geology 1-7
chronostratigraphic unit
The rocks formed during a particular unit of geologic time.
Geochronology
The science of determining the age of rocks is called -----.
atom
The smallest particle of matter that can exist as a chemical element.
radioactivity
The spontaneous emission of a particle from the atomic nucleus, thereby transforming the atom from one element to another.
ecology
The study of the present relationships between organisms and their environments.
cleavage
The tendency of a mineral to break along certain directions in its crystal structure where the bonds between planes of ions are weakest.
half-life
The time in which one-half of an original amount of a radioactive atoms decays to daughter products.
half-life
The time needed for half of the original quantity of radioactive atoms to decay to daughter products.
metamorphism
The transformation of previously existing rocks into new types by the action of heat, pressure, and chemical solutions.
luster
The way a mineral shines in reflected light.
asthenosphere
The zone between 50 and 250 kilometers below the surface of the Earth, where shock waves of earthquakes travel at much reduced speeds, perhaps because of less rigidity.
trace fossil
Tracks, trails, burrows, and other markings made in now lithified sediments by ancient animals.
A gene pool is represented by the individuals within a population that has its own particular combination of genes.
True
Evaporites are chemically precipitated rocks that are formed as a result of evaporation of saline water bodies.
True
In general the rocks of the ocean floor are younger and less complex than those found on the continents.
True
contact metamorphism
Alteration of rock immediately adjacent to an igneous intrusion
paleocommunity
An ancient community
atomic mass
An atom's ----- approximately equals the sum of the masses of its protons and neutrons.
shield
a component of cratons with exposed ancient crystalline rocks
A map showing the geography of a region or area at some specific time in the geologic past is
a paleogeographic map.
lagoon
a transitional environment (between marine and non-marine) which is water-filled and is found between the mainland and a barrier island.
The oldest rocks of our planet that make up the Archean and Proterozoic are collectively referred to as the -----.
pre cambrian
life found at each stage of earth history is unique each time interval. fossils occur in a consistent vertical order in sedimentary rocks all over the world
principle of fossil succession
sediments are deposited over a large area in a continuous layer that may be traced laterally
principle of orginal lateral continuity
Oldest rocks on the bottom -Younger rocks on top
principle of superposition
The principle stipulating that in any sequence of undisturbed strata, the oldest layer is at the bottom and successively higher layers are successively younger is the
principle of superposition
Which one is not a part of Steno's law? (Nicholas Steno formulated all of these basic principles except)
principle of uniformitarianism.
changes during evolution usually occur in short bursts, separated by long periods of stability
punctuated equilibrium
The placing of an event in a time sequence without regard to the absolute age in years
relative age
The dating method that places geologic events in a chronological order as determined from their position in the rock record.
relative dating
Dating which involves placing geologic events and the rocks representing those events in the order in which they occurred without reference to actual time or dates measured in years. This method tells which event preceded or followed another event, or which rock mass was older or younger relative to others.
relative geologic age dating
fossil
remains or traces of ancient life which have been preserved by natural causes
An igneous rock that is an extrusive is
rhyolite
sedimentary features that are formed by the oscillatory motion of air or water beneath waves.
ripple marks
A body of rock that can be recognized wherever it occurs by the characteristics of composition, texture, or color is
rock unit
Bodies of rock identified by their distinctive lithologic and structural features without regard to time boundaries.
rock unit/litho
Lithostratigraphic units are bodies of rock having distinctive features without regard to time boundaries.
rock units
Which of the following is a foliated metamorphic rock?
schist
Which rock type, or combination of rock types, makes up the majority of Earth's outermost solid surface?
sediment or sedimentary
Which rock type can contain fossils
sedimentary rocks
principle of inclusions
sedimentary rocks Fragments of eroded rock overlie the unconformity. These are gravel clasts or inclusions.
A rock that hasformedas a result of the lithification and accumulations of sediment
sedimentary rocks.
________ are fragments of preexisting materials that have been broken down through the processes of weathering.
sediments
principle of original horizontality
sediments are deposited in horizontal or nearly horizontal layers
This zone on the side of the Earth opposite the Earth focus (rupture point of an earthquake) which begins 105 degrees from the earthquake's location.
shadow zone
neutron
An electrically neutral (uncharged) particle of matter existing along with protons in the atomic nucleus of all elements except the mass 1 isotope of hydrogen.
isotope
An element that has the same atomic number, but different atomic weights is an
proton
An elemental particle found in the nuclei of all atoms that has a positive electric charge and a mass similar to that of a neutron.
hypothesis
An explanation for an observation. It is subject to testing and modification. If well supported by evidence, it then may become a theory.
mold
An impression, or imprint, of an organism or part of an organism in the enclosing sediment.
clast
An individual grain, fragment, or constituent of detrital sediment or sedimentary rock produced by physical breakdown of a larger mass.
vestigial organ
An organ that is useless, small, or degenerate but representing a structure that was more fully developed or functional in an ancestral organism.
noncomformity
An unconformity developed between sedimentary rocks and older plutons or massive metamorphic rocks that had been exposed to erosion before the overlying sedimentary rocks were deposited.
parent element
An unstable element that changes by radioactive decay into a stable daughter element.
Which of the following is NOT considered strong evidence in favor of the process of evolution?
Ancient biblical writings
ecosystem
Any selected part of the physical environment together with the animals and plants in it.
community
Association of several species of organisms in a particular habitat
Which is the best description of fossils?
Rocks that have tangible patterns that were imparted to them by the remains of life forms.
niche
Role or lifestyle of an organism
How many of Steno's law principals are shown in the picture above?
Superposition and Original Lateral Continuity and Original Horizontality
time rock units
The actual rocks formed or deposited during a specific time interval are called chronostratigraphic units or -----.
protons in the nucleus.
The atomic number of an atom is the number of
the succession of fossil assemblages.
The geologic time scale was originally based on
geologic range
The geologic time span between the first and last appearance of an organism.
natural selection
The natural process where by organisms are preserved or eliminated according to their fitness or adaptation to their environment
daughter element
The new atom formed from another by radioactive decay, is called -----.
atomic number
The number of protons in the nuclei of atoms of a particular element. An element is thus a substance in which all of the atoms have the same atomic number.
lithification
The process by which loose sediment is converted to coherent solid rock by cementation and compaction.
What process has resulted in fossilization of certain species?
The remains of species were protected from the harm of the environment.
The concentration of carbon during fossilization.
carbonization
A replica of an organic object, such as a fossil shell, formed when sediment fills a mold of that object.
cast
The concept that the history of life as recorded in the fossil record was marked by sudden periods of continental floods or abrupt crustal upheavals is called
catastrophism
A principle that states that all geologic change occurs suddenly.
catatrophism
This method of correlation links rock units by age equivalences, determined by fossils or radioactive dating.
chronostratigraphic
Texture that characterizes a rock made up of fragmental grains such as sand, silt, or parts of fossils.
clastic or detrial
Silicates of hydrogen and aluminum with additions of magnesium, iron and potassium are called
clay minerals
A carbonaceous rock resulting from the accumulation of plant matter in a swampy environment combined with alteration of that plant tissue by both biochemical and physical processes until it is converted to a consolidated carbon-rich material.
coal
A clastic rock composed of water-worn, rounded particles larger than 2 mm in diameter is
conglomerate
Oceanic topographic regions included in the shallow marine realm.
continental shelf
Those areas of the ocean floor that extend from the seaward edge of the continental shelves down to the ocean depths.
continental slope
Another name for a ________ boundary is a destructive boundary.
convergent
The boundary that is formed when two or more plates move toward one another is called
convergent boundary
The long-stable region of a continent.
craton
An arrangement of laminae or thin beds traverse to the planes of stratification.
cross bedding
The observation that an igneous intrusion or fault that intrudes or cuts a younger rock is called the principle of
cross-cutting relationships
The principle that an igneous intrusion or fault must be younger than the rocks it intrudes or cuts is termed
cross-cutting relationships.
The outer part of the lithosphere; it averages about 32 kilometers in thickness. Seismically defined as all of the solid Earth above the Mohorovicic discontinuity. The thin, rocky veneer that constitutes the continents and the floors of the oceans.
crust
The lithosphere is composed of the ________ and the rigid part of the ________.
crust; upper mantle
An element formed by the radioactive decay of another element.
daughter element
Transitional environment where streams enter bodies of standing water, undergo an abrupt loss of velocity, and drop their load of sediment.
delta
mass per unit volume
density
A variety of unconformity in which bedding planes above and below the plane of erosion or non-deposition are parallel.
disconformity
Boundaries where seismic waves experience an abrupt change in velocity or direction are called
discontinuities.
The boundary that is formed where two or more plates move apart from one another is called
divergent boundary.
A unique combination of protons, neutrons, and electrons that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical methods.
element
The following represent time divisions in geology which are inclusive—from largest to smallest the correct order is:
eon era period epoch age
A chronological subdivision of a geologic period.
epoch
The seaward mouth of rivers that are engulfed by the sea.
estuary
Sediments precipitated as a result of the evaporation of water
evaporite
Igneous rocks formed from melts that have reached the Earth's surface.
extrusive igneous rock
Which is NOT an example of a vestigial organ?
eyes in fish
The characteristic appearance or aspect of a rock from which its environment of deposition can be determined is
facies
"Primitive rocks" that were described to be deposited by a hot, mineral-rich ocean are the same as igneous rocks.
false
Actual geologic dating places geologic events, and the rocks representing those events in sequence.
false
Alluvial fans occur when streams enter bodies of standing water, undergo an abrupt loss of velocity, and drop their load of sediment.
false
Eras may be further subdivided into shorter time units called epochs, which in turn can be further subdivided into periods.
false
Geology is the study of Earth and does not include the study of any other planet.
false
James Hutton first wrote about the basic principles of superposition, original horizontality, and original lateral continuity.
false
Lava is the term used to describe a mixture of molten silicates and gases while it is still beneath the surface.
false
The Earth is a relativity static ball of rock that is orbiting the Sun.
false
The asthenosphere is closer to the surface of the Earth than the lithosphere.
false
The principle of actualism states that the past history of our Earth can be explained by observing events today.
false
The three major environments of deposition are marine, continental, and fluvial.
false
Which of the following is not a primary sedimentary structure?
folds
A textural feature especially characteristic of metamorphic rocks in which laminae develop by growth or realignment of minerals in parallel orientation.
foliation
The study of time as applied to Earth and planetary history.
geochronology
The interval between the first and last appearance of a species constitutes the
geologic range.
Which of the following is one of the eight most common elements in the earth's crust?
gneiss
Consists of repeated beds, each of which has the coarsest grains at the base and successively finer grains nearer the top.
graded bedding
most change during evolution occurs as a result of the accumulation of small adaptations
gradualism of evolution
What are immature sandstones consisting of significant quantities of dark, very fine-grained materials with a fine matrix that consists of clay, chorite, micas and silt?
graywackes
Fossils that are abundant, widely dispersed and derived from organisms that lived during a relatively short span of geologic time are
guide fossils
The time required for one half the original quantity of radioactive atoms to decay is called:
half life
In normal faults, the mass of rock that lies above the shear plane is called the
hanging wall
a minerals resistance to scratching
hardness
plate tectonics
has revolutionized the understanding of geology
A ferric mineral that tends to color rock red, brown, or purple and are dubbed "red beds."
hematite
A map prepared by geologists to illustrate changes in the thickness of a formation or time rock unit is a (an)
isopach map
Variants of mass numbers of atoms of the same substance. Isotopes are two or more varieties of the same element that have the same atomic number and chemical properties but differ in mass numbers because they have a varying number of neutrons in the nucleus.
isotope
---- published Theory of the Earth in which he discussed the significance of unconformities and what they represented.
james hutton
This famous geologist quoted as saying, "The present is the key to the past." is ---
james hutton
The term used to describe magma that has reached the surface of the Earth.
lava
The principle that states the past history of the Earth can be interpreted in accordance with our knowledge of natural processes still operating today is called
law of unifortarianism
Which of the following sedimentary rock types does not fit within the clastic grouping?
limestone
The outer shell of the Earth, lying above the asthenosphere and comprising the crust and upper mantle.
lithosphere
Bodies of rock identified by their distinctive lithologic and structural features without regard to time boundaries.
lithostratigraphic correlation
Which of the following is not a positive trait of an index (guide) fossil?
long geologic range
A thick, homogeneous layer surrounding the core composed of several concentric layers. Believed to have stony, rather than metallic, composition. Oxygen and silicon probably predominate and are accompanied by iron and magnesium as the most abundant metallic ions. Probably composed of peridotite, an iron- and magnesium-rich rock.
mantle
mafic or dark silicate
material dominated by dark iron and magnesium silicates, as is the oceanic crust.
A category of bonding material that consists of finer clastic particles (often clay) that were deposited at the same time as the larger grains and that fill the pores between them.
matrix
Dinosaurs lived in which era?
mesozoic
Humans have penetrated and explored the deep interior of Antarctica for only the last
100 years
The human species of primates (Homo sapiens) evolved on Earth between about
150,000 and 300,000 years ago.
The origin of the first cell is believed to have occurred between __________ years ago.
3.5 to 4 billion
The Earth's age is approximately
4,560,000,000 years.
How many major mass extinctions has occurred in the last 500 million years?
5
cement
A chemical precipitate that crystallizes in the voids between grains following deposition.
strata
A feature of sedimentary rocks in which the rocks occur in beds or layers
Science uses observations of phenomena in order to make interpretations. Which of the following is an observation?
A fold is visible in an outcrop.
era
A major division of geologic time, divisible into geologic periods.
eon
A major division of the geologic time scale.
adaptation
A modification of an organism that better fits it for existence in its present environment or enables it to live in a somewhat different environment.
mineral
A naturally occurring, solid, inorganic substance having a specific chemical composition and a specific crystal structure.
electron
A negatively charged particle of very little mass that orbits the nucleus of an atom.
igneous rock
A rock formed by the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
The present attitude of scientists towards evolution is expressed in which of the following?
A scientist who makes a significant claim about evolution needs to back that claim up with significant evidence.
What is the asthenosphere?
A soft, low-velocity layer in the upper mantle
uncomformity
A surface separating an overlying younger rock formation from underlying formations and representing an episode of erosion or nondeposition.
scientific method
A systematic way to find answers to questions, solutions to problems, and evidence to prove or disprove ideas and beliefs.
Which of the following is the definition of a scientific theory?
A well-tested and widely accepted view that explains observable facts
pelagic marine realm
Consists of the water mass lying above the ocean floor.
chronostratigraphic correlation
Correlation that links units by age equivalences as determined by fossils or radioactive dating methods.
Any rock that has been changed from previously existing rocks by the action of heat, pressure, and associated chemical activity. The parent rock is subjected to high temperature and pressure but does not melt.
metamorphic rock
Rocks that have recrystallized under high temperatures and pressures are
metamorphic rocks
convergent boundary
Develop when two plates move toward one another and collide. Characterized by a high frequency of earthquakes and are thought to be the zones along which folded mountain ranges or deep-sea trenches may develop.
divergent boundary
Develop when two plates move way from each other. May manifest themselves as mid-oceanic ridges complete with tensional (pull-apart) geologic structures. The rending of the crust is accompanied by earthquakes and enormous outpourings of volcanic materials that are piled high to produce the ridges itself.
A very important concept in geology is that:
Earth is constantly changing.
habitat
Environment in which an organism lives.
eolian environment
Environment in which wind is an important agent of sediment transport and deposition.
abyssal marine environment
Environment located below 4000 meters in the oceans associated with low temperatures, little or no light, and high pressures.
The ongoing process of the changing of life is known as:
Evolution
Monitoring foreshocks has become a reliable indicator for predicting earthquakes.
False
Sudden changes in earthquake wave velocities are termed unconformities.
False
The benthic zone of the ocean ecosystem consists of the water mass lying above the ocean floor.
False
The five major episodes of mass extinction would include the end of Ordovician, Late Devonian, Late Silurian, end of Permian, and end of Cretaceous.
False
The principle of fossil succession which states that the natural laws governing both past and present processes on the Earth have been the same and fossils are not unique to any specific geologic time frame.
False
The underlying surface of an inclined fault plane is called the hanging wall.
False
Vestigal structures have the same pattern of embryological development, but different functions.
False
The feature located nearly halfway to the center of the Earth, at a depth of 2900 kilometers whose location is marked by an abrupt decrease in P-wave velocities and the disappearance of S-waves is the
Gutenberg discontinuity.
The study of the Earth's origin and evolution, changes in the distribution of lands and seas, the growth and reduction of mountains, and the succession of animals and plants is called:
Historical Geology
quaternary
Homo sapiens lived in what period?
mass extinction
Marked by times of sudden worldwide extinctions of large numbers of animal and some plant populations.
What type of unconformity is associated with sedimentary strata overlying metamorphic or igneous rocks?
Nonconformity
homologous structures
Organs having structural and developmental similarities due to genetic relationship.
What are the two categories of seismic waves?
P and S
________ occurs when magnetic minerals in lavas align their magnetic fields with magnetic north, preserving a record of that pole's location at that moment in time.
Paleomagnetism
What is the name of the supercontinent proposed by Alfred Wegener?
Pangaea
isotopes
When atoms of the same substance have different mass numbers these variations are called -----.
The geologic age of a fossil, or a geologic event or structure expressed in units of time, usually years.
absolute age
The actual age, expressed in years, of a geologic material or event.
absolute geologic dating
The principle that natural laws governing both past and present processes on Earth have been the same.
actualism
Lithofacies maps are useful in determining changes mostly in which of the following areas?
aerial variation in the overall lithologic character of a given stratigraphic unit
Which of the options below are a proof of the limitations of the actualism theory?
all of the above
The result of abrupt deposition when stream-transported materials accumulate quickly where a rapidly flowing river emerges from a mountainous area onto a flat plain.
alluvial fan
The characteristic of anticlines and domes in relation to the instability of folds is
an up-arched strata with beds dipping more or less equally away from a central point.
An unconformity below which older strata dip at a different angle (usually steeper) than the overlying strata
angular conformity
The stratigraphic relationship where flat-lying strata overlies the eroded edges of inclined older strata is called
angular unconformity
A quantity essentially equivalent to the number of neutrons plus the number of protons in an atomic nucleus.
atomic mass
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom establishes its number of positive charges and is called -----.
atomic number
A transitional environment (between marine and non-marine)
barrier island
The most common extrusive rock composed of fine mineral crystals is
basalt
________ is the process by which a rock changes form or mineral content as a result of environmental changes such as heat and pressure.
metamorphism
A body of rock that is identified strictly on the basis of its contained fossils.
biozone
A branch of geology concerned with the systematic study of bedded rocks and their relations in time and the study of fossils and their locations in a sequence of bedded rocks.
historical geology
fragments of rock that cut into a larger mass of rock. these are older than the rocks hosting them
inclusions
Fossil with a wide geographical distribution but narrow stratigraphic range and thus useful in correlating strata and for age determination.
index fossil
rocks that have formed from magma and solidified before reaching the surface.
intrusive igneous rock
Red or brown colors in sedimentary rocks result from the presence of
iron oxide
multicellular organisms
metazoans
Developed by shrinkage of mud or clay on drying and are most abundant in the subaerial environment.
mud cracks
An inheritable change in genetic material within cells is called
mutation
Competition for food, shelter, living space, and sexual partners among species with individual variations
natural selection
Associated with protons in a nucleus are particles having the same mass as protons; however, when they are electrically neutral they are called
neutrons
This early geologists formulated the following three basic principles of historical geology superposition, original horizontality, and original lateral continuity.
nicholas steno
A metamorphic texture in which there is no discernable preferred orientation of mineral grains
non foliated metamorphic
Those minerals that do not contain the silicon-oxygen structures.
non silicate mineral
This type of unconformity is characterized by stratified sedimentary rocks resting on older igneous or metamorphic rocks.
nonconformity
Spherical grains of concentric laminated calcium carbonate which are formed in shallow, saline marine conditions are called
ooid
Great linear tracts of deformed rocks, primarily developed near continental margins by compressional forces accompanying mountain building.
orogenic belt
The Earth's mantle is composed primarily of
oxygen, silicon, iron, and magnesium.
The study of the relationship of ancient organisms to their environment.
paleoecology
The study of the Earth's magnetic field and magnetic properties in the geologic past is known as
paleomagnetism.
The general process by which a rock subjected to high temperature and pressure is partly melted
partial melting
Paleoecologists have two divisions of classification for oceanic environment. They are
pelagic realm and benthic realm.
The realm of water mass lying immediately above the sea floor is known as the
pelagic realm.
A manner of fossilization in which voids in an organic structure are filled with mineral matter.
permineralization
That branch of geology concerned with understanding the composition of the Earth and the physical changes occurring in it, based on the study of rocks, minerals, and sediments, their structures and formations, and their processes of origin and alteration.
physical geology
The great unifying theory in geology is
plate tectonics
What is foliation?
potassium
The overwhelmingly predominant constituent of an igneous rock is
silicon
Cold continental lithosphere is pulled below warmer oceanic lithosphere.
slab pull
A measure of the uniformity of the sizes of particles in a sediment or sedimentary rock.
sorting
----- is the study of layered rocks, including their texture, composition, arrangement, and correlation from place to place.
stratigraphy
The color of a mineral powder, produced using a streak plate
streak of mineral
At a ________, an oceanic plate will be forced beneath another plate because of differences in density.
subduction zone
The size, shape, and arrangement of constituent minerals in a rock
texture
The oldest rocks found on the Earth were located in
the Canadian Rockies
principle of cross-cutting relationships
the rock that does the cutting is younger than the rock that is cut
An isotope is an atom of an element with
the same atomic number, the same number of electrons, but a different number of neutrons.
stratigraphy
the study of layered rocks. allows geologists place rock units into a layered sequence (oldest rock layer to youngest rock layer), to help interpret Earth history.
magma
the term used to describe the mixture of molten silicates and gases while still beneath the surface.
A hypothesis that survives repeated challenges and is supported by accumulating favorable evidence.
theory
a transitional environment (between marine and non-marine) that are alternately inundated and drained of water by tides.
tidal flat
A plate boundary along which plates slide past one another, and the crust is neither produced or destroyed. On land it is recognized as a strike-slip fault.
transform boundary
The three major types of environments of deposition are
transitional, marine, non-marine.
All sedimentary rocks are classified according to their composition and texture.
true
Approximately 75 percent of the planet's landmasses are covered by sedimentary rocks.
true
Geology is an eclectic science drawing principles from many areas
true
James Hutton method of interpreting rock exposures by observing present day processes was given the phrase "the present is the key to the past." Correct!
true
Metamorphism ends when the rock begins to melt.
true
On the landward side of lagoons are almost featureless, low-lying plains called tidal flats.
true
Replacement is a process that involves a simultaneous exchange of the original substance of part of a dead plant or animal with mineral matter of a different composition.
true
Sedimentary rocks represent the material record of environments that once existed on the earth
true
Sorting is a geologic term for the degree to which sediment and particles in sedimentary rocks are uniform by particle size.
true
The basis of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is natural selection
true
The discovery of radioactivity enabled geologists to find the absolute age of rocks.
true
There is conclusive evidence that the Mediterranean Sea was once a desert.
true
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom establishes its number of positive charges and is called its atomic number
true.
A mass of moving water that is denser than surrounding water because of its content of suspended sediment
turbidity current
is an ancient surface of erosion (or non-deposition), separating older rocks from younger rocks.
unconformity
Organs that were utilized in earlier ancestral forms but whose importance has diminished with changes in environment and habits are called
vestigial.
