Obesity now an epidemic in U.S. -Different forms for men and women Android obesity Gynoid obesity -Women have higher rates of obesity than men among Hispanics and African Americans; among Whites, rates of obesity are the same -Increase in food consumption, decline in physical activity contribute to increase in obesity Men are more likely to have android obesity-the apple shape with extra weight in the abdomen. Women are more likely to have gynoid obesity: the pear shape-extra weight around the hips. Android has greater risks to health than gynoid. Obesity has a stronger relation to mortality for men, but when older than 45 it has a stronger relation to hospitalizations and mortality for women. The social, psychological, and economic consequences of obesity are more severe for women. More clearly related to depression in women. Among whites, rate of obesity is about the same for men and women, but the rates of obesity are higher among women in Blacks and Mexicans. Among women, lesbians and bi have higher rates. In the vast majority of countries in the world, women are more likely to be obese. This is often due to traditional gender roles-gain weight for childbearing and lack of time for excersize due to chores. Obesity is more common with lower SES since they have poorer diets and less exercise. Not clearly related to all ethnic groups. It's related to higher SES in White men and women and black women, and lower SES is among black and hispanic men. Overweight and obese men less likely to perceive weight as a health problem. Minorities have less negative view since it symbolized wealth historically. White women are more dissatisfied with their bodies than other races. It occurs at a lower BMI than others. Why are women more likely to be obese? Engage in lower physical activity levels and there are life events associated with obesity in women: when they get married, have a kid and menopause. Sedentary activities linked to decline in physical activity and increase in obesity for children -Adult women less likely than men to exercise and even less likely to do competitive exercise -Boys more active than girls, but gap narrowing as athletics more available to girls

Understand how women's immune systems are different than men's

Paradoxical: Women have better immune system response to infection than men but also more vulnerable to autoimmune diseases. -Genes: Second X chromosome may protect women from some genetically based diseases -Hormones: Complicated: Estrogen contributes to women's greater resistance and vulnerability to disease -Females have stronger immune response to bacterial and viral infection but they are more vulnerable to some autoimmune diseases like arthritis and MS, perhaps because their immune system is so strong it can be attacking their own bodies. These biological systems are interrelated; vulnerabilities do not guarantee disease. They are influenced by environmental factors and the endocrine system is also interrelated. Testosterone has been suggested to play a role in men's protection from autoimmune diseases. Differences in autoimmune declines with age as testosterone declines in men.

Be familiar with "quid pro quo," as a specific type of sexual harassment

Quid pro quo: one person offers work benefits or threatens work repercussions in exchange for sexual favors The other type is: Hostile environment- the person is faced with a hostile, intimidating work environment Quid pro quo can be translated as "this for that" and is likely to occur among two people of different statuses. It is involved with sexual coercion like bribes and threats involving sex and negative consequences for refusals to have sex. It is one of the two types of sexual harassment defined by the EEOC.

Understand what is meant by the term "psychological reactance."

Reaction to a perceived threat to control that involves doing the opposite of what is demanded. It occurs when you perceive that someone has taken away your freedom or sense of control by telling you what to do. To restore that freedom, you do the opposite of what was instructed. Those who score high on this are unmitigated agency.

****Understand the comparable worth theory.

Sex segregation and comparable worth -A primary reason for pay disparity is segregation of work by sex -Many factors contribute to occupational segregation -Comparable worth policy states that men and women in different jobs should be paid the same wage for comparable work The difficulty comes in identifying comparable work. Some factors oconsidered for worth standards are job activities, responsiblities, environmental conditions and hazard, knowledge required, education required, skill involved and experience needed. Differences in occupational worth accounted for the pay disparity between male dominated and female dominated occupations. People in female dominant occupations are underpaid relative to their worth. Women receive less money than men when they have similar jobs. Women less likely to have leadership positions and worked fewer hours across age, race, and marital status. Even when specific occupations are compared the pay gap persists. Women more likely to enter lower paying fields like education and health. Even then men paid more. Men negotiate higher starting salaries than women. Men expect more money. Women are concerned it will lead to conflict and jeopardize the relationship with the negotiator and believe in meritocracy-hard work will bring success without having to ask for it. More anxious which interferes with performance. Better when it's on behalf of others.

Understand what is meant by the term "glass ceiling."

This is one of the forms of treatment discrimination. Glass ceiling is a form of treatment discrimination that refers to barriers to the advancement of women and minorities in organizations. It's a form of treatment discrimination (occurs after the person has the job and takes the form of reduced salary or opportunities for promotion.) and refers to the barriers to the advancement of women and minorities in organizations. Ex: shown by 5% of Fortune 500 companies run by women. No female president. One reason that women don't advance at the rate of men is that women are less likely than men to have mentors. There are fewer women in high powered positions available to mentor, and men are uncomfortable mentoring young women.

Be familiar with the term "glass escalator."

This is one of the forms of treatment discrimination. Glass elevator refers to the ability of men to be promoted quickly when they take positions in traditionally female fields. Examples include nursing, social work, or education. Despite that most human resource managers are female, male human resource managers earn more than women.

Understand how rumination and distraction are employed by women and men, respectively, in coping with depressive symptoms.

Women are more depressed than men since they respond to environmental stressors or negative effect by talking about and trying to figure our their feelings, which is rumination. Men respond by playing sports and by avoiding thoughts about the reasons for their feelings, which is distraction. Rumination increases depression in 3 ways: impairs problem solving efforts which inhibits instrumental behavior that could reduce depression. Ex: dwelling on a poor grade from a first exam, your distress may keep you from studying for the next one. Second, ruminating about negative feelings makes other negative feelings and memories more salient which reinforces depression. Third, it is associated with a lack of social support which is associated with elevated rates of depression. The sex difference in rumination is there but not for distraction-at least it's not well established. Why do they ruminate more? People encourage women to ruminate. Females are more likely than males to ruminate even before adolescence, but the negative events that occur during that time make their ruminative response more detrimental. Rumination linked to depression Interferes with instrumental behavior, increases negative cognitions, decreases social support

****Know how the reported rate of depressive symptoms differs between men and women.

Women are more likely than men to suffer from depression and have an eating disorder but men more likely to commit suicide. Large sex difference with women suffering more. Theories for why are biological, psychological, social and cultural. It needs a combo of theories. Many theories have female gender role socialization at the core. Women are led to perceive less control over their environment, they cope differently with stress, they face different stressors and are more vulnerable to different classes of stressors. Emerges during adolescence when gender-norm roles become salient. We all experience symptoms at one time. Instruments that measure depressive symptoms include feeling sad or blue, depressed, crying spells, difficulty concentrating, and lost of interest in activities. The critical feature of MDD is the experience of a set of depressive symptoms for a period of at LEAST 2 weeks. Often known as clinical depression. **Women experience more depressive symptoms than men in the general population and are more likely to be diagnosed with clinical depression. Countries where the female gender roles is less traditional showed a decrease in sex difference in depression over time. Not known if it's lower for females or higher levels of males though. Sex differences are often not found in homogenous populations like college students or widowed-rates of depression increase among men following widowhood. Emerges differences in adolescence and consists across life span. -Women also have episodes of depression that are likely to recur and last longer. Strong evidence that females experience more depressive symptoms and major depressive disorder (clinical depression) than males -Reported rate of depressive symptoms is about twice as high among women as men

****Be able to identify characteristics of the pay gap from a recent survey of college graduates, among full-time workers.

Women paid less for doing comparable work Wage gap is narrowing. Among full time workers, women's salary was 80% of men's salary. However, a major portion of that gap had to do with the different fields that women and men entered. Women more likely to enter lower paying fields like education and health. However, even within the same major, men made more money tan women and the wage gap increased each year following graduation. During the first year after graduation, the proportion of men's salary made by women was 81% for business majors, 75% for biology, 76% for math and 95% for engineering. This year is good to examine since both are less likely to be married and have families so their roles are similar. Occupational segregation is only one contributor to pay disparity. Women had the same pay or exceeded men's pay in only 3 of 100 jobs.

Which suggests being female always suggests being depressed What if body image is equally associated with both but it increases in girls during adolescence more prevalent body image but poor athletic ability

interactive; same; different

Know the difference between susceptibility factors and precipitating factors.

susceptibility factors: are innate, usually biological factors that place one group (ex: women) at greater risk for a disorder (like depression) than another group. Hormones or genes unique to women would be this. Gender role socialization could also be it; if we learn women are socialized in different ways than men that make the more at risk, their learning history would be a susceptibility factor. precipitating factors: environmental events that trigger the emergence of a disorder (like depression). Examples include poverty, high relationship strain, etc.