GPH 111 Exam 2
Pressure
"Weight" of the atmosphere on Earth's surface; measured in mb, kPa, hPa, or mm Hg; a function of density (mass ÷ volume)
Watt (w)
"power;" rate of energy use or conversion; in J s^(-1)
Sensible Heat Flux
(H) Process where heat energy is transferred from Earth's surface to atmosphere by conduction and convection; energy then moved to poles by advection, creating atmospheric circulation
Latent Heat Flux
(L) moves energy globally when solid and liquid water is converted into vapor
Law of Universal Gravitation
(Newton) Any 2 objects separated in space are attracted to each other by a force proportional to the product of their masses & inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Orographic Instability
(PPT forming mechanism) air is forced to rise over elevated land or mountains; rain shadow effect
Frontal (Stratiform) Instability
(PPT forming mechanism) frontal convergence and uplift; cold fronts more intense, warm fronts less intense
Convective Instability
(PPT forming mechanism) unequal surface heating cause localized instability and rise of air masses, cooling & condensation
Surface Heat Flux
(S) process where heat energy is transferred into land and ocean surfaces on Earth
Snow
(T < 0°C) ice crystal formed by water vapor molecules depositing on nuclei
Field Capacity
(of soil) when gravitational water has drained away, the amount of water that remains
Lipids
(organic compound) composed of carbon atoms with 2 hydrogen atoms attached; commonly known as fats and oils; belong to family of molecules called hydrocarbons
Carbohydrates
(organic compound) composed of carbon, oxygen, & hydrogen atoms (ex: sugar, starch, cellulose)
Nucleic Acid
(organic compound) composed primarily of different combinations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, & phosphorus; they are very complex compounds being created by atomic linking of thousands of individual atoms (ex: DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid)
Proteins
(organic compound) made primarily of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen & other minor elements that are arranged into 20 different compounds called amino acids
short
(short or long) what type of wavelength are gamma rays?
short
(short or long) what type of wavelength are x-rays?
long
(short or long) what type of wavelength is infrared?
long
(short or long) what type of wavelength is microwave?
long
(short or long) what type of wavelength is radio?
short
(short or long) what type of wavelength is ultraviolet?
Ideal Gas Law
1. (pressure)*(volume) = (constant)*(temperature) 2. pressure = (density)*(constant)*(temperature)
L, rising
1. What is the pressure in a cyclone? (H or L) 2. Is the air rising or sinking? (separate with comma)
H, sinking
1. What is the pressure in an anticyclone? (H or L) 2. Is the air rising or sinking? (separate with comma)
Stratosphere
2nd layer of the atmosphere; temp warms with height; absorption of UV by O3 (ozone)
Mesosphere
3rd layer of the atmosphere; temp decreases with height gain
Energy
Describes ability to do work; measured in joules (1 joule = 1 Newton meter)
Yes
Do all objects > 0 Kelvin (absolute zero, -273°C, -460°F) emit radiation? (yes or no)
Heat
Energy transfer between objects resulting from temperature differences
Advection
Energy transfer via horizontal mass motions through a medium (ex: cool air moving during onshore breezes)
Convection
Energy transfer via vertical mass motions through a medium (ex: warm air rising over heated surfaces)
Radiation
Energy transferred from an object by way of electromagnetic waves and photons
Stationary Front
Frontal zone where the air masses are not moving against each other
Thermosphere
Highest layer in the atmosphere; slowly merges into space; temp increases with height because of interaction with electromagnetic field; ~-90°C; would be hard to breathe
118 (112 mph)
How many kph must sustained wind speeds exceed to be classified as a hurricane?
78%
How much nitrogen does air contain?
99%
How much of the atmosphere is within 30km (19 miles) of Earth's surface?
21%
How much oxygen does air contain?
0.1%
How much total atmospheric mass do the mesosphere and thermosphere contain?
0-4%
How much water does air contain?
26.5 (80F)
How warm must an ocean be (°C) in order for a hurricane to form?
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
The main driving force from local to global scales; result of spatial pattern in pressure gradients at a given time; the greater this is, the faster the winds will blow
Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Ozone (O3)
What are the 3 most important greenhouse gases?
right
What direction does Coriolis Force rotate in the Northern Hemisphere?
left
What direction does Coriolis Force rotate in the Southern Hemisphere?
force*mass*distance
What is the equation for energy? (use * for multiplication, no spaces)
L*=(LD-LU)
What is the equation for net longwave, where: L* = net longwave, LD = atmospheric counter radiation, LU = longwave radiation lost; (NO SPACES)
K*=(K+k)(1-a)
What is the equation for net shortwave, where: K* = net shortwave, K = direct shortwave, k = diffused (scattered) shortwave, a = albedo (reflectance); (NO SPACES)
force ÷ area
What is the equation for pressure? (answer as: __ operator __)
Q*=K*-L*
What is the equation for the net balance of energy received at Earth's surface, where: Q* = the net...; (Q* must equal 0 to conserve energy, but that doesn't necessarily happen)
200 (600ft)
What is the minimum meters deep an ocean must be in order for a hurricane to form?
Water
What is the only substance on Earth that exists in all 3 states (solid, liquid, gas)?
1013.2
What is the standard sea-level pressure in millibars (mb)?
30%
What percent of Earth's surface is frozen?
71%
What percent of the Earth's surface is water?
Molecular kinetic energy
What type of energy is temperature?
temperature
When __ is constant: 1. Density of a gas = pressure 2. volume = 1/pressure
volume
When __ is constant: 1. Pressure of a unit mass of gas = temperature
pressure
When __ is constant: 1. Temperature of a gas = volume 2. Temperature of a gas = 1/density
horizontally
When blowing __, wind blows from high pressure to low pressure.
vertically
When blowing __, wind blows from low pressure to high pressure.
Centripetal Acceleration
acts only on air flowing around centers of circulation; creates force directed at right angles to the flow of wind and inwards to wards centers of rotation (i.e. low/high pressure)
Inverse Square Law
amount of radiation passing through a specific area is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of that area from the energy source; Intensity = I/d^2, where d = distance traveled
Barometer
any instrument that measures air pressure
Frontal Fog
associated particularly with warm fronts; rain descending into the colder air ahead of the warm front can increase the quantity of water vapor in this atmosphere through evaporation
Conduction
atom to atom energy transfer along a temperature gradient (ex: cooking; geothermal heat flux through Earth's crust)
Cyclogenesis
birth & demise of a cyclone; takes ~3-10 days
Adiabatic Processes
change in temperature with elevation without addition or removal of heat
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
chemicals used in coolants, solvents, and aerosol cans that damage the ozone layer
Upslope Fog
created when air flows over higher topography
Ions
elements with a net (+) or (-) charge
Hydrological Cycle
exchanges of water in all 3 states between Earth's spheres
Newton's Second Law of Motion
force = (mass)*(acceleration); acceleration = force/mass
Heat Energy
form of energy created by combined internal motion of atoms in a substance
Hail
frozen ice balls > 5 mm formed by strong updrafts & turbulence in thunderstorms
Advection Fog
generated when air flows over a surface with a different temperature
Calorie (cal)
heat needed to raise 1g of water by 1°C (~4.2 J)
Matric Force
holds soil water from 0.0002 - 0.06 mm from the surface of soil particles; declines in strength with distance from the soil particle; capillary action moves this water from areas where this is low to areas where it is high
Centripetal Force (Ce)
inward force within the flow around centers of circulation; perpendicular to the path of motion; contributes to circular rotation around H & L pressures
unstable
is lifting stable or unstable?
stable
is subsidence stable or unstable?
Air mass
large body of air of relatively similar temperature and humidity characteristics
Isobars
lines of equal pressure; 4 mb intervals
Rain
liquid that falls to surface with diameter > 0.5 mm
Hygroscopic Coefficient
max. limit of hygroscopic water around a soil particle
Capillary Action
movement of water along microscopic channels
Infiltration
movement of water into the soil layer; controlled by gravity, capillary action, & soil porosity (pore size & fissures; controlled by texture, structure, and organic content)
Black Bodies
objects in nature that have almost completely perfect abilities to absorb and emit radiation
Cold Type Occluded Front
occurs when air behind the front is colder than air ahead of the front
Radiative Cooling
occurs when the sun no longer supplies ground and overlying air with energy derived from solar radiation (eg night); Earth's surface begins to lose energy in form of longwave radiation which causes ground and air above it to cool; clouds that form from this are fog
Frictional Deceleration
only once air is in motion; acts in opposite direction to path of motion causing moving air to decelerate; limited to lower 1 km of Earth's atmosphere
Wilting Point
point where the rate of water leaving a plant's leaves is greater than the water uptake by the roots; at this point, the plant will fail to recover its turgidity (swollen, bloated; normal in plants)
Absorption
process where solar radiation is retained by a substance and converted into heat energy
Extra-Tropical (Mid-Latitude) Cyclones
produce blizzards, Nor'easter, southeasters; often associated with frontal systems; must have a strong temperature gradient, available moisture, upper air contribution
Ground Fog (Radiation Fog)
produced by near surface cooling of atmosphere due to longwave radiation emission
Occluded Front
produced when a fast moving cold front catches & overtakes a slower moving warm front
Freezing Rain
rain that falls on a surface with temp < 0°C; requires temperature inversion
Friction Force (FF)
reducing (deceleration) or "drag" force resulting from interaction with surfaces; acts opposite to motion
Diffused Solar Radiation
solar radiation that reaches Earth's surface after being altered by scattering
Aerosol
solid or liquid particles (not gas), other than water; natural (i.e. sea spray, dust, volcanism, etc.); anthropogenic (i.e. combustion by products); some have long residence times
Isotope
some elements have variants containing different numbers of neutrons but similar numbers of protons
Radioactive Decay
some isotopes are unstable and their nucleus tends to lose subatomic particles forming an element with a lower atomic mass
Graupel
spherical snow pellets < 0.5 mm, supercooled water droplets freeze onto snowflakes
Direct Solar Radiation
sunlight reaching Earth's surface unmodified by any of these atmospheric processes
Wien's Law
the higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength of maximum emission; bodies at 1800°C or lower emit their radiation in the longwave band; this radiation is in all directions so a sizable proportion of this energy is lost to space
Residence Time
the time for molecules to move through a component of the hydrological system; larger components (ie glaciers, reservoirs) have longer times because the more water mass there is, the longer it generally takes to move it & it depends on the state the water exists in
Warm Sector
the warm air south of a low pressure system's center & between the 2 fronts
Hygroscopic Water
the water retained by the molecular force of elements and compounds found on the surface of soil minerals; consists of water held within 0.0002 mm of the surface of soil particles; non-mobile & can only be removed from the soil through heating
Meso-Scale Convective Systems
thunderstorms organized on a regional scale; sever hail, tornadoes, microbursts, haboobs, etc.
Sleet
translucent ice pellets < 0.5 mm; requires temperature inversion
Evaporation Fog (steam fog, sea smoke)
type of advection fog; occurs when cold air advances over warm water or warm, moist land surfaces
Gravitational Water
water in excess of capillary and hygroscopic water; found beyond 0.06 mm from the surface of soil particles and moves freely under the effect of gravity
Kirchhoff's Law
weak emitters of radiation are weak absorbers of radiation at specific wavelength bands
Easterly Waves
weather disturbances in the trade winds; ~10% develop into hurricanes
Front (Frontal Zone)
when 2 air masses develop a sharp boundary where the temperature difference between them is intensified; boundary always slopes upward over the cold air
Warm Type Occluded Front
when air behind the front is warmer than air ahead of the front; common on west coasts of continents and generally form when maritime polar air collides w/ continental polar or arctic air
Saturation
when the relative humidity is 100%
Buy Ballot's Law
when you stand with your back to a geostrophic wind in Northern Hemisphere, the center of low pressure will be on your left & high pressure on the right; opposite in Souther Hemisphere
Temperature Inversion
where warm air is found on top of cold air
Anemometer
Measures wind speed
Wind
Movement of air mass from spatial differences in atmospheric pressure (P), generally from H to L; a vector with magnitude and direction
Atmospheric circulation
Movement of air masses in response to temperature gradients and density changes (density: rho = mass÷volume, p = m/v)
Scattering
Occurs when small particles and gas molecules diffuse part of the incoming solar radiation in random directions without any alteration to the wavelength of electromagnetic energy; reduces the amount of radiation reaching Earth's surface
Respiration
Opposite of photosynthesis (oxygen -> CO2)
Into, centripetal force
Q: At the surface, will wind flow into or out of a L? A: __ an L because of __ __. (separate 2 answers with a comma)
low atmospheric pressure, expand
Q: What causes a storm surge during a hurricane? A: When __ __ __ causes ocean surface to __ and because the hurricane's cyclonic winds blow seawater towards the eye. (separate the 2 answers with a comma)
mass, inertia
Q: Why do cold fronts move faster and overtake slower warm fronts? A: Cold fronts have more __, and therefore more __. (separate with comma)
ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)
Q: Why do we have a dip of L* (net longwave) at the equator? A: Because of the ____
all molecules in air slow down when air cools
Q: Why does air density change with temperature? A: Because ___
heats, cools, quicker
Q: Why does the ITCZ line have "squiggles" in it? A: Because air over land __ & __ much __ than oceans. (separate with commas)
air is descending
Q: Why is it clear at the eye of hurricanes? A: Because __ __ __.
Why is the sky blue
Q: __ __ __ __ __? (5 words, no "?") A: because a large number of particles with a size of ~0.5 microns results in shorter wavelengths being scattered; [a color] corresponds to those wavelengths that are best diffused
Montreal Protocol (1987)
Called for a 100% reduction in the creation and use of CFCs by 1/1/1996 for developed countries (1/1/2010 for less developed countries)
1
Fog exists when the visibility of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is < __ km
Mesocyclone
Severe thunderstorms that develop a strong, vertical updraft; ~3-10km; ~half spawn tornadoes
Earth is colder than sun
Incoming shortwave radiation from the sun is returned to space as longwave radiation because __ __ __ __ __; incoming & outgoing radiation must be equal amounts
(Force of) Acceleration
-9.8 m/s^2
Cyclone
A low pressure system with associated W & C fronts
Gradient Wind
A wind that blows around curved isobars above the level of friction
Convergent Instability
Air masses merge, causing lifting
Geostrophic Wind
Air under influence of PGF & Coriolis Force tend to move parallel to isobars in conditions when friction is low (1000m above Earth's surface) & isobars are straight; flows along millibar contour lines as opposed to across them; not a surface wind; this = f(PGF + CF)
Coriolis Force (CF)
An apparent force resulting from Earth's rotation; deflects air masses in the atmosphere as Earth rotates beneath
ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)
Creates band of precipitation at equator
Latent Heat
Energy exchange during change in state of water; not sensible; (ex: energy released during condensation)
Tropical Cyclones
ITCZ generates daily thunderstorms; hurricanes, intense low pressure system
c
In the Northern Hemisphere, which direction does air circulate around H pressure systems? (c = clockwise, cc = counter-clockwise)
cc
In the Northern Hemisphere, which direction does air circulate around L pressure systems? (c = clockwise, cc = counter-clockwise)
cc
In the Southern Hemisphere, which direction does air circulate around H pressure systems? (c = clockwise, cc = counter-clockwise)
c
In the Southern Hemisphere, which direction does air circulate around L pressure systems? (c = clockwise, cc = counter-clockwise)
Troposphere
In which part of the atmosphere does all of Earth's weather occur?
Troposphere
Lowest layer of the atmosphere; contains ~80% of atmospheric mass; has a steady temp decrease with height: lapse rate, ~6.5°C/km; denser the lower you go
Warm Front
Transition zone in atmosphere where an advancing warm subtropical, moist air mass replaces a retreating cold, dry polar air mass; solid red line w/ half circles; moves ~10kph in NE direction
Cold Front
Transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold, dry stable air mass displaces a warm, moist unstable subtropical air mass; solid blue line w/ triangles; 15-50kph in SE to E direction
