Grammar TO Drill

Forms of Lie and Lay

*Forms of Lie* Present: Our dog often lies by the fire on cold nights. Past: Roberta lay (not laid) by the pool for hours yesterday. Past participle: The dishes have lain (not laid) in the sink all day. Present participle: The children have been lying (not laying) on the porch and telling ghost stories. Your soccer ball is lying (not laying) in the middle of the street. *Forms of Lay* Present: Please lay your essay on my desk. Past: Paul laid his Rangers cap on the floor under his chair. Past participle: We have laid over two hundred bricks in the new driveway. Present participle: We were laying bricks in uneven lines and had to remove them. Yesterday, as planes flew overhead, thepresident was laying a wreath at the Vietnam War Memorial.

Suggestions for Using the Correct Tense

1. Do not use the past tense of a verb when it should be in the present tense. ■ Naomi took a course in anthropology last year. She said that it was an interesting subject that studied cultures and societies throughout the world. (Incorrect. Was and studied imply that anthropology no longer is interesting and no longer studies other societies and cultures. The correct verbs are is and studies.) 2. Use the present infinitive (to write, to invent, to leap, and so on) unless the action referred to was completed before the time expressed in the governing verb. ■ Annika and Sanjay planned to stay (not to have stayed) awake for Saturday Night Live. ■ I am fortunate to have had (not to have) my life jacket during the stormy boat trip. 3. When a narrative in the past tense is interrupted by a reference to a preceding event, use the past perfect tense. ■ No one could believe that I had known him before he became a movie star. ■ The film's ending made no sense to me because I had missed the beginning.

Tips For Finding the Verb

1. Find the verb by asking what action takes place. 2. Find the verb by asking what word links the subject with the rest of the sentence. 3. If a word fits in the following slot, it is a verb. "I (or He or They) __________." Examples: I hunt elk. He swims every morning. They bring us flowers each time they visit. 4. Remember that the verb in a sentence will never have to in front of it. 5. The "-ing" form (the present participle) can be a verb only if it has a helping verb in front of it. 6. The verb will never be in a prepositional phrase. A final warning: You will never find the verb of a sentence in a prepositional phrase. The reason for this rule is simple. Prepositional phrases are made of prepositions and their objects, which are either nouns or pronouns—never verbs. Therefore, a prepositional phrase will never contain the verb of a sentence.

Collective Nouns

8. Collective nouns take singular verbs when the group is regarded as a unit, and plural verbs when the individuals of the group are regarded separately. A collective noun is a word that is singular in form but refers to a group of people or things. Some common collective nouns are army, assembly, committee, company, couple, crowd, faculty, family, flock, group, herd, jury, pair, squad, and team. When the group is thought of as acting as one unit, the verb should be singular. ■ The faculty is happy that so many students are volunteering for community service. ■ The committee has published the list of finalists. ■ The couple was married last week. If the members of the group are thought of as acting separately, the verb should be plural. ■ The faculty have been assigned their offices and parking spaces. ■ The committee are unable to agree on the finalists. ■ The couple constantly argue over their jobs and their children.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is a sentence containing a dependent clause. A dependent clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb but is not capable of standing alone as a sentence. (An independent clause, you remember, has a subject and a verb and can stand alone to form a sentence.) A dependent clause always needs to be attached to an independent clause in order to complete its meaning. Examine carefully the following sentence: ■ Because a cure for cancer does not exist, some patients resort to bizarre diets and remedies. This sentence is made up of two clauses, each containing a subject and a verb. The first clause (because a cure for cancer does not exist) will not stand alone to form a sentence, and therefore it is a dependent clause. The second clause (some patients resort to bizarre diets and remedies) is capable of standing alone as a sentence, and therefore it is an independent clause. The entire sentence is a complex sentence because it contains a dependent clause. You can recognize dependent clauses because they do not express complete thoughts. You can also spot them because they usually begin with subordinating conjunctions. Here are some of the most common subordinating conjunctions. In Chapter 8 you will learn how to recognize and form compound and complex sentences so that your writing will have variety and will not consist only of simple sentences.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses containing closely related ideas usually connected by a coordinating conjunction. In other words, it is two or more simple sentences connected by one of the following conjunctions. The following are simple sentences because each contains one independent clause. ■ The violin has just four strings. ■ It is difficult to play. By combining these two simple sentences with the conjunction but, we can create a compound sentence. ■ The violin has just four strings, but it is difficult to play. Each of the independent clauses in the preceding sentence has its own subject (violin and it) and its own verb (has and is) and is capable of standing alone. A compound sentence, therefore, has at least two subjects and two verbs. Of course, a compound sentence can have more than two independent clauses. But regardless of the number of clauses, a compound sentence remains the same: two or more independent clauses usually connected by a coordinating conjunction. (In Chapter 8 you will see that semicolons also connect independent clauses to form compound sentences.) Notice that the conjunction but, which connected the two independent clauses in the example compound sentence, was preceded by a comma. In general, a coordinating conjunction linking two independent clauses in a compound sentence should be preceded by a comma. Chapter 8 will give you greater practice in the punctuation of compound sentences.

The Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that joins words or groups of words. In a sense, conjunctions are like prepositions: they do not represent things or qualities. Instead, they merely show different kinds of relationships between other words or groups of words. There are two kinds of conjunctions you will need to recognize: coordinating and subordinating.

Introductions

A good introduction to an essay performs several jobs. The most obvious is to introduce the subject that you will develop and to pave the way for the thesis statement or controlling idea of the essay. The introduction should also catch the readers' interest, making them want to read on. A good introduction informs readers of the writer's intention and suggests the tone of the essay, indicating whether it will be humorous, angry, or serious. Here are some suggestions for writing introductions. Paragraphs that follow are student examples. Begin with a Direct Statement of Your Topic and Thesis ■ Every January, millions of American men and women huddle around their television sets to watch football's Super Bowl. Although typical viewers would probably tell you they're watching the game because they admire the players' abilities or a certain team, they are actually watching the game because it fulfills several of their unconscious needs and desires. Begin with a Personal Anecdote ■ I was fifteen when my father was transferred to an American base in Japan and our entire family was moved from our home in Texas. Because there would not be an opening in the base school for a semester, and because my parents did not want me to lose any school time, I was enrolled in the nearby public school in Osaka. From that experience I learned the importance of tolerance and understanding of others whose skin, culture, or language might be different. I also learned what it means to be a member of a minority. Begin with a Question ■ What are the chances of a chemical or biological attack by terrorists on one of our major American cities? How many people would survive? Would such an attack make living conditions impossible for the survivors? These and similar questions are being asked by our government as well as by ordinary citizens as a result of recent terrorist attacks throughout the world. Begin with a Quotation ■ "To be or not to be; that is the question." Every year an increasing number of people are answering those words of Hamlet's by taking their own lives. Suicide is a major cause of death among Americans under the age of twenty-five. Begin with an Imaginary Scene or a "What If?" Situation ■ Can you imagine living your lif

Action Verbs

As you saw in Chapter 2, action verbs tell what the subject does. ■ Carbohydrates provide energy for body function and activity by supplying immediate calories. (What action takes place in this sentence? What do carbohydrates do? They provide. Therefore, the verb in this sentence is provide.) ■ Taiwan holds the record for most Little League World Series titles. (What does Taiwan do? It holds. The verb in this sentence is holds.) ■ The students boarded the plane for San Juan. (What did the students do? They boarded. The verb in this sentence is boarded.) ■ Oceans cover three-quarters of the earth's surface. (What action takes place in this sentence? What do the oceans do? They cover. Therefore, the verb in this sentence is cover.) ■ Blood returning from the body tissues enters the right atrium. (What does the blood do? It enters. The verb in this sentence is enters.) ■ Visitors to Disneyland buy souvenirs for their friends at home. (What do visitors do? They buy souvenirs. The verb is buy.)

Avoiding Repetition of Subject

Avoid repeating the subject unnecessarily in your sentences. Study the following examples. Examples: My sister she is a nurse at Belleville Hospital. (Sister and she refer to the same person, and therefore she is unnecessary repetition.) The class that I signed up for it was canceled. (It is unnecessary because that replaces it.)

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join words and word groups of equal importance or rank. You should memorize these coordinating conjunctions. and so nor yet but for or The following sentences show how coordinating conjunctions join single words and groups of words. ■ Alexi speaks English and Russian fluently. (And links two words.) ■ Joao was born in Brazil, but he moved to the United States at the age of four. (But links two independent clauses.) ■ Do you prefer fish or chicken? (Or links two words.) ■ You should talk to a counselor, or you might take the wrong courses. (Or links two independent clauses.) In Chapter 8 you will see how coordinating conjunctions are used in compound sentences. Incidentally, it used to be considered ungrammatical to begin a sentence with one of these words, but this "rule" is no longer observed, even by the best writers.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns (pronouns that point out or indicate) are adjectives when they come before nouns. Notice the following examples. ■ this building ■ that statement ■ these flowers ■ those books

PREPARING TO WRITE A Collaborative Checklist

Discuss these questions with other students in your class. 1. Do you find yourself in situations in which writing is important? Explain. 2. What ritual do you follow before you write? Do you like to have music on? Drink coffee? Do you sharpen your pencils, clean your room, or play a computer game? Describe the routine you follow in order to get started. 3. Good writers read. What do you read regularly? Which magazines, books, or newspapers? Who are your favorite authors, or what are your favorite types of books? 4. Bring to class an example of writing by a professional reporter or author whom you like. What do you like about it? Read the example to the class and see if others like it. If they do not, examine their reasons. 5. What are your strengths as a writer? Try to be specific: mention things like ideas, vocabulary, organization, or any other aspect of your writing that does not present problems for you. 6. What are your weaknesses as a writer? Again, try to be specific: mention things like getting started, weak vocabulary, poor spelling, shortage of ideas, and so on. 7. Bring to class some of your own writing that you like. Read it to the class (or have someone else read it). What are their reactions?

Subjects and Other Words in the Sentence

Do not be confused if a sentence has several nouns or pronouns in it. Only the word that answers "Who?" or "What?" before the verb can be the subject. In the following sentence notice that only mayor answers the question, "Who blamed?" (subject) ■ The mayor blamed himself, not the city manager, the council, or the voters, for the defeat of the bond issue. Do not mistake phrases beginning with such words as along with, in addition to, including, rather than, together with, and similar terms for a part of the subject of the sentence. Note the following sentences. ■ The summary, as well as the chapters, contains several important terms to memorize. (Although chapters might appear to be the subject because it is closer to the verb, the subject is summary because it answers the question "What contains?") ■ The basketball players, together with their coach, are featured in this week's sports special. (The subject is players because it answers the question "Who are featured?")

The Progressive Form

Each of the six tenses has an additional form called the progressive form, which expresses action that continues to happen. The progressive form is not a separate tense but an additional form of each of the six tenses in the conjugation. It consists of a form of the verb be plus the present participle of the verb.

The Verb

Every sentence that you speak or write contains a verb. Sometimes the verb is only implied; usually, however, it is stated. When you can recognize and use verbs correctly, you have taken a big step toward being a better speaker and writer. A verb is a part of speech that expresses action or a state of being and thereby tells us what a noun or pronoun does or what it is. If the verb tells us what a noun or pronoun does, it is an action verb. ■ Roberta paints beautiful landscapes, which she hides in her attic. ■ Neil Armstrong landed on the moon in 1969. ■ Jamal practices law at a firm in Staten Island. If the verb expresses a state of being rather than action, it is a linking verb. Linking verbs do not express action; instead, they connect a noun or pronoun with a word or group of words that describe or rename the subject. ■ The subject of tonight's debate is prayers in public school. (Subject is linked by the verb is to prayers, a word that renames it.) ■ I.Q. tests are unreliable predictors of academic success, according to many educators. (Tests is linked to predictors by the verb are.) ■ My new speakers sound much better than my old ones. (Speakers is linked to the word that describes it—better—by the verb sound.) ■ Computers were very expensive for the average family to purchase in the 1970s. (What words are linked? What word links them?) ■ Belize is a country in Central America. (What word renames Belize? How are the two words linked?) The most common linking verbs are formed from the verb to be: am, are, is, was, and were. Other words often used as linking verbs are appear, become, grow, remain, seem, and the "sense" verbs: feel, look, smell, sound, and taste. Verbs are the only words that change their spelling to show tense. Tense is the time when the action of the verb occurs. Notice in the following sentences how the tense or time of the action is changed by the spelling of the verb. ■ Our mayor delivers an annual message to the citizens of our city. (present tense) ■ Last week she delivered her message on local television. (past tense) You will learn more about the use of tense in Chapter 5.

Forms of Sit and Set

Forms of Sit Present: Rodney sits by the creek in Perkerson Park to escape his noisy siblings. Past: We always sat in the back row at movies. Past participle: My sister has sat next to us in Spanish class all year. Present participle: Have you been sitting in the balcony for all of the performances this season? Forms of Set Present: Evan sets his BlackBerry under his desk during marketing class. Past: I have no idea where I set my car keys last night. Past participle: Anthony and Amelia have set a date for their wedding. Present participle: Setting unwise eating habits aside is tough but beneficial. The setting sun still warmed us as we descended Mt. Tamalpais.

Some verbs can be either helping/auxiliary verbs or main verbs. In other words, if they appear alone without a helping/auxiliary verb, they are main verbs. But if they precede a main verb, they are helping/auxiliary verbs. The following verbs can be either helping/auxiliary verbs or main verbs. You should memorize them.

Forms of to be: am, is, are, was, were Forms of to do: do, does, did Forms of to have: has, have, had Look at the following sentences carefully. ■ Victims of the earthquake were unable to drink the water. (Were is the main verb in this sentence.) ■ Victims of the earthquake were given food and clothing by the Red Cross. (Were given is a verb phrase. The main verb is given, and the helping/auxiliary verb is were.) ■ Hannah has a new car. (Has is the main verb in this sentence.) ■ She has already driven it two thousand miles. (Has driven is a verb phrase. The main verb is driven, and the helping/auxiliary verb is has.)

Commonly Used Pronouns

I, me, my, mine we, us, our, ours you, your, yours they, them, their, theirs he, him, his anybody, everybody, somebody she, her, hers everyone, no one, someone it, its something, some, all, many, any who, whose, whom each, none, one, this, that, these, those, which, what

Spotting Nouns

If you can put a word in the slot in the following sentence, it is a noun. "A (or An) is remarkable." Examples: An elephant is remarkable. A rainbow is remarkable.

Writing Sentences

In each of the following chapters you will be asked to write original sentences that apply the grammatical skills you will have learned in the chapter. Editing exercises are also included, and each will ask you to correct and revise sentences in accordance with these skills.

Verbs

One reason why so many mistakes are made in verb usage is that most sentences contain more than one verb, and consequently there are more chances to go wrong. Furthermore, the verbs most often used in the English language are irregular, which means that they change in a variety of ways. Therefore, they must be memorized. To make matters even worse, verbs change their forms and appearance more often than any other part of speech. As a result, they force us to pick our way through them carefully and deliberately. Is the case hopeless, then? Is it impossible to learn to use verbs correctly and confidently? Not at all; despite these difficulties, problems with verbs fall into a few manageable categories. A common problem, for instance, is not knowing the correct form of the verb needed to express when a particular action is taking place. Another difficulty is not knowing the correct form of an irregular verb. This chapter will present solutions to these and other common problems that many writers and speakers have in using verbs. Before we begin, however, look at the following sentences to see whether you have been using the correct verb form. Each sentence contains a verb that is often used incorrectly. The incorrect verb is in parentheses. ■ Lila was surprised to see that we had gone (not went) to lunch already. ■ Have you brought (not brang or brung) enough water for our kayaking trip? ■ Who sneaked (not snuck) this lizard into my suitcase? ■ Will's hopes sank (not sunk) when the Spurs lost possession of the ball. ■ Cesar has ridden (not rode) the rollercoaster six times. If you discovered that you have been using any of these verbs incorrectly, this chapter will give you some practical tips for their correct use. We will begin by examining the principal parts of regular and irregular verbs and will move next to the most common problems connected with the use of verbs, including shifts in tense and troublesome pairs like lie and lay and sit and set. All verbs have four principal parts (or forms): the present, the past, the past participle, and the present participle. By learning these four parts, you can build all of the verb tenses. By the way, the word tense comes from a Latin word meaning "time." When we t

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns (pronouns that show ownership such as my, your, her, his, our, and their) are adjectives when they come before nouns. Notice the examples. ■ our apartment ■ their lunch break ■ my employer

Function of Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases may serve the same function as either adjectives or adverbs in a sentence. ■ Adjective: News of an impending rebellion panicked the government. (The italicized phrase modifies the noun news.) ■ Adjective: The ushers in blue suits quieted the crowd. (The italicized phrase modifies the noun ushers.) ■ Adverb: Juan and Ashley left during the intermission. (The italicized phrase modifies the verb left.) ■ Adverb: The president spoke with emotion. (The italicized phrase modifies the verb spoke.)

The Preposition

Prepositions are connecting words—they do not have any meaning or content in or of themselves. They exist only to show relationships between other words. For this reason they must simply be learned or remembered. Prepositions are words like at, by, from, and with that are usually followed by a noun or pronoun (at home, by herself, from Toledo, and with you). The word following the preposition is called its object; the preposition and its object are called a prepositional phrase. Here are some prepositional phrases. The object in each prepositional phrase is italicized. Notice that a preposition can have more than one object and that some prepositions are made up of more than one word. ■ according to authorities ■ after the meeting ■ below the deck ■ between you and me ■ from one coast to another ■ in addition to requirements in science ■ through the final week ■ together with the director and producer ■ within the hour ■ without a clue

Four Principal Parts of Common Regular Verbs

Present Past Participle Participle offer offered offered offering attack attacked attacked attacking play played played playing travel traveled traveled traveling shout shouted shouted shouting

C H A P T E R 2 THE PARTS OF SPEECH: A REVIEW

■ The eight parts of speech: A review Nouns Pronouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections ■ Writing paragraphs: The topic sentence and unity in the paragraph Texting, blog, podcast, googling, phishing—These are just a few of the many words from the world of computers that have entered the English language. Although our language has more than a half-million words, it is constantly adding thousands of new ones from every field of human activity. Despite their number, all of these words—long or short, familiar or strange—can be divided into only eight categories: the eight parts of speech. When you learn to recognize the parts of speech, you will be on your way to understanding how the English language works, and you can talk about it intelligently and precisely. Even more important, you will be able to identify the tools that will help you to write clear, interesting, and correct sentences and paragraphs and to become a more confident writer. Our study of grammar and usage continues, therefore, by examining the parts of speech.

C H A P T E R 1 GETTING STARTED: COMPUTERS, GRAMMAR, SENTENCES, AND PARAGRAPHS

■The importance of standard English ■ Why writing is important ■ Writing with the computer ■ Writing sentences ■ Writing paragraphs: An overview

Subjects with Verbs in Active and Passive Voice

The sentences that we have examined so far have contained subjects that performed actions indicated by action verbs, or they have contained subjects that were connected by linking verbs to words that described or renamed them. Occasionally, however, we may encounter or write sentences in which the subjects receive the action. If the subject of the sentence performs the act, the verb is in the active voice. ■ Matthew repaired his tractor. ■ Burl's poodle attacked Bob. In the passive voice the subject is replaced by the object. ■ The tractor was repaired by Matthew. ■ Bob was attacked by Burl's poodle. As you can see, in the active voice the emphasis is on the subject, which performs the action of the verb. In the passive voice the emphasis is shifted to the object instead of the subject, which is "passive" or acted upon. The passive voice of a verb always consists of a form of the helping/auxiliary verb be (such as is, was, has been, and so on) plus the past participle of the main verb. (The past participle of a regular verb is the form that usually ends in -ed.)

Standard English:Who Needs It?

The study of grammar and writing is often dreaded by many students—yet no other skill set affects a college student's academic and professional success as strongly as the ability to speak and write clearly and persuasively. Almost every class that you will take in college requires writing of some kind. You will be expected to write reports, essays, and term papers that are well organized, logical, and convincing. Once you leave college, you will see that there is a growing link between a worker's writing skills and his or her earning power. The Information Age has made email, text-messaging, blogs, and other kinds of electronic writing vital to a surging number of businesses; employees who cannot communicate well in these ways often receive lower positions and pay than they would like. Because of this new focus on written communication in business and other job fields, many employers now ask applicants to answer at least some of their interview questions in writing. Emails, reports, proposals, summaries, text messages, Web site postings, and letters are typically required in today's work world. And they must be not only factually accurate but also free of serious mistakes in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. In college, on the job, and in social settings, you will succeed more rapidly and confidently if you show a strong command of standard written English. Fortunately, you already know and unconsciously follow most of the principles of standard written English. The chapters that follow in this book will build on that knowledge. Standard written English is the kind of English that you find in reports, books, newspapers, and articles and that you hear spoken by news announcers on television or radio and by your instructors in classrooms. In informal conversations, of course, you can ignore many of the principles of standard written English. Most slang, for example, is perfectly acceptable to many speakers of American English. But if such expressions appear in writing, they can get in the way of the writer's ideas and distract the reader. The clothes you wear while working on your car or painting your room would not be appropriate for a job interview. The slang you use with your friends would not be appr

Subjects and Verbs in Compound and Complex Sentences

You have seen that sentences may have more than one subject and more than one verb. (subject) (verb) (verb) a. Mark Twain piloted a riverboat and later wrote several novels. (subject) (subject) (verb) b. Mia Hamm and Julie Foudy were two of America's most popular professional soccer players. (subject) (subject) (verb) (verb) c. Nelson Mandela and Vaclav Havel were political prisoners and later became elected leaders of their countries. Sentence (a) has one subject and two verbs; sentence (b) has two subjects and one verb; sentence (c) has two subjects and two verbs. All three sentences are simple sentences because they each contain only one independent clause. An independent clause is a group of words with a subject and verb capable of standing alone. As we saw above, the subject and the verb may be compound. We will now look briefly at two other kinds of sentences: the compound sentence and the complex sentence. Both kinds of sentences are discussed in detail in Chapter 8, "Compound and Complex Sentences." At this point we need to learn only enough to recognize their subjects and verbs.

Words Mistaken for the Verb

You may sometimes be confused by two forms of the verb that may be mistaken for the main verb of the sentence. These forms are the infinitive and the present participle.

Finding the Verb

You will remember from Chapter 2 that the verb may be a single word (he sleeps) or a verb phrase of two, three, or even four words (he had slept, he had been sleeping, he must have been sleeping). Remember, too, that parts of the verb can be separated by adverbs (he must not have been sleeping).

Common Prepositions

about concerning out above despite out of according to down outside across due to over after during past against except regarding ahead of for round along from since among in through around in addition to to away from in front of together with because of inside toward before instead of under behind into underneath below like unlike beneath near until besides next to up between of upon beyond off with but (when it on within means except) onto without by on account of

Subordinating Conjunctions

after although as because if since though unless until when while why

Pronouns that May Be Singular or Plural

all any more most none some ■ Unfortunately, all of the rumors were true. ■ All of the snow has melted. ■ Most of the food tastes too spicy for me. ■ Most of my freckles have disappeared.

Coordinating Conjunction

and but for nor or so yet

Common Helping/Auxiliary Verbs

can, could have, has, had may, might, must, ought do, does, did shall, should, will, would am, is, are, was, were, been, be, being

The Past Perfect Tense

taking lessons.) The past perfect tense is used for an action that began and ended in the past. Additionally, it conveys that the action was completed before something else happened. ■ I had lived in Mobile before I moved to Atlanta. (Not: I lived in Mobile before I moved to Atlanta.) ■ Everyone knew that Clark's father had been a member of President Clinton's cabinet. (Not: Everyone knew that Clark's father was a member of President Clinton's cabinet.) ■ Monica asked us if we had watched the Rose Bowl Parade on television. (Not: Monica asked us if we watched the Rose Bowl Parade on television.) ■ Renee had been rehearsing her part as an understudy for only three days when she was suddenly asked to replace the star of the play. (Not: Renee rehearsed her part as an understudy for only three days when she was suddenly asked to replace the star of the play.)

C H A P T E R 3 FINDING THE SUBJECT AND THE VERB IN THE SENTENCE

■ Finding the verb in the sentence Action verbs Linking verbs Words mistaken for verbs ■ Finding the subject in the sentence Simple and complete subjects Compound subjects Subjects and verbs in compound and complex sentences ■ Writing paragraphs: Making paragraphs coherent through chronological order To improve your writing, you should master the sentence and its two main parts, the subject and the verb. This chapter will give you some useful tips for locating the subject and verb in every sentence. Once you have mastered this skill, you will be on your way to writing clear and effective sentences.

C H A P T E R 4 MAKING THE SUBJECT AND VERB AGREE

■ Subject-verb agreement In number In person ■ Writing paragraphs: Coherence in the paragraph through spatial order Mistakes in subject-verb agreement are among the most common writing and speaking errors, and they are particularly irritating to readers. Luckily, mistakes in subject-verb agreement are easy to repair if we keep one simple rule in mind: The subject and the verb in a sentence must agree in number and in person. This chapter will explain what number and person mean, as well as give you dozens of examples to illustrate the rule. ■ The subject and the verb must agree in number and in person.

The Pronoun

We could not get along without nouns. But occasionally, in order to avoid repetition, we use other words in place of nouns. The words that we substitute for nouns are called pronouns. ■ As Paul began to take Paul's biology exam, Paul tried to ignore the beeping sound coming from a cellular phone behind Paul. This sentence is obviously monotonous because of its overuse of Paul. We can improve it by using pronouns. ■ As Paul began to take his biology exam, he tried to ignore the beeping sound coming from a cellular phone behind him. The pronouns in this sentence are his, he, and him, and their antecedent (the word to which they refer) is Paul. Here is another sentence with pronouns and an antecedent. ■ The runner waved to her fans as she ran the victory lap around the track, and the crowd cheered her. What are the pronouns in this sentence? What is their antecedent? Unlike a noun, a pronoun does not name a specific person, place, thing, or idea. You will learn more about pronouns and their uses in Chapters 6 and 7. Meanwhile, you should try to recognize the most common pronouns.

The Noun

We will start with the noun because every English sentence either contains one or is about one. A noun is a word that names something—a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. ■ electrician, gym, video game, anxiety Some nouns refer to a general class of persons, places, or things. They are called common nouns, and they are not capitalized unless they are used to begin a sentence. ■ athlete, state, sports car, building, holiday Some nouns refer to specific persons, places, or things. They are called proper nouns, and they are always capitalized. ■ Derek Jeter, Texas, Alfa Romeo, Eiffel Tower, Christmas Eve As you will see in later chapters, nouns are important because they can work as several parts of the sentence.

Verb Phrases

When looking for the verb in a sentence, you should remember that it sometimes consists of more than one word. In such cases, it is called a verb phrase, and verb phrases consist of a main verb and a helping/auxiliary verb (see Chapter 2). Any helping/auxiliary verbs in front of the main verb are part of the verb, as in the following examples. ■ may have disappeared ■ should be avoided ■ might stay ■ did guarantee ■ is speaking ■ could have objected For a complete list of the words that serve as helping/auxiliary verbs, see page 17 in Chapter 2.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

When used as subjects or as adjectives modifying subjects, the following indefinite pronouns are always singular and take singular verbs. ■ Everybody is eligible for the drawing tonight. ■ Much of the work on the engine has been done. ■ Something tells me that I am wrong. ■ Each dismissed worker receives two weeks' pay. another each one everything nothing anybody either much one anyone every neither somebody anything everybody nobody something each every one no one someone

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

When used as subjects or as adjectives modifying subjects, the following indefinite pronouns are always plural and take plural verbs. both several others few many ■ Few of the passengers on the tragic cruise of the Titanic are living today. ■ Many of the parts in an American car are manufactured in other countries; several come from Japan.

Singular & Plural Ending Tips

When using nouns, verbs, and adjectives, be careful to use the following endings so that your meaning is clear. The plural form of most nouns is formed by adding an -s or -es to the singular form. book/books idea/ideas match/matches The singular form of a verb when used with he/she/it is also formed by adding an -s or -es. works enjoys washes

Using the Correct Tense

You have noticed in your study of verbs that they can indicate different tenses or times by the ending -ed or -d, by a change in spelling, and by the helping verbs that go with them. The forms of the verb change according to the time expressed—when the action or state of being occurs. Each tense has a specific purpose, and careful speakers and writers select the appropriate tense according to that purpose.

The Six Common Tenses and Their Uses

The Six Common Tenses Present: I jog, or I am jogging. Past: I jogged, or I was jogging. Future: I will* jog, or I will be jogging. Present Perfect: I have jogged, or I have been jogging. Past Perfect: I had jogged, or I had been jogging. Future Perfect: I will* have jogged, or I will have been jogging. *Shall is often substituted for will in the future and future perfect tenses.

Conjugating the Verb 'Take'

The accompanying list shows the six common tenses of take. Showing all of the tenses of a verb in this way is called conjugating a verb. Present Tense Singular Plural I take we take you take you take he, she, they take or it takes Past Tense Singular Plural I took we took you took you took he, she, or they took it took Future Tense Singular Plural I will (shall) we will (shall) take take you will take you will take he, she, or it they will take will take Present Perfect Tense Singular Plural I have taken we have taken you have taken you have taken he, she, or it has taken they have taken Past Perfect Tense Singular Plural I had taken we had taken you had taken you had taken he, she, or it had taken they had taken Future Perfect Tense Singular Plural I will (shall) we will (shall) have taken have taken you will have taken you will have taken he, she, or it will they will have taken have taken

Writing with the Computer

The act of writing has become easier because of the introduction of computers. It is simply faster to produce an assignment on a computer than on an old-school typewriter. Of course, it was dramatic and entertaining to tug an error-riddled page from the typewriter, crunch it into a ball, and free-throw it into the wastepaper basket—but in all other ways, the computer is superior to the typewriter. The chief advantage is that the computer allows you to change, correct, and rewrite selected portions of your paper without retyping the whole assignment. The parts of your paper that you do not want to change can remain in their original form and do not have to be retyped. Just as there are different writing styles among those who use a pen or typewriter, so there are differing practices among computer users. Some writers work directly at the keyboard and compose until they have completed their first draft. Then they revise and edit until they have made all of their modifications and changes. Others write their first draft by hand and then use the computer to prepare their final copy. Still others write at the keyboard, print a copy, and then revise with pen or pencil; they then go back to the computer for further alterations. Regardless of the composing style that you prefer, you should not become discouraged at your first attempts to use a computer. As you master it, you will learn that you can move or delete words, sentences, paragraphs, or entire pages; change words, phrases, or sentences; correct punctuation, mechanics, and misspelled words; and copy part or all of the paper to use for other purposes. In addition to revising and editing, the computer has other uses. In the preparation and formatting of a paper, you can change spacing and margins, incorporate boldface, italicize words and titles, center material on a page, and close any spaces left by deletions and substitutions. The effect of using a computer will be obvious as you become familiar with its features. The most obvious is that revision is easier: by merely pressing a few keys or moving the mouse, you can shift words, sentences, and entire paragraphs. By putting down ideas as they come to you, you will be less worried about forgetting important po

Conclusions

The conclusion of your essay, like its introduction, can fulfill several purposes. It can summarize your main points or restate your thesis (avoiding the same words or expressions that were used throughout the essay). It can suggest a sense of "closure" by referring to a quotation or fact used in the introduction. Some introductions ask the reader to do something—to take some action, consider another alternative, or think more deeply about an issue or problem. Other introductions speculate on the future by predicting what will happen as a result of the situation described in the essay. Your conclusion should be in proportion to the length of the body of the essay. For a short paper, a few sentences are enough. For longer papers, one or two paragraphs would be appropriate. Regardless of length, your conclusion should convey to the reader a sense of completion. Some suggestions for writing conclusions, with examples from student papers, follow. End with a Summary of Your Main Points ■ These steps should be reviewed before the actual interview. A neat, organized résumé will let your prospective employer see your qualifications at a glance. A clear idea of the salary you expect gives both you and your interviewer a starting point for a discussion of wages. A businesslike, serious approach to the interview indicates your attitude toward the position. These steps are the best way to prepare for an interview. End with a Restatement of Your Thesis ■ The facts, as we have seen, do not justify a belief in the existence of life in outer space. Despite the influence of Hollywood, the conditions necessary for life found on Earth cannot be duplicated anywhere else in the universe. Humans are unique, and to think otherwise is to ignore the evidence. End with a Fact or Quotation Used in the Introduction ■ "All men are created equal" does not mean that all men and women are identical. What the writers of our Declaration of Independence meant is that individuals should be given their rights as unique human beings and respected for their common humanity. End by Asking Your Audience to Do Something ■ There will be no improvement in our schools until there is a change of attitude in the home. Insist that your children attend cla

The Dictionary

The dictionary is a useful resource that you will use in your college classes and for the rest of your life. A dictionary contains much more than definitions. It tells you the history of a word and how it is spelled, hyphenated, and pronounced. Traditional hard-copy favorites of college students and instructors include The American Heritage College Dictionary, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, and The Random House College Dictionary. Online dictionaries are helpful when you're working away from your desk and might not have your hard-copy dictionary with you. Try http://www. merriam-webster.com and http://www.websters-online-dictionary.com. Both Web sites also feature a thesaurus. Ask your instructor for more suggestions.

Introductory and Concluding Paragraphs

The first and last paragraphs of your essay are important. The introduction creates the first impression and therefore must be effective. The conclusion is your last chance to influence or impress your readers and to leave them with a sense of completion. Some writers write the introduction first, but others prefer to write it after the rest of the essay has been written. Similarly, some write the conclusion first, using it as a kind of final destination point to aim for as they write. Regardless of when the introduction and conclusion are written, they are vital parts of the essay.

The Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense is used for an action that will end in the future before a particular time. ■ Her parents will have been married forty years next Thanksgiving. ■ I will have used up all of my vacation time by the time your visit ends next week. ■ Fatima will have been dieting for six months this Thursday.

The Future Tense

The future tense expresses an action that will take place in the future. ■ Javier will race his bicycle in the next Olympics. ■ Uncle Jim will be sixty years old next August. ■ Fourteen Americans will be participating in the freestyle swimming competition next Wednesday.

Recognizing Prepositions

1. A preposition is a word that will fill the slot in the following sentence. "The airplane flew the clouds." Examples: The airplane flew above, below, beyond, under, around, or through the clouds. 2. A preposition is a word that will fill the slot in the following sentence. "A purse was lying street." Examples: A purse was lying in, next to, alongside, or beside the street. Some prepositions, of course, will not fit either sentence, and they must be learned.

Agreement Reminders

1. Adding an -s or -es to a noun makes the noun plural. Adding an -s or -es to a verb makes the verb singular. 2. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular; if the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. 3. The verb must agree with its subject, not with any other words in the sentence. Do not be confused by sentences not in the usual subject-verb pattern.

Recognizing Adverbs

1. Adverbs are words that will fit in the following slot. "He will meet us ." 2. Adverbs tell when, where, how, and to what extent. Examples: He will meet us later. (when) He will meet us here. (where) He will meet us punctually. (how) He will meet us briefly. (to what extent)

Who, Which, or That as Subjects

7. If the subject is who, which, or that, be careful: all of these pronouns can be singular or plural, depending on their antecedents. When one of them is the subject, its verb must agree with its antecedent in number. ■ Sergei is one of those musicians who are able to play music at first sight. (Who refers to musicians; several musicians are able to play music at first sight, and Sergei is one of them.) ■ Hoang is the only one of the musicians who has forgotten his music. (Who refers to one. Among the musicians, only one, Hoang, has forgotten his music.) ■ I ordered one of the word processors that were on sale. (That refers to word processors and therefore takes a plural verb.) ■ I also bought a desk that was reduced 40 percent. (That refers to desk and therefore takes a singular verb.)

Suggestions for Using Irregular Verbs

1. Resist the temptation to add -ed to an irregular verb: do not write or say "catched," "bursted," "knowed," and so on. 2. Use have, has, and had with the past participle (the forms in the third column of the chart that begins on page 94) to form past tenses. ■ She has done several music videos for her newest CD. ■ We had begun to eat dessert before the guest of honor finally arrived. ■ I have flown on an airplane and ridden on a train. 3. Use am, are, is, was, were, has been, and other forms of be with the past participle forms to form all verbs in the passive voice. ■ Vanya was given a varsity letter for managing the softball team. ■ The dogs were caught before they could attack anyone. ■ The sketch had been drawn especially for my father and was hung over his fireplace. 4. Use forms of be before the present participle (the forms in the fourth column of the chart that begins on page 94) to form tenses where the action continues to happen. ■ Chemistry is beginning to make more sense to me. ■ They have been winning more of their matches this season. ■ The soda cans were bursting from being put in the freezer by accident.

Tips for Finding the Subject in a Sentence

1. The subject will answer the questions Who? or What? before the verb. 2. In questions or inverted sentences, the subject will usually come after the verb. 3. The subject of a sentence will never be here or there. 4. The subject of the sentence will never be in a prepositional phrase.

Tips on Forming the Past Tense, Past Participle, and Present Participle Forms

1. To form the past and past participle forms of a regular verb, add -ed or -d to the present form. To form the present participle, add -ing to the present form. 2. Irregular verbs change their spelling and therefore have to be memorized. Study the list on pages 94-96 for the correct past and past participle forms of irregular verbs.

Reminders About Tenses

1. Use the past tense only if the action referred to took place at a specific time in the past. 2. Use the past perfect tense (had plus the past participle) only when you want to place a completed action before another action in the past.

Irregular Verbs Tips

1. With some irregular verbs, all three forms (present, past, and past participle) are the same. An example is hit. Cheryl can hit and throw with either hand. (present) Yesterday she hit a home run to win the game. (past) She has hit safely in her last seven games. (past participle) 2. With other irregular verbs, the past is the same as the past participle. Examples are tell and told. She told me to come back the next day. (past) Have you told anyone about your new job? (past participle) 3. With other irregular verbs, all three forms are different. Examples are break, broke, and broken. Every January I break my New Year's resolutions in the first week. (present) Kiri broke her arm in a skiing accident. (past) The American team has broken three scoring records. (past participle)

Spotting Adjectives

1. You can add -er and -est or more and most to adjectives. Examples: strong, stronger, strongest eager, more eager, most eager 2. An adjective will fill the blank in this sentence. "The (noun) is ." Examples: The cupboard is empty. 3. Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. Examples: The tired surfers paddled back to shore. She is proud of her degree in math. 4. Adjectives tell how many, what kind, which one, and what color. Examples: Ryan has four dogs, three cats, and a dozen goldfish. I have a German pen pal and an Ecuadoran pen pal. Did you eat the last bagel? White roses and yellow daisies dot her garden.

Compound Subjects

A sentence can have more than one subject, just as it can have more than one verb. Two or more subjects are called compound subjects. ■ Athletes and celebrities are frequently seen on television endorsing products. ■ Polluted water and smog made the city unattractive to tourists. ■ Either hamburgers or hot dogs will be served at the picnic. ■ Across the street stood the abandoned schoolhouse. (The abandoned schoolhouse stood across the street; schoolhouse is the subject, although street is in the subject position before the verb.) ■ On her desk is a new word processor. (What is the verb? What is the subject?) Questions are usually inverted, with the subject coming after the verb. ■ Was Charles Lindbergh the first man to fly across the Atlantic? (The verb was precedes the subject Charles Lindbergh.) ■ Where are the keys to the car? (The subject keys follows the verb are.) ■ What is the best time to call you? (The subject time follows the verb is.) In sentences that begin with here is, here are, there is, or there are, the real subject follows the verb. To find the subject in such sentences, use the method you learned earlier. Ask "Who?" or "What?" before the verb. ■ Here is a map of the subway route to the Bronx. (What is here? The subject, map, is here.) ■ There are several reasons to explain his refusal. (What are there? Several reasons, the subject.)

Finding the Subject

A sentence is written about something or someone—the subject of the sentence. The verb, as you have learned, tells what the subject is or does. Every grammatically complete sentence has a subject. Sometimes, as in the case of commands, the subject is not directly stated but implied. ■ Please return all overdue library books by next Friday. (Although the subject you is not stated, it is implied.) The rule for finding the subject of a sentence is actually very clear. To find the subject of a sentence, first find the verb. Then ask, "Who?" or "What?" The answer will be the subject. Read the following sentences carefully to see how the rule works. ■ The invoice was paid on February 10. (By asking "What was paid?" you can easily determine the subject of this sentence: invoice.) ■ Luis follows a strict diet because of his high blood pressure. (As in the previous sentence, you can find the subject in this sentence by locating the verb and asking "Who?" or "What?" Luis follows a strict diet and therefore is the subject.) ■ Several cracks in the kitchen ceiling appeared after the last earthquake. (What appeared? Cracks, the subject.)

The Article

A special type of adjective is called the article. The English language contains three articles: a, an (used before words that begin with a vowel sound), and the. ■ After an absence of sixteen years, Maricela returned to the city of her birth and a parade in her honor.

Adjective or Adverb?

Adjectives and adverbs are often confused. Remember that adjectives describe nouns and pronouns, and that adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Notice the differences in the following sentences. ■ Her loud hiccups distracted the speaker. (Loud is an adjective because it modifies the noun hiccups.) ■ If you sneeze loudly, you will distract the speaker. (Loudly is an adverb because it modifies the verb sneeze.) Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the adjective (as in loudly, in the previous sentence). But keep in mind that some adverbs do not end in -ly (above, never, there, very, and so on). And some words that end in -ly are not adverbs (words such as silly, friendly, and lovely).

The Adverb

Adverbs are words that describe or modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Study these sentences carefully. ■ The huge chopper transported the soldiers quickly. (Quickly modifies the verb transported.) ■ The extremely tall guard dribbled the basketball slowly. (Extremely modifies the adjective tall, and slowly modifies the verb dribbled.) ■ The tall guard dribbled the basketball very slowly. (Very modifies the adverb slowly.) Adverbs usually answer the following questions: When? Where? How? To what extent? ■ When? Joe immediately realized that he had confused Megan with her sister. (The adverb immediately modifies the verb realized.) ■ Where? Please wait here. (The adverb here modifies the verb wait.) ■ How? The deer struggled unsuccessfully to escape. (The adverb unsuccessfully modifies the verb struggled.) ■ To what The state capitol building was completely remodeled after extent? the election. (The adverb completely modifies the verb was remodeled.)

Subject-Verb Agreement

Agreement in number means that a singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb. The singular form of all verbs except be and have is formed by adding -s or -es: goes, takes, writes, fishes, brings, drives. The singular forms of be and have are is and has. The singular form of the verb is used when the subject is he, she, it, a singular indefinite pronoun (such as anyone or somebody), or a singular noun. Plural verbs do not have these endings, and they are used when the subject is I, you, we, they, or a plural noun. A singular subject with a singular verb: ■ Celia's father makes delicious empanadas. A plural subject with a plural verb: ■ Celia's parents maintain their Salvadoran customs. Notice that adding an -s or -es to a noun makes the noun plural but adding -s or -es to a verb in the present tense makes the verb singular. Agreement in person means that a subject and its verb must both be in the same person (first, second, or third). The following sentences illustrate this rule. First person (I, we): ■ I read (not reads) the newspaper online each morning. ■ We subscribe (not subscribes) to several sports magazines. Second person (you): ■ You have (not has) more money in your college fund than I do. ■ You are (not be or is) allowed to leave work at noon on Fridays. Third person (he, she, it, and they): ■ Eggs and waffles make (not makes) too heavy a breakfast for Bart. ■ Lisa plays (not play) saxophone in her school's jazz band.

Tips for Recognizing Verbs

An action verb is a word that fits in the slot in the following sentence. "I (or He or She or They) usually ." Examples: I usually jog. She usually snores. They usually help. A linking verb is a word that fits in the slot in the following sentence. "I (or He or She or They) happy." Examples: I am happy. He is happy. They were happy.

The Adjective

In your writing you will often want to modify (or describe) a noun or pronoun. The word you will use is an adjective, a word that modifies nouns and pronouns. Adjectives usually answer one of the following questions: How many? What kind? Which one? What color? ■ How many? Many students believe that the Social Security system will be bankrupt before they are old enough to retire. (Many modifies students.) ■ What kind? Egg bagels gave us energy for our hike. (Egg modifies bagels.) ■ Which one? This backpack was found in the cafeteria. (This modifies backpack.) ■ What color? His purple socks did not complement his red suit. (Purple modifies socks.) The adjectives in the preceding sentences came immediately before the nouns they modified. Some adjectives, however, come after linking verbs and describe the subject of the verb. Adjectives in this position are called predicate adjectives. Study the following sentences carefully. ■ We were surprised to learn that old pairs of American jeans in Russia are very expensive. (Expensive is a predicate adjective because it comes after a linking verb—are—and modifies the noun pairs.) ■ After waiting in the hot sun for three days, the refugees became angry. (Angry is a predicate adjective because it comes after a linking verb—became—and modifies the noun refugees.)

Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs are irregular in the way their past and past participle forms are made. Instead of adding -ed or -d for their past and past participle forms, irregular verbs change in ways that cannot be predicted. This means that you will have to memorize their past and past participle forms. Fortunately, irregular verbs form their present participles in the same way as regular verbs: by adding -ing to the present form. To understand why it is difficult to make any generalization about irregular verbs, let us examine the verbs sing and bring. From our familiarity with the English language, we know that sing is the present ("I sing in church every Sunday"), sang is the past ("I sang last Sunday"), and sung is the past participle ("I have sung every Sunday this month"). Imagine the confusion of someone learning English who, having mastered sing, applies the same changes by analogy to the verb bring. He or she logically concludes that the past of bring is brang ("I brang my lunch yesterday") and that the past participle is brung ("I have brung my lunch")! To native speakers of English, these forms are humorous; to others who have not mastered the inconsistencies of our verbs, there is nothing within the verb bring to suggest that the past and past participle are brought ("I brought my lunch yesterday" and "I have brought my lunch"). The English language contains over two hundred irregular verbs, and irregular verbs are the verbs most often used. Consult your dictionary if you are not sure about the past and past participle forms of irregular verbs. Do not trust your ear; what "sounds right" may only be the result of having repeatedly heard, said, and written the incorrect form. The "piano" you have been playing all these years may be out of tune. On pages 94-96 is a list of some common irregular verbs, as well as a few regular verbs that often present problems. Practice their correct forms by putting I in front of the present and past forms, I have in front of the past participle form, and I am in front of the present participle form (I begin, I began, I have begun, and I am beginning). Practice saying them correctly until they sound correct and natural.

Lie and Lay

Lie and Lay To lie means "to remain in position or be at rest." (We are ignoring the other meaning— "to tell a falsehood"; when lie carries this meaning, it is a regular verb.) Lie never takes an object—that is, you never lie anything down. Lie is usually followed by a word or phrase that tells where (lie down, lie on the grass, and so on). The principal parts of lie are lie (the present), lay (the past), lain (the past participle), and lying (the present participle). Because our ear tells us that a "d" sound is usually the sign of the past tense, we are tempted to say or write laid for the past tense, instead of the correct form lay. The present participle lying is used with helping verbs; it should not be confused with laying. To lay means "to place or put something somewhere," and it is a transitive verb—that is, it requires an object to complete its meaning: "lay the package down," "lay your head down," and so on. The principal parts of lay are lay (present tense), laid (the past tense), laid (the past participle), and laying (the present participle). The present participle laying is used with helping verbs; it is followed by an object. The most effective way of mastering lie and lay is to memorize their forms: lie, lay, lain, and lying; lay, laid, laid, and laying.

Which Part of Speech?

Many words do double or triple duty; that is, they can be (for instance) a noun in one sentence and a verb in another sentence. The situation is much like a football player who lines up as a tight end on one play and a halfback on another. His or her function in each play is different; and so it is with words and parts of speech. A word like light, for example, can be used as a verb. ■ We always light our Christmas tree after the children are asleep. It can also be used as an adjective. ■ Many beer drinkers spurn light beer. Light can also be used as a noun. ■ All colors depend on light. What part of speech is light, then? It depends on the sentence; no word exists in a vacuum. To determine the part of speech of a particular word, you must determine its function or use in the sentence.

The Paragraph: An Overview

Most of the writing that you will be asked to do in college will be in the form of paragraphs. A paragraph consists of several related sentences that deal with a single topic, or an aspect of a topic. Paragraphs may stand alone, as in the case of responses to questions on examinations. Usually, however, paragraphs are parts of longer pieces of writing, such as essays, reports, and term papers. In such cases, paragraphs help your reader by breaking down complicated ideas into manageable parts and relating each part to the main idea or thesis of your composition. Regardless of whether it is freestanding or part of a larger unit, a well-organized paragraph has three characteristics: ■ A good paragraph is unified: all of its sentences are related to one main idea. ■ A good paragraph is coherent : the thoughts proceed logically from sentence to sentence. ■ A good paragraph is developed: it contains enough information to convey the idea of the paragraph in a reasonably thorough way. In the following chapters you will practice writing paragraphs that are unified, coherent, and developed. As mentioned, a unified paragraph is one about a single idea or topic. The sentence that states the paragraph's topic is the topic sentence, and the topic is developed and supported by the specifics in the sentences that follow or precede it. In Chapter 2 you will learn to recognize topic sentences and to write your own paragraphs with topic sentences. Good paragraphs are coherent. This means that the sentences are in the right order with the right connecting words so that the reader is not confused. Chapters 3-6 will introduce you to ways to make your paragraphs coherent so that your thoughts will be easy to follow— from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph. In addition to being unified and coherent, good paragraphs are developed. They contain details and material that fulfill the promise made to the reader in the topic sentence. Several methods of paragraph development are available to you, and they are presented in Chapters 7-11.

None

Note: None is considered a singular pronoun in formal usage. According to informal usage, however, it may be singular or plural, depending on the noun to which it refers. Note the difference in the following sentences. ■ Formal usage: None of the babies has learned to speak yet. ■ Informal usage: None of the babies have learned to speak yet.

Common Irregular Verbs and Problem Regular Verbs

Present Past Past Participle Present Participle [I] arise [I] arose [I have] arisen [I am] arising awake awoke or awaked awaked, awoken awaking bear (carry) bore borne bearing begin began begun beginning blow blew blown blowing break broke broken breaking bring brought brought bringing burst burst burst bursting catch caught caught catching choose chose chosen choosing come came come coming dig dug dug digging [I] dive [I] dived or dove [I] dived [I] diving do did done doing drag dragged dragged dragging draw drew drawn drawing drink drank drunk drinking drive drove driven driving drown drowned drowned drowning eat ate eaten eating fly flew flown flying freeze froze frozen freezing give gave given giving go went gone going grow grew grown growing hang hung hung hanging hang hanged hanged hanging (execute) hide hid hidden hiding know knew known knowing lay laid laid laying lead led led leading leave left left leaving lie lay lain lying light lighted or lit lighted or lit lighting ride rode ridden riding ring rang rung ringing rise rose risen rising run ran run running see saw seen seeing set set set setting Present Past Past Participle Present Participle [I] shake [I] shook [I] shaken [I] shaking shine (glow) shone shone shining shine shined shined shining (polish) shrink shrank, shrunk shrunk or shrunken shrinking sing sang sung singing sink sank sunk sinking sit sat sat sitting sleep slept slept sleeping sneak sneaked sneaked sneaking speed sped sped speeding spring sprang sprung springing strike struck struck striking swim swam swum swimming swing swung swung swinging take took taken taking tear tore torn tearing throw threw thrown throwing wake woke or waked waked or woken waking wear wore worn wearing write wrote written writing

Progressive Forms

Progressive Forms Present Progressive: am, are, is taking Past Progressive: was, were taking Future Progressive: will (shall) be taking Present Perfect Progressive: has, have been taking Past Perfect Progressive: had been taking Future Perfect Progressive: will (shall) have been taking

Regular Verbs

Regular verbs form the past and past participle by adding -ed or -d to their present forms (watch, watched, and watched). The past participle is the form used with the helping verbs have, has, or had or with a form of be (have been watched and were watched). The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the present form, and it is used with a form of to be to form the other tenses (am studying, was studying, have been studying, and so on). Here are the four principal parts of some common regular verbs. Notice that the past (offered, attacked, played, and so on) and the past participle are identical and are formed by adding -ed or -d to the present. Remember, too, that the past participle is used with helping verbs to form past tenses: I have offered, I had offered, and she has offered; I was offered, we were offered, and they had been offered; and so on.

Correlating Conjunctions

Some coordinating conjunctions combine with other words to form correlative conjunctions. The most common correlative conjunctions are both . . . and; either . . . or; neither . . . nor; and not only . . . but also. Notice the following examples. ■ Both Donovan McNabb and Reggie Brown play for the Eagles. ■ Ray will either go to summer school or work in his father's store. ■ John Kennedy was not only the first Roman Catholic president but also the first president born in the twentieth century.

Indefinite Pronoun Reminders

Some indefinite pronouns always take singular verbs; some always take plural verbs; and still other indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural, depending on the nouns or pronouns to which they refer. Look over the lists on pages 75-76 if you are not sure.

Linking Verbs

Some verbs do not show action. Instead, they express a condition or state of being. They are called linking verbs, and they link the subject to another word that renames or describes the subject. You will recall from Chapter 2 that most linking verbs are formed from the verb to be and include am, are, is, was, and were. Several other verbs often used as linking verbs are appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, and taste. The verbs in the following sentences are linking verbs. They link their subjects to words that rename or describe them. ■ My parents seem happy in their new apartment. (The linking verb seem connects the subject parents with the word that describes them: happy.) ■ French is the language of the province of Quebec in Canada. (The linking verb is connects the subject French with the word that renames it: language.) ■ The first-graders remained calm during the earthquake. (The verb remained connects the subject first-graders with the word that describes them: calm.) ■ Bernie Mac was an actor as well as a comedian. (The linking verb was connects the subject Bernie Mac with the word that renames it: actor.) ■ Lord Kelvin was a founder of the science of thermodynamics. (The linking verb was connects the subject Lord Kelvin with the word that renames it: founder.)

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions, like coordinating conjunctions, join groups of words. Unlike coordinating conjunctions, however, they join unequal word groups or grammatical units that are "subordinate." You will study subordinating conjunctions in greater detail in Chapters 8 and 9, especially with respect to complex sentences and fragments. Some conjunctions like after, before, for, since, but, and until can also function as prepositions. ■ The popularity of leisure suits declined after the presidency of Richard Nixon. (preposition) ■ Aisha sold her truck after she bought a minivan. (conjunction) ■ Carlos bought flowers for his girlfriend. (preposition) ■ Carlos bought flowers, for he knew his girlfriend was angry. (conjunction) ■ Every member of the General Assembly but Denmark voted for the motion. (preposition) ■ Every member voted, but Denmark demanded a recount. (conjunction)

The Infinitive

The infinitive is the "to" form of the verb: to leave, to write, to start, and so on. The infinitive is the base form of the verb—in other words, it merely names the verb. It does not give us any information about its person, its tense, or its number. The infinitive by itself is never the verb of the sentence. Note how the following word groups fail to make sense because they use only the infinitive form—the "to" form—of the verb. ■ Homeowners to install new roofs because of the damage from hail. ■ My reading comprehension to improve by 15 percent. ■ Missionaries from Spain to arrive in California in the 1760s. ■ Ornithologists to study the mating habits of condors. ■ Contractors to build cheaper and smaller homes in the future. These word groups are not sentences because they try to make an infinitive do the work of a main verb. They can be corrected by placing a verb before the infinitive. ■ Homeowners had to install new roofs because of the damage from hail. ■ My reading comprehension was to improve by 15 percent. ■ Missionaries from Spain began to arrive in California in the 1760s. ■ Ornithologists plan to study the mating habits of condors. ■ Contractors vow to build cheaper and smaller homes in the future. Of course, these word groups could also have been converted to sentences merely by changing the infinitives to main verbs: installed, improved, arrived, study, and will build.

The Interjection

The interjection (or exclamation, as it is sometimes called) is a word that expresses emotion and has no grammatical relationship with the rest of the sentence. Mild interjections are followed by a comma. ■ No, I don't think Purdue can beat Bethune-Cookman in tonight's game. ■ Oh, I suppose the children may have some cookies. ■ Yes, I have ice-skated at Plymouth Mill Pond. Strong interjections require an exclamation mark. ■ Wow! My phone bill is huge! ■ Ouch! That hurts! ■ Fire! ■ Yo! I'm over here! ■ Hey! I think I finally understand physics!

Simple and Complete Subjects

The main noun or pronoun without any of its modifiers that answers the questions "Who?" or "What?" before the verb is the simple subject. The complete subject is composed of the simple subject and its modifiers—the words and phrases that describe it. In the following sentence, waiter is the simple subject; a tall, gracious, smiling waiter is the complete subject. ■ A tall, gracious, smiling waiter seated us at our table. In the following sentence, what is the simple subject? What is the complete subject? ■ The woman in the green dress and high heels is my sister. When you are asked to identify the subject of a sentence, you normally name the simple subject.

Present Participle

The other form of the verb that sometimes looks as though it is the main verb is the present participle, the "-ing" form of the verb. It is the result of adding -ing to the verb, as in the following: leaving, starting, writing, and so on. Like the infinitive, the present participle can never stand by itself as the verb in a sentence. Notice how the following groups of words fail to make sense because they attempt to use the present participle—the "-ing" form—as their verb. ■ Homeowners installing new roofs because of the damage from the hail. ■ My reading comprehension improving by 15 percent. ■ Missionaries from Spain arriving in California in the 1760s. ■ Ornithologists studying the mating habits of condors. ■ Contractors building cheaper and smaller homes in the future. These word groups can be corrected by placing a form of the verb to be in front of the present participle. ■ Homeowners were installing new roofs because of the damage from the hail. ■ My reading comprehension has been improving by 15 percent. ■ Missionaries from Spain were arriving in California in the 1760s. ■ Ornithologists have been studying the mating habits of condors. ■ Contractors will be building cheaper and smaller homes in the future.

The Past Tense

The past tense expresses an action or a condition completed in the past. ■ The Coalition forces attacked the terrorists in their caves. ■ Sheldon visited his mother last night. ■ The Security Council charged that several nations were participating in illegal arms shipments.

The Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is used for an action that began in the past and continues into the present. ■ I have gone to many freshwater fishing tournaments. (And I still go.) ■ I have lived in Atlanta since 1997. (And I still live in Atlanta.) ■ Our neighbor's dog has barked for two days now. (And he is still barking.) ■ Crystal has been taking Spanish lessons in preparation for her trip to Madrid. (And she is still taking lessons.) The present perfect tense can also be used for an action that started in the past and has been completed at some indefinite time. ■ The fire in the warehouse has been extinguished. ■ My grandfather has been to a doctor only once in his lifetime. ■ Chen-Li has taken French lessons in preparation for his trip to Paris. (He has finished taking lessons.)

The Present Tense

The present tense is used in the following situations: To express a condition or an action that exists or is going on now. ■ Her car is fast. ■ But she is driving under the speed limit. To express an action that is habitual or is always true. ■ He competes in calf-roping events every summer. ■ He always beats his opponents. ■ There is no other game like baseball. ■ Sumter, South Carolina, is the home of the nation's finest iris garden.

The Subject and the Verb

The subject of a sentence names a person, place, thing, or idea; it tells us who or what the sentence is about. The verb describes action or the subject's state of being; it tells us what the subject does, what the subject is, or what the subject receives. Francis Scott Key wrote the words to our national anthem. (subject) (verb) ■ Baton Rouge is the capital of Louisiana. (subject) (verb) ■ Gertrude Ederle was the first woman to swim the English channel. (subject) (verb) ■ Martin Luther King Jr. received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1964. (subject) (verb) ■ I rarely eat this much licorice. Each of the previous sentences contains a subject and a verb, and each makes a complete statement. In other words, they convey a sense of completeness. In conversations, sentences often lack stated subjects and verbs, but their contexts—the words and sentences that surround them—make clear the missing subject or verb. For example: ■ "Studying your sociology?" ■ "Yes. Big test tomorrow." ■ "Ready for it?" ■ "Hope so. Flunked the last one." If this conversation were written in formal sentences, the missing subjects and verbs would be supplied, and the exchange might look something like this. ■ "Are you studying your sociology?" ■ "Yes. I have a big test tomorrow." ■ "Are you ready for it?" ■ "I hope so. I flunked the last one." All sentences, then, have subjects, either stated or implied. Before proceeding further, therefore, it is important that you be able to locate the subject and the verb in a sentence. Because it is usually easier to locate, the verb is the best place to begin.

Subjects and Prepositional Phrases

The subject of a sentence will never be in a prepositional phrase. The reason for this rule is simple. Any noun or pronoun in a prepositional phrase will be the object of the preposition, and the object of a preposition cannot also be the subject. Examine the following sentences, in which the subjects can be confused with objects of prepositions. ■ Thousands of tourists from countries throughout the world visit Chesapeake Bay in Maryland. (Tourists, countries, and world are in the subject position before the verb visit, but they are all objects of prepositions, and therefore cannot be the subject. By asking "Who visits?" you can determine the subject: Thousands visit. Thousands is the subject.) ■ The author of Adam Bede was better known as George Eliot, rather than by her real name, Mary Anne Evans. (Although Adam Bede is in the subject position, it is the object of a preposition and cannot therefore be the subject of this sentence. Who was better known? The author of Adam Bede. The subject is author.) ■ One of the Beatles continues to produce records. (Beatles is the object of a preposition and therefore is not the subject. Who continues to produce records? The subject is One.) By placing parentheses around the prepositional phrases in a sentence, you can more easily identify the subject and verb. Examine the sentence below. ■ The warden (of a jail) (in the northern part) (of Minnesota) explained (in an interview) (on television) (during the past week) his position (on the death penalty.) By discarding the prepositional phrases, we can easily see the subject (warden) and the verb (explained).

Changing Between Active and Passive Voice

To change a sentence from active to passive voice, we turn the sentence around and use a form of be as a helping/auxiliary verb. ■ Active: The intruder surprised the hotel guests. ■ Passive: The hotel guests were surprised by the intruder. ■ Active: Gustaf threw the winning touchdown. ■ Passive: The winning touchdown was thrown by Gustaf. To change a sentence from passive to active voice, we substitute a new subject for the previous one. ■ Passive: Tides are caused by the moon. ■ Active: The moon causes tides. ■ Passive: The soldiers were wounded by the snipers. ■ Active: The snipers wounded the soldiers. You will often be able to choose between active and passive voice when composing sentences. The active voice is usually more direct and forceful. For this reason you should use active verbs except in cases when you have good reason to use passive ones.

Helping/Auxiliary Verbs

To show additional differences in meaning, verbs often use helping words that suggest the time at which the action of the verb takes place and other kinds of meaning. These words are called helping /auxiliary verbs, and they always come before the main verb. Verbs that consist of helping verbs and a main verb are called verb phrases. Look carefully at the following sentences. ■ I will attend Wilmington University next term. ■ He had studied algebra before learning calculus. ■ Zhang did not want lunch before completing his chores. ■ The sisters were saddened by their mother's decision. ■ The child was photographed with his new skateboard. ■ They might have been selected for the job openings already. Each of the verbs in the preceding sentences consists of a helping/auxiliary verb and a main verb. Here are the common helping/auxiliary verbs. You should memorize them.

Sit and Set

To sit, meaning "to occupy a seat," is an intransitive verb—it never takes an object. This means that you never "sit" anything down, for example. The principal parts are sit (the present tense), sat (the past tense), sat (the past participle), and sitting (the present participle). Study the forms of sit carefully. To set resembles to lay in meaning. To set means "to put in place." Like to lay, it is a transitive verb and is followed by another word (a direct object) to complete its meaning.1 Its principal parts remain the same in all forms: set (the present tense,) set (the past tense), set (the past participle), and setting (the present participle). Study the forms of set carefully. As in the case of lie and lay, the most effective way of mastering sit and set is to memorize their forms: sit, sat, sat, and sitting; set, set, set, and setting.