HOW BAKING WORKS

What sweeteners add not only sweetness, but flavor?

Brown sugar, honey, maple syrup, malt syrup, rice syrup, dark agave syrup, molasses, and dark glucose corn syrup.

How is malt syrup produced?

By malting, or sprouting, cereal grain, dissolving it in water, then concentrating it to a syrup.

Early recipes calling for gelatin describe how to first boil what?

Calve's hoofs.

Real maple syrup is graded primarily by what?

Color

Best way to predict which of two wheat flours will absorb more moisture.

Comparing the amount of protein in each.

What are monosaccharides?

Consist of one (mono) sugar unit (saccharide) and are considered simple sugars.

Breads from rye flour tend to be what?

Dense and gummy, and have a strong flavor.

What is sometimes called corn sugar?

Dextrose

What does DATEM stand for?

Diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono-and diglycerides.

The two main types of malt syrup.

Diastatic and non-diastatic.

What is diastatic malt?

Diastatic malt contains enzymes that break down starch into sugar; this is the form bakers add to bread dough to help the dough rise and create a good crust.

What is not given back during the enrichment process?

Dietary fiber in the bran, protein in the germ.

Dining room lighting.

Dim, incandescent bulbs that have a warm, yellow cast, which tends to mute appearance.

What's maltose, or malt sugar, an example of?

Disaccharide

To get an idea of umami what can you do?

Dissolve MSG on your tongue.

Fully developed dough has what type of appearance?

Dry, silky appearance. It stretches into a smooth, thin film without tearing or breaking, yet still retains some ability to spring back.

Do dull or shiny surfaces radiate more heat?

Dull

Who made the first stone ground flour? How?

Early man by crushing and grinding between stones. It eventually evolved to stone, or grist, mills.

Triticum monococcum

Einkorn

Bread flour is milled from what?

Either hard red spring or hard red winter wheat.

Durum semolina is coarsely ground from what?

Endosperm of durum wheat.

Rice flour is milled from what?

Endosperm of the rice kernel.

White Lily flour is made from what?

Entirely from soft wheat.

What type of flour is King Arthur flour made from?

Entirely hard wheat.

What other proteins (besides gluten in and gliadin) are found in white flour?

Enzymes such as amylase, protease and lipase.

The highest-quality patent flour is called what?

Extra short or fancy patent.

Faster hydration and oxidation means what for gluten?

Faster gluten development.

Through a series of what steps, is sucrose physically separated from impurities?

Filtration, crystallization, washing, and centrifugation.

Most clear flour sold to bakers is what? Protein content?

First clear from hard wheat flour and typically has a protein content of 13-15%

What's a high grade of clear flour called?

First clear.

What characteristic must be present for an induction burner to work?

Flat surface and magnetic material; woks won't work.

Appearance my be the first contact customers have with food but what do they remember?

Flavor

How long have Asian cultures used agar?

For centuries.

Why do the skeletal figures overlook the true complexity of sugar molecules?

For one, they don't show the carbon, hydrogen or oxygen atoms that form the structure of the molecules.

Baker's percentage is sometimes called what?

Formula percentage or indicated as "on flour weight basis."

Who created the Bloom scale? What was made to measure?

French chemist who devised a standard test and an instrument--the Bloom gelometer--for measuring gel strength.

When were Kamut seeds first brought to the US?

From Egypt about 50 years ago. They were propagated unchanged (not crossbred with other species) from the ancient seed.

How is inexpensive pancake syrup made?

From glucose corn syrup with added caramel coloring and maple flavoring.

The most hygroscopic of common sugars?

Fructose

The sugar units in inulin are primarily what?

Fructose

Other sugars (besides sucrose) include what?

Fructose, glucose, maltose and lactose.

Two types of invert syrups used in bakeshops.

Full invert syrup and medium invert syrup.

CHAPTER 7

GLUTEN

Stage 7

Gases Evaporate

The sugar units in starch are what?

Glucose

What color is whole white wheat flour?

Golden, not white.

Suffix that is part of the name of many enzymes.

-ase

CHAPTER 2

HEAT TRANSFER

Artisan bread flour is milled from what?

Hard red winter wheat, resembles French flour in its characteristics.

Percentage of lipids.

1 to 1.5%

Besides water, starch gelatinization requires what?

Heat

What is needed to dissolve slow acting baking powders so they release carbon dioxide?

Heat

Why must certain fruit juices, such as kiwi, pineapple and papaya be heated before use with gelatin?

Heat inactivates the protease enzymes in these fruits. Protease enzymes break down gelatin and other proteins, preventing them from gelling.

The skeletal molecular structure of the monosaccharide glucose is sometimes shown as what?

Hexagon

How much salt is usually added to bread?

1.5-2% or so of the weight of flour.

Commercially, fructose is produced from what?

High fructose corn syrup.

Moisture in flour typically ranges in what %?

11 to 14%

Starch granules begin swelling around what temp?

120º-140ºF (50º-60ºC). By 170ºF (75ºC) Starch gelatinization is well underway, with granules having absorbed a significant amount of water.

1 gallon = _____ fluid ounces, ____ cups, ____ pints and ____ quarts

128, 16, 8, 4

1 quart = ____ pints

2

Maltose consists of how many glucose molecules?

2

How much bigger are Kamut kernels than wheat kernels?

2 to 3 times bigger.

What percent of protein is the germ?

25%

Amount of water in jellies and jams.

30%

Most food grade gelatins range from 50 to what?

300 on the Bloom scale.

Amount of protein, fat and starch in dried soybeans.

35% protein, 20% fat, 15 to 20% starch.

Bran is about what percent fiber? What kind of fiber?

42% insoluble fiber.

How much water does gelatin absorb? Is this water always listed in formulas?

5 times its weight. It's only listed in powdered gelatin formulas.

Simple syrup often contains how much water?

50%

Besides containing ____ - ____% fructose, agave syrups contains varying amounts of the monosaccharide _________.

50-90%; glucose

Amount of water in cream cheese.

54%

High-conversion syrups have DEs between what?

58 to 73

Chunks of proteins usually make up what % of flour?

6 to 18%

Starch makes up the bulk of flour. It's usually between what percentage?

68 to 76%

What does the lower protein content of Artisan bread flour provide?

A crisper crust and a crumb with desirable irregular holes.

Besides nutritional value, what does bran add to baking?

A dark, rustic appearance and distinct nutty flavor.

What is celiac disease?

A disease of the intestinal tract brought about by the consumption of gluten (more specifically, the gliadin in gluten).

What is mad cow disease?

A disease that infects the brain and spinal cord of cattle.

What is vital wheat gluten?

A dry powder that contains high amounts, about 75%, of protein that is vital, that is, protein that forms gluten when mixed with water.

When was the use of beets for sugar used?

A more recent development, first commercialized by a Prussian (German) chemist in the 1700s.

What is a centrifuge?

A piece of equipment, generally driven by an electric motor (or, in some older models, by hand), that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis.

Sheet geltain is often designated by the name of what?

A precious metal.

Demerara is named after what?

A region in Guyana, the country in South America where quantities of it were first made.

What is isomalt? How long has it been around?

A relatively new sweetener made by chemically modifying sucrose. Isomalt is not found in nature. It has been approved for use in the United States since 1990.

Who is Linda Bartoshuk?

A researcher at Yale University that studies taste perception.

What is stevia?

A sweet herb that grows in South and Central America. It has been used for centuries by native Americans and Paraguay and Brazil to sweeten beverages.

What is demerara sugar?

A type of turbinado sugar. It is light brown with large, golden crystals.

What kind of dough is created with excess water?

A well-hydrated dough that is a cross between batter and dough.

Unground, how long will flaxseed hold?

A year or more, protected by its hard coating.

At what temp in bread does it turn from a foam to a sponge? Can it still hold CO2?

About 160ºF (72ºC). It is at this point that bread loses its ability to hold carbon dioxide.

How long is the rest period for autolysis?

About 30 minutes.

How big are semolina particles?

About the same size as farina.

Honey's flavor may be damaged in excess of what temp?

Above 160ºF (70ºC)

Orange juice and honey are acidic or alkaline?

Acidic (3.5)

Bananas and pumpkin are acidic or alkaline?

Acidic (5.2)

The simplest way to thicken food is what?

Add an ingredient that is thickened or gelled itself.

What does toasting do to wheat germ?

Adds a nutty flavor and destroys enzymes called lipases, present in wheat germ that break down oils and cause them to oxidize.

Brix is named after who?

Adolf Brix, the German scientist who created the scale.

Where did pearl millet originate?

Africa thousands of years ago. Once introduced to India, it was widely grown there as well.

How is honey harvested?

After it is collected from beehives, it is separated from the honeycomb, heated to dissolve crystals and destroy spoilage yeast, and filtered to remove impurities.

Agar is also called what?

Agar-agar

In naturally aging flour, what is added?

Air

Why is sensory evaluation a challenge?

All the taste sensations occur simultaneously. They even occur at the same time the brain evaluates appearance and texture.

Is cranberry juice sour, bitter or astringent?

All three.

Which areas of North America and Canada are plauged by acidic rain?

Along the Atlantic coast. This means there water has a low pH.

What is golden syrup?

Also know as light treacle, is popular in Great Britain. It's a refiner's syrup, a by-product of the sugar refining process, with golden color and a mild, caramelized sugar flavor.

Soy flour used in baking is typically what?

Defatted

What is L-cysteine?

An amino acid naturally found in proteins throughout our bodies. It is a common ingredient in dough conditioners.

Buamé (Bé) units is named after who?

Antoine Baumé, the French scientist who created the scale.

What does cornmeal add to baked goods?

Appealing crumbliness, flavor and color.

The first--although not necessarily the most accurate--info about texture is based on what?

Appearance or sight.

Sensory properties of food.

Appearance, flavor and texture.

Smell is also called what?

Aroma

What is often considered the most important component of flavor?

Aroma which is the most predominant and most complex.

How many taste cells are on a taste bud? Do they perceive all basic tastes?

Around 100 a piece. Each able to perceive 1 or more of the basic tastes.

How can whet bran be purchased?

As small flakes.

How is prepared fondant sold?

As soft cream or as firm sheets or rolls (mass Ticino).

What happens to egg proteins as they are heated?

As they are heated molecules unfold and bond to one another. At the same time, they stretch from the pressure of expanding leavening gases. Eventually, water is released from the proteins, and the bonding proteins become rigid and lose their ability to stretch. It is this rigid structure that helps set the final size and shape of baked goods.

Fruits high in pectins include what?

apples, plums, cranberries, raspberries, and citrus peel.

How can you tell if dough hasn't been kneaded properly before being shaped and baked?

The dough will tend to shrink in whatever direction that the gluten strands are oriented.

What is durum made from?

The endosperm of durum wheat.

The manufacturing of white sugar involves what two basic steps?

The production or the milling of the raw sugar from cane or beets, and the refining of the indelible, raw sugar into white sugar.

What is opacity?

The quality of a product that appears opaque or cloudy.

Was is sucanat?

The trade-marked name for free-flowing brown sugar that is made with the full amount of molasses (13%) added back.

Is powdered or sheet gelatin better?

There is no right answer. Sheet gelatin is more popular is Europe than anywhere else.

Why are objects white?

They absorb almost no light.

What is true about the weight of eggs, cream, milk and water?

They all weigh close to the same when measuring volumetrically.

What metals are typically applied in a thin layer to prevent copper from reacting with food?

Tin or aluminum

What is malting?

To malt means to sprout or germinate whole grain kernels under controlled conditions, as one might sprout beans or seeds.

Brown sugar is commercially made one of two ways. Explain.

To partially refine sugar crystals, that is, to leave some molasses syrup and other impurities with the crystallized sugar. To blend cane sugar molasses with granulated white sugar, coating the crystals with molasses.

Why do millers typically blend flours from different regions?

To provide consistent product year after year.

For all products except for yeast-raised doughs, over-mixing refers to what?

Toughening from too much gluten.

It is hard to name a spice where the flavor isn't dependent on what?

Trigeminal effects.

Gluten if formed from how many proteins in flour?

Two

Some promising alternative treatments to chlorination include what?

Use of heat, enzymes, and additives, such as anthem gum.

Where does the term turbinado come from?

Use of the centrifuge, which is also called a turbine, in the refining process of this and all sugar except artisanal non-centrifugal ones.

CHAPTER 6

VARIETY OF GRAINS AND FLOURS

Examples of smell.

Vanilla, butter, thousands more.

CHAPTER 5

WHEAT FLOUR

What will taste less salty, warm biscuits or room temperature biscuits?

Warm biscuits.

Refined artisan sugar made in Japan is called what?

Wasanbon toh

Gluten, starch and egg structure all require the presence of what?

Water

Soft wheat flours are sometimes called what?

Weak flours

Where did sugar cane migrate after the South Pacific?

West, to India, then China and Persia (Iran), countries that have extracted and purified sugar from the cane for the past 2 or three thousand years.

Kamut is an early Egyptian word for what?

Wheat, which is the trademarked name that is licensed to those who grow the grain as certified organic.

When does conduction occur?

When heat passes from a hot area of an object to a cooler area; heat is passed molecule by molecule.

What has the strongest flavor of all the flours?

Whole wheat flour

Bakers use what test to see if dough is fully developed?

Windowpane test.

Where is agar harvested today? How is it sold?

Worldwide and commonly sold in the US as dry powder or as strands.

Does rye flour contain more proteases than wheat flour?

Yes

Does water pH affect gluten?

Yes

While other changes cause fruits to soften, is pectin breakdown one of the most important?

Yes

Are semi-refined sugars often marketed as a substitute for granulated sugar to natural foods industry?

Yes, and they can be made to various granulation sizes, just like regular granulated sugar.

Is flaxeed over 40% oil? What nuts is that close to?

Yes, approaching the amount of oil found in peanuts and pistachios.

Is whole white wheat flour high in dietary fiber like whole wheat flour?

Yes, it is a whole grain after all.

Are soybeans legumes?

Yes, not cereal grains.

Do nonstick surfaces vary in durability?

Yes, some crack and peel, and most scratch after repeated use.

Do sugars, fats and starched affect the coagulation temperature of egg proteins?

Yes, they increase it.

Is carbon dioxide needed for "no-time" dough?

Yes, they still undergo a final proof so leavening isn't sacrificed.

Is water in the tap warmer in the summer than the winter?

Yes, this also goes for different parts of the world (Arizona vs Ontario).

Is soy protein high in lysine?

Yes, which will improve breads protein qualities.

Which of these flours absorb the most liquid: High-gluten, pastry and bread flour.

High-gluten absorbs the most, then bread flour and pastry flour.

The sweetener industry calls oligosaccharides what?

Higher saccharides or dextrins.

Starch is a carbohydrate that consists of how many glucose molecules bonded together?

Hundreds, maybe even thousands.

The warmer the temperature of the liquids, the faster flour particles ______ and protein ________.

Hydrate, oxidizes.

Brix and Baumé units can both be measured using what?

Hydrometer, sometimes called saccharometer, meaning sugar meter.

What keeps baked goods soft and moist while interfering with sugar crystallization?

Hygroscopic sweeteners, such as fructose, sorbitol, invert syrup, and honey.

Where is aluminum commonly used? Why?

In bakeware, where discoloration is less of an issue.

What is medium invert syrup? Is it easier to use than full invert syrup?

Invert syrup blended with an equal amount of sugar; it's easier to use since it's less apt to crystallize.

What happens to the ground gelatin?

It is either sold as is or formed into sheet gelatin.

Why is xanthan gum used in salad dressings?

It thickens without feeling heavy or thick.

At what temperature do fats melt?

It varies between fats.

Is cellulose gum natural?

It's from a natural source but chemically modified to improve its properties.

All common sugars except what are fermented by yeast?

Lactose

What would qualify as rigorous conditions for dough?

Large-scale bakery operations have dough that gets rough-handled in automated equipment. Freezing could also damage gluten structure because of ice crystals.

What do lipase's break down?

Lipids (fats, oils and emulsifiers).

In Canada, blackstrap is another name for what?

Low-grade but edible cooking molasses.

Unlike wheat and most other cereal grain, quinoa is high in what?

Lysine

What is bovine spongiform encephalopathy?

Mad cow disease

What tube generated microwave energy?

Magnetron

What causes discoloration of white chocolate during storage of a year or more?

Maillard browning, much like milk solids.

While some sweeteners, such as brown sugar, have a brown color, most sweeteners contribute through what?

Maillard reaction and caramelization.

How do you maximize convection currents in any oven?

Make sure baking pans are placed so air movement is unobstructed; do not overload the oven.

What is convenient about stainless steel's light-reflective surfaces?

Makes it easy to view food as you cook it.

Is malice acid different than citric and acetic acid? Can their flavor be substituted for one another?

Malic acid has a different sour taste than citric acid in lemons or acetic acid in vinegar. This is why adding lemon juice or vinegar to mild-tasting apples will not provide the same flavor impact as using apples that are naturally sour.

What is the closest polyol to sugar in taste and other properties that can be used in a one-to-one replacement?

Maltitol

Besides containing sucralose, Splenda contains ______ as a bulking agent.

Maltodextrin

What are polysaccharides?

Many (poly) sugar molecules (saccharides) linked to the next.

Gelatin provides the characteristic texture of what?

Marshmallows and many gummy confections.

Traditional Mexican corn flour used in making corn tortillas is called what?

Masa Harina

The opposite of glossy.

Matte or dull.

What are the main in dough conditioners?

Maturing agents

Like einkorn and spelt, emmer is not free-threshing. What does this mean?

Meaning the kernels do not easily fall out of their husks, or hulls.

What triggers the cooling sensation of mint?

Menthol

What cultures use a lot of rice flour?

Middle Eastern and Asian.

Today, how much of America's sweeteners comes annually from corn?

More than half of the 150lbs consumed annually by each American. Exceeding consumption of cane and sugar beets combined.

Most microorganisms die at what temperature? Other factors?

Most die about 140ºF (60ºC), but actual temperature depends on several things, including the type of microorganisms and how much sugar and salt are present.

Why is starch so important in baked bread?

Much of the gluten in bread dough stretches so far during baking that it breaks.

Is bran a moistener or a drier?

Neither

Do many large molecules such as proteins and starches dissolve?

No, they hydrate.

These unrefined raw sugars are sometimes called what? Why?

Non-centrifugal sugars, since they have not been centrifuged, or spun, to remove molasses at any stage in the process.

Name 3 of the several brands of invert sugar available to bakers and pastry chefs.

Nulomoline, trimoline, and FreshVert.

Sucrose consists of what molecules?

One molecule of glucose bonded to fructose.

What is methylcellulose?

One of several gums derived from cellulose. It is made commercially by chemically modifying wood or cotton cellulose fibers. It is not considered a natural gum because of these modifications.

What must light do to be perceived as a sheen?

Only light that bounces off or passes through.

What do salts and acids do for dough?

Optimize gluten development by adjusting water hardness and pH.

Silicone baking mats (Silpat pads) are able to withstand what temperatures?

Ovens up to 580ºF/300ºC to freezer.

Color of durum.

Pale yellow color.

Why do microwaves heat food unevenly?

Partly because different substances absorb microwave energy differently, but also because some substances require less energy to heat up.

High-intensity sweeteners are largely unsuitable for what?

Pastry and bakery products, which rely on sugar for many functions besides sweetness.

Stage 11

Pectin Breaks Down

Where is pearl millet grown?

Pennisetum glaucum is the most common of thousands of millet varieties grown throughout the world.

The skeletal molecular structure of the monosaccharide fructose is sometimes shown as what?

Pentagon

What happens of parties have too little gluten?

Pie crusts crumble easily, cakes collapse and baking powder biscuits slump.

Most food-grade gelatin is extracted from what?

Pigskin, although small amounts are from cattle bones and hides.

Why was triticale developed?

Plant breeders looking to combine the grain quality of wheat (triticum) with the hardiness of rye (secale).

Lower in calories than sugar and don't promote tooth decay.

Polyols

What is starch?

Polysaccharides, or large, complex carbohydrate molecules made of many sugar units bonded one to the next. In the case of starch, the sugar units are glucose molecules.

In the earliest civilizations, einkorn and emmer were made into what?

Porridge before made into bread and beer.

What is fondant sugar ideal for? Why? Does it contain cornstarch?

Preparing the smoothest fondant, glaze or cream praline centers without cooking. It provides a higher sheen than regular powdered sugars, and because it generally doesn't contain cornstarch, it exhibits no raw stack taste.

What are roller-mills used for?

Primary means for milling flour today.

Today, much of the demerara - and muscovado - sugar sold is produced and shipped where?

Produces on the island of Mauritius, off the coast of Africa, and exported to Europe.

Why is gluten important for what in baking?

Proper volume and crumb structure.

Name 2 other enzymes present in baking ingredients.

Proteases and lipases.

An example of fat designed to have a very high melting point for maximum volume and flakiness.

Puff pastry margarine.

Staple crop of the ancient Inca Empire.

Quinoa

Do water supplies usually have a pH of 7?

Rarely

Turbinado sugar is sometimes called what?

Raw, washed raw, or unrefined sugar, but these terms are somewhat misleading. A better term might be partially refined.

What do water softeners do? Two benefits.

Remove calcium and magnesium from the water. This not only stops minerals from strengthening gluten but also eliminates damage to equipment from scale buildup.

Wh created graham crackers? When?

Reverend Sylvester Graham in 1829

How flour is milled. 2nd step.

Second, they temper the kernels by adjusting moisture content. Tempering toughens the bran and makes the germ more pliable, so the endosperm is easily separated from the bran and germ.

Is quinoa a seed or cereal grain?

Seed

Two examples of granular wheat products.

Semolina and farina.

In Canada, what two additional foods are considered top priority food allergens?

Sesame seeds and sulfites (a food additive in many dried fruits).

How many times are the last three operations of milling repeated? Why?

Several times to produce streams of flour in which each progressive stream contains less endosperm and more bran and germ impurities than the last.

How is turbinado sugar similar and different from light brown sugar?

Similar in taste and color to light brown sugar, but is dry and free-flowing, rather than soft and moist.

What are papillae?

Small bumps on the tongue which contains taste buds hidden in crevices beneath them.

Flour consists mainly of a solid what?

Solid matrix of proteins embedded with starch granules.

Besides India, jaggery is also used throughout where?

Southeast Asia

Another name for tritium spelt.

Spelt

What is often the forgotten structure builder in flour? Why?

Starch is because gluten plays such an important and dominant role in raw bread dough.

Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down what?

Starches

Why is proper weighing of ingredients important?

Successful formulas are carefully balanced mixtures of structure builders (tougheners), tenderizers, moisteners and driers.

Sugar generally means what?

Sucrose, the most common sugar in a bakeshop.

How can taste buds be measured?

Swabbing a tongue with blue dye and measuring the bumps--papillae--that stand out in relief on the tongue as pink spots.

Examples of basic tastes.

Sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami.

CHAPTER 9

THICKENING AND GELLING AGENTS

Everyday word for flavor.

Taste

Examples of sensory receptors.

Taste buds, olfactory cells and nerve endings beneath the skin.

The more fats and oils coat structure builders the more effectively they ______.

Tenderize

What is the glycemic response?

Term that refer to how fast sugars - and foods containing sugar - breakdown during digestion and provide energy to the body. The faster carbohydrates in a food product are digested, the faster they raise blood sugar levels and the higher the glycemic index response.

What's the only way to be certain with how much agar is needed?

Testing several products with different levels of agar.

While most bakers and pastry chefs don't use HFCS, it is useful to know what?

That it is a high-quality, low-price substitute for invert syrup.

The best premium grade molasses is imported from where?

The Caribbean

The word muscovado is derived from what?

The Spanish word for unrefined.

1 tbsp = ______ fluid ounces

.5

Pure cornstarch has a DE of what?

0

Platinum sheets weigh how much?

0.06 ounces (1.7 grams)

How many Italians have celiac?

1 out of every 250.

About how much of the sugar consumed in India is shakkar, khandsari and jaggery?

1/3 to 1/2

Most powdered gelatin in North America is rated about _____ Bloom.

230

Medium-conversion syrups have DEs between what?

38 and 58

A typical glucose corn syrup with a Brix of 80 will have a Baumé of what?

43

How much protein is in cake flour?

6 - 8%

How many of the 8 allergens are commonly used in baked goods.

6 are commonly used in baked goods.

Light muscovado contains how much molasses?

6%

Two common powdered sugars are what?

6X and 10X.

How much protein is typically in pastry flour?

7 - 9.5%

Bread flour typically contains how much starch?

70%

What temp should water be when blooming sheets?

70ºF (21ºC) or cooler.

Amount of water in whole eggs.

75%

The air cells are surround by cell walls which consist or what?

A continuous network of egg and gluten proteins embedded within starch and other particles.

What is xanthan gum?

A fairly new gum, in use since the 1960s. It is produced when a certain microorganism (Xanthomonas campestris) undergoes fermentation.

Oligosaccharides are made of what?

A few (oligo)sugar units, usually three to ten, bonded in a chain.

What is lighter in color, a vanilla cake with fine or coarse crumb? Why?

A fine crumb has smaller, and more compact, air bubbles. This makes it harder for light to pass through causing it to bounce off the rounded air cells in different directions.

What is glutathione? Where is it naturally found?

A fragment protein that is found in fluid mll and many milk products; in active dry yeast and other yeast products that contain dead yeast cells; and in wheat germ.

Benefits of tin bakeware.

A good conductor of heat, lightweight and inexpensive.

What is beta-glucan?

A gum in oats that functions as dietary fiber in our bodies.

High-conversion syrups undergo what?

A high amount of hydrolysis and are high in sugars (and low in higher saccharides).

How long should spelt bread dough be mixed? Why?

A short period of time, to avoid overworking the gluten and reducing its ability to retain leavening gases.

What amount of maturing agents are needed to get desired changes?

A small amount, only a few parts per million.

What is a poolish or sponge?

A so-called preferment made by adding a small amount of yeast to flour and water well before the bread dough is mixed.

One coarse sugar, designed for the whitest confections, is called what?

AA confectioners.

At pH 7, water is what?

neutral - neither acidic or alkaline (basic).

Organic cane sugars, that is, sugar made from sugar cane grown organically, are often sold ____-_____.

semi-refined

pH is a measure of what?

Acidity or alkalinity or water.

Unlike gelatinized starch, which contributes to structure, ungelatinized starch granules do what to gluten?

Act as inert fillers that interfere with gluten forming its network.

The many pockets or air and other gases in batters and doughs.

Air cells

Unlike peanuts and pistachios, oil in flaxseed is particularly high in what?

Alpha linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid

What is bar sugar used for?

Dissolves so quickly in cold beverages; used for bar drinks.

To substitute syrup for granulated sugar.

Divide the weight of sugar by 0.80 to determine the weight of syrup to use. Reduce the amount of water or other liquid by the difference between the two. (16oz sugar uses 20oz of syrup while subtracting 4oz of liquid)

Most common thickening agent in a bakeshop that is not often thought as one.

Egg

Stage 5

Egg and Gluten Proteins Coagulate

What happens if you allow gelatin to boil?

Extended heat damages gelatin and lowers bloom rating.

What is fondant sugar?

Extremely fine powdered or icing sugar, as much as 100 times finer than 10X sugar.

What does calcium carbonate do for dough?

Increases both water hardness and pH.

What's sweeter, isomalt or sucrose?

Isomalt is half as sweet as sucrose.

Traditional way for manufacturers to confirm the grade of flour?

Measure the ash since wheat bran is naturally high in it.

Is glucose corn syrup ever used alone in baked goods?

No

Why are raspberries red?

Raspberries absorb most light but red.

What does soaking masa haring in limewater do?

Removes bran layers, changes the properties and flavor of the corn, and increases nutritional value.

Example of dull product.

Shortbread cookie

Do potassium bromate and ascorbic acid strengthen or weaken gluten?

Strengthen

Pearl millet shape.

Tear-drop

Smallest of any cereal grains.

Teff

What do air cells eventually form in baked goods?

The crumb.

Who adds maturing agents?

The miller or are found in many dough conditioners by the baker.

What is sheen?

The state of a product that appears glossy or shiny.

What do dough conditioners look like?

They are off-white, dry, granular products that look similar to flour.

What happens to doughs prepared from soft water?

They are often too soft, slack, and sticky. Ideally, water for bread baking isn't too hard or soft.

What happens to air cells with continued mixing?

They break into smaller ones.

Why do honey, corn syrup and oil weight different amount when measured per pint?

They have different densities than water.

What happens as gases expand?

They push on cell walls, farcing them to stretch. The product increases in size and volume; in other words, it leavens.

When would convection currents need assistance?

They work without it, but the movement of liquid in a pot can be increased if it is stirred. This is especially important with thick liquids, where fewer convection currents set in.

What is guar gum and locust bean gum?

They're from the endosperm of beans growing in pods that look much like string beans or pea pods.

How flour is milled. 3rd step.

Third, they break or crush the kernels between corrugated rollers, loosening chunks of endosperm from the bran and germ.

What is hygroscopic?

To attract and bond to water.

Why are nuts often vacuum-packed?

To avoid rancidity from exposure to oxygen.

Appliances that use radiation.

Toasters, broilers, in fared heat lamps and conventional ovens.

What happens if you use too much of the dough conditioner?

Too much of a good thing yields poor texture and volume--and can be illegal. The US and Canada regulate many of the additives present in dough conditioners.

A more common solution for hard water.

Treat all incoming water with a water softener system.

How do you keep a white cake white when using invert syrup?

Use even less than 25% or add a small amount of cream of tartar to lower pH and slow browning.

Flour that's very high in endosperm much be milled very carefully which makes it what?

Very expensive.

Is there any difference in the amount of molasses added to (North American) light or dark brown sugar?

Very little difference if any.

Why are soft waters hard and others soft? Think ground water vs surface water.

Water becomes hard as it picks up minerals from contact with the earth. Ground water, which percolates through soil on its way to water wells, is usually harder than surface water from lakes and reservoirs.

When does hydration occur?

When large molecules attract and bond to water.

Higher ash content is thought to improve what?

Yeast fermentation and flavor.

Does salt affect gluten?

Yes

Is celiac genetic?

Yes

Was honey probably the first sweetener?

Yes

Are Kamut kernels high in protein?

Yes, much like Durum wheat.

Does bread flour sometimes contain added malted barley flour? Why?

Yes, to provide for better yeast fermentation, dough handling, and shelf life.

Is bread flour high in protein? How much?

Yes, typically 11.5 - 13.5% protein.

Medium rye is straight flour, from the whole ________, and dark rye is clear flour, left from the production of _____ rye.

endosperm, light.

What does monocalcium phosphate do for dough?

increases water hardness while decreasing pH.

Often ________ of molecules are linked together in a single polysaccharide molecule.

thousands

Highly hygroscopic sugars, such as fructose, readily pick up what from moist air?

water

Unless first poked in _______, millet retains a crunch texture in baked goods.

water

Agar is derived from what?

Any of several species of red seaweed (gracilaria or gelidium, for example).

Most common grain made into malted flour.

Barley

Why is wheat flour usually added to baked products with cornmeal?

Because corn has no gluten forming protein.

Why does Maillard browning contribute to the flavor of a wide range of foods?

Because food contains many different types of sugar and proteins.

Why does starch absorb so much of the water in doughs?

Because there's so much starch in flour.

Chlorine is used in what flour?

Cake flour only.

Stage 10

Changes Occur to Nutrients

Because of the chlorine cake flour is sometimes called what?

Chlorinated or high-ratio flour.

Are pectin gels clear or cloudy?

Clear with an attractive sheen and clean flavor.

Relative sweetening power depends on what?

Concentration, pH, and other factors.

Powdered sugars typically contains 3% what? Why?

Cornstarch, which absorbs moisture and prevents caking.

How does sugar create a crisp crust on certain baked goods?

The cracked, crisp crust forms when moisture evaporates and sugars crystallize.

Fourth step in milling process of cane sugar.

The crystallized mixture in centrifuged to separate the crystals from the dark, thick syrup (molasses), and the crystals are washed and recentrifuged. The light brown crude raw sugar is ready to be refined into pure white sugar.

What is muscovado?

The darkest, richest-tasting brown sugar. It is soft and moist, consisting of powdery-fine crystals enrobed in molasses.

How can there be 16 tbsp in a cup and 8 ounces in a cup, but 16 tbsp does not necessarily weigh 8 ounces?

The density of ingredients is different; this is an example of how the word "ounces" is used to represent two different concepts incorrectly--it's a unit of mass and volume.

How does a double layer of sheets pans help with baking delicate items?

The double layer slows heat conduction to a manageable level.

What is done to allow moisture absorption of pastry dough without excessive mixing?

The dough is chilled for several hours or overnight before continuing. This allows moisture absorption and keeps fat from smearing into dough.

Bread, croissant and Danish doughs need to rest because gluten is well developed. Explain.

The dough is strong and elastic, meaning it had a tendency to bounce back, which can be a problem when dough is rolled and shaped. The further dough is stretched and worked, the more stressed it is. By relaxing dough, gluten strands have a chance to adjust to new length or shape.

What specific component of eggs makes them structure builders?

The egg protein molecules.

What is white flour milled from?

The endosperm.

What is straight flour milled from?

The entire endosperm.

Why must ice cold water be used for flaky pastry?

The fat must remain in solid chunks. If it melts from water that is too warm, the pastry will be mealy.

Where did the ancestors of modern day faro originate?

The fertile crescent of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is Iraq today.

As with protein coagulation, once starch gelatinization is underway, what happens to the shape and volume? Is it done cooking?

The final volume and shape are set but it still has a wet, doughy texture, little color and an off taste.

Einkorn is considered what?

The first wheat grain that was cultivated by man, starting around 10,000 B.C. Before that, einkorn was gathered wild.

Honeys are named for what?

The flower that the nectar is collected from.

When warming fondant, why should you always use a double boiler?

The fondant will soften without exceeding the critical 98-100º F (37-38ºCº).

How does the gelometer measure?

The force it takes for a small plunger to sink a certain distance into a gelatin gel prepared under standardized conditions.

Throughout the mixing process, what breaks up large particles?

The friction of the mixer on the batter or dough.

What is the embryo of the wheat plant?

The germ.

Where does wheat's popularity stem from?

The gluten that forms when flour is mixed with water. Also preferred for its mild, nutty flavor.

Bakers generally classify wheat by what?

The hardness of the kernel, that is, whether it feels hard or soft to the touch.

Because it is less refined than many other sweeteners, rice syrup is marketed as a sweetener to who?

The health food industry.

What is frictional heat?

The heat generated once molecules begin to vibrate rapidly on the surface of an object.

What is patent flour?

The highest quality of all commercial grades of white flour.

How does sugar retain and improve shelf life?

The hygroscopic nature of sugars increases softness and moistness freshly baked goods. it also extends shelf life by keeping them from drying and staling.

What are groats?

The kernels of any cereal grain that have had their inedible hulls removed.

Why does having high saccharides thicken syrup?

The larger size of saccharides makes them slower to move and apt to bump and tangle, which is why they thicken.

The backbone of the gluten network consists largely of what? What does it look like? What about gliadin?

The largest glutenin molecules, or subunits, aligned and tightly linked to on another. These tightly linked glutenin subunits associate more loosely, along with gliadin, into larger gluten aggregates.

What is clear flour?

The lowest quality of all commercial grades of flour.

What is water hardness?

The measure of the amount of mineral, like calcium and magnesium, in water.

The common misconception between metric units and U.S./imperial units.

The metric units provide more accuracy; this is false--it all depends on the design and construction of a scale, not the units used.

How is the amylase deficient in white flour fixed?

The miller sometimes adds amylase to the flour in either bacterial or fungi form.

Why do solids have higher heat conductivity than gases and liquids?

The molecules are much closer together in solids than liquids or gases; this makes it easier to pass from one molecule to the next.

Explain why using maturing agents to strengthen gluten is a good thing - be detailed.

The more bonds there are, the stronger, drier, and more cohesive a dough. When gas expands during final proof and the oven spring, the stronger gluten stretches better without breaking. Loaf volume is higher and grain is less coarse.

In general, the later a fat melts the more it what? Why?

The more it leavens because the gases escape about the same time that the cell walls are firm enough to hold their shape.

What three factors affect the perception of appearance?

The nature of the light source, the nature of the object itself, the nature of the surroundings (optical illusion).

The word trigeminal refers to what?

The nerve that carries the signal of certain sensations from nerve endings in the mouth and nose to the brain.The same nerve carries signals of temperature and pressure.

What distinguishes one protein from another?

The number and arrangement of these amino acids within the protein molecule.

If the light hitting the object changes, what happens to its appearance? Why?

The objects appearance changes because it absorbs, reflects and transmits changes.

Where is clear flour milled from?

The outer part of the endosperm, made from flour streams that remain after patent flour is produced.

Disadvantage of relying on acid to invert sugar is what? How do you eliminate this?

The process is difficult for pastry chefs to control. Too little inversion and the fudge is dull, hard and gritty; too much and the fudge may not crystallized set up. This guess work is eliminated by simply adding a measured amount of invert syrup or glucose corn syrup.

What is emissivity?

The ratio of power emitted by a body to the power emitted if it was a black body.

What is caster or castor sugar named after?

The small container used for serving sugar in British homes. The grains are so fine they fit through a sugar "caster" or sprinkler.

What is meant by the "crumb" or "grain?"

The soft inside of a baked good.

What happens if you heat fondant above recommended amount? Why?

The soft, smooth consistency and attractive sheen will disappear. This is because small sugar crystals will melt, only to reform as large, coarse crystals on cooling.

What is required of fat chunks for flakiness?

The solid fat remains in chunks; the larger and more solid the chunks, the flakier the pie pastry.

Does the source of amylase matter in baked bread?

The source of amylase--more specifically alpha-amylase--added by the miller makes a surprising difference in the quality of baked bread.

Why are potato products valued in yeast doughs and other baked goods? Explain.

The starch in potato flakes, cooked potatoes, and cooked potato water is already gelatinized. Gelatinized potato starch is easily broken down by amylase into sugar and other products. This increases water absorption of doughs and improves fermentation. Breads and other baked goods containing potato products are soft, moist and resist staling.

What happens after the last three steps of milling are repeated several times?

The streams are selectively combined and sifted to produce commercial grades of flour. The flour is then naturally aged or treated with bleaching and maturing agents.

Glutenin is thought to provide what?

The strength and cohesiveness of the gluten network, as well as its springiness or elasticity.

Why is it more difficult to brown food on nonstick surfaces?

The surface acts as an insulator between the source of heat and any food placed in the pan. This means cooking with nonstick is also slower as well.

Temperatures can sound deceptively precise but what is the unseen truth with yeast? Example.

The temp at which yeast cells die is cited as 140ºF (60ºC). But was the heat moist or dry? Was the temp brought up quickly or slowly? What strain of yeast was used, and how much acid, salt, and sugar were present? For this reason, many temps provided are converted from F to C in ranges of 5 degrees; it may appear inexact but best reflects reality.

Medium0conversion syrups fall between what?

The two extremes.

Which of these structure builders--gluten, starch, or gums--is most important to a particular baked product depends on what?

The type of flour and formula used.

What distinguishes one polysaccharide from another?

The type of sugar that makes it up, how many are linked together, and how they are linked.

Honey remained the primary sweetener in Europe for thousands of years until what?

The use of sugar became widespread in the 1700s.

Predicting water absorption from protein values works as long as what? Why?

The wheat flour is not bleached with chlorine since they change starch to absorb more water.

When used in multigrain breads, quinoa compensates for what?

Their amino acid deficiencies.

What happens to the viscosity of most cookie dough when heated in the oven? What stops this? Explain.

Their constancy becomes liquid and the dough will spread. At a certain temperature, heat sets the gluten and egg proteins so that the dough thickens and stops spreading.

Why do sponge cakes not require much gluten?

Their high egg content.

Why are fructose and glucose considered interfering agents?

Their very presence interferes with the growth of large, gritty crystals or sucrose.

How are proteins fibrous but not?

There fibers consist of fully digestible proteins and are not dietary fiber.

Why does the same white cake look so much whiter on a black plate instead of a white plate?

There is no difference, only the strong contrast between colors that is an optical illusion.

Trick to creating smooth, creamy fudge: thermometer.

Thermometer best determines when fudge is properly cooked at 238-240ºF (114-116ºC).

What do DATEM and stearoyl-2-lactylate accomplish?

These emulsifiers increases water absorption and gluten strength.

What happens to gliadin and gluten when water is added to flour?

They absorb water and swell.

Why do coarse flours not form gluten as readily as fine flours? Does it affect density?

They absorb water more slowly. This is why coarse grained flours usually result in dense baked goods.

How does confectioners' sugar keep from clumping together?

They add a little starch as anti-caking agent.

Pros and cons of ceramic, glass, porcelain and stoneware.

They all conduct heat poorly but retain heat well once hot. This makes them useful for slow cooking. Ceramic ramekins, for example, are great for custards.

Why bother expressing formulas in percentages at all?

They allow formulas to be easily compared; which recipe is saltier, sweeter and so forth.

Why do dough conditioners perform many functions?

They are a mix of ingredients.

Do buttermilk and cream of tartar increase or decrease browning?

They are acidic and decrease browning.

What one thing do thickening and gelling agents (gelatin, starch, vegetable gums) have in common?

They are all composed of very large molecules.

Astringency is often described as having a mouth full of what?

Cotton balls.

How must flour be stored?

Covered in a cool, dry place.

Examples of acids commonly added to baked goods.

Cream of tartar, fruits and fruit juices, cultured dairy products, and vinegar.

Each product differs in how much heat it will retain. What's the difference between the heat retention of a cream puff vs cheese cakes?

Cream puff are hollow and must be well baked before removing because heat diffuses quickly. Cheese cake is more dense and will hold heat longer making it a culprit for carryover cooking.

What provides more leavening, creamed shortening or shortening that has not been creamed? Why?

Creamed shortening because its had extra air beaten into it.

Name this method: Shortening and sugar creamed; eggs added, then liquids (if any) added alternately with sifted dry ingredients at low speed. Examples?

Creaming or conventional method; shortened cakes and coffee cakes, cookies, cake-like muffins.

Color of unbleached white flour.

Creamy color.

How to make turbinado sugar.

Crude, raw sugar is first cleaned by steaming it. It is then washed and centrifuged to remove surface molasses before it is crystallized and dried.

First step of milling cane sugar?

Crushing freshly harvested sugarcane and extracting the juice with water.

What do the crystals and syrup provide in crystalline confections?

Crystals provide the body and bulk while the syrup provides a smooth creaminess and shine.

When are convection ovens appropriate and inappropriate? Explain.

They are best for products made from heavy doughs, such as cookies and pâte à choux. Cakes and muffins, for example, bake up asymmetrically if convection currents are too strong or oven temperatures too high. Sponge cakes and soufflés can lose volume and custards and cheesecakes over bake.

Glycerine and sorbitol have been used by pastry chefs and confectioners for years to do what?

They are both hygroscopic, and add softness and moistness to confections.

Why would a pastry cream with dark yellow yolks be different than one with pale yellow yolks?

They are chemically different; the darker contain a higher amount of carotenoids, the yellow pigments in eggs that reflect yellow light and absorb the rest.

Texture and flavor of Irish oats.

They are chewier and often have stronger flavor than rolled oats, because they are usually not steamed.

At a certain point, do large amounts of gas escape? What is happening to egg proteins and starches at this time?

They are coagulating and gelatinizing. That is, as the structure of baked goods becomes more rigid, it also becomes more porous to gases--transforms from a foam to a sponge.

Why is it difficult to compare the gluten requirements of various pastries?

They are complex mixtures of tenderizers and tougheners, moisteners and driers.

What happens to cold air and liquid as the hot air and liquid rises? How do convection currents play a role?

They are denser and, therefore, fall, moving closer to the source of heat. Convection currents set in, distributing heat more quickly and more uniformly throughout the product.

Why are hard wheats good for gluten development?

They are high in protein, contain a higher percentage of glutenin for the amount of gliadin, and the glutenin subunits tend to be large in size. Strong wheat flours form gluten that is strong, cohesive, and elastic.

Oat flour and oatmeal, also called rolled oats, are whole grain because...?

They are made from whole oats and kernels, called groats.

How are traditional muffins kept from toughening?

They are mixed just long enough to dampen flour.

What absorbs more water, damaged starch granules or intact granules?

Damaged, which is generally considered desirable in bread making.

Of light, medium and dark rye flours, which has the darkest color and strongest flavor, and produces the lowest bread volume?

Dark

What two types of muscovado are sold today?

Dark and light.

Do dark or light surfaces radiate more heat? Why?

Dark surfaces do because they absorb more heat energy to begin with.

Too much invert syrup tends to make baked goods what?

Dark, dense, gummy, and too sweet.

Why are pentosans an important part of white flour?

They are present in relatively low levels but make a large contribution to water absorption; absorb 10x their weight in water. They also increase the viscosity or consistency or consistency of batters and doughs.

Why are high-endosperm flours so white?

They are relatively low in bran and germ impurities.

What is true about the first 8 stages mentioned (importance)?

They are the main ones important to bakers and pastry chefs.

Why should flaxseeds be ground?

They are very hard and can pass through the digestive tract undigested.

Cornmeal milled from endosperm is sometimes called what?

Degerminated

Sucanat is sometimes labeled what?

Dehydrated cane juice.

Difference between density and thickness?

Density is a measure of the compactness of particles or molecules in a liquid or solid; more loosely packed means not as dense and weight per cup is less. Closely packed, the liquid or solid is dense, and the weight per cup of the ingredient is high. Thickness only takes itself into account.

Describes texture of baguettes and milk bread crusts?

Depending on the formula and oven conditions, the crust may become crisp (baguettes), or soft, as it does in breads made with milk.

When would crystal growth be desirable and undesirable?

Desirable when making rock candy, undesirable when making nut brittle, pulled sugar, or smooth and creamy fondant icings.

Glucose is typically called what when purchased as dry crystalline sugar?

Dextrose

Why does dextrose cool the tongue?

Dextrose crystals require a relatively large amount of energy to dissolve, because they are held together with strong bonds. When placed in the mouth, energy needed comes from the heat of the mouth. So much heat is needed the the temperature inside the mouth drops briefly, creating a cooling sensation.

DE stands for what?

Dextrose equivalent.

Example of dextrose being useful in chocolate.

Dextrose provides bulk without much sweetness in chocolates and chocolate products.

Amylase is also known as what?

Diastase

*Malt powder comes in forms, what are they?

Diastatic and nondiastatic.

Difference between diastatic and non-diastatic malt syrup.

Diastatic contains small amounts of enzymes from the malting process. Non-diastatic malt syrup has been heated to eliminate all active enzymes, but it still contains flavor and the maltose that is characteristic of all malt syrups.

Unlike wheat endosperm, rye endosperm is high in what?

Dietary fiber, notably soluble fiber from pentosan gums.

What is bran high in?

Dietary fiber.

Is sucrose a mono or disaccharide?

Disaccharide

Is lactose (milk sugar) a mono or disaccharide?

Disaccharide only found in dairy products.

Why would acid be added to a strudel dough?

Dissolve gluten and reduce its strength, so that the dough is more extensible and easier to stretch without tearing.

What does microwaved bread look and taste like?

Doesn't brown well and tastes flat.

Why are low-conversion glucose corn syrups are much more suitable for candies and confection?

They are very thick, barely sweet, and unlikely to brown or crystallize. Best for whitest, smoothest, shiniest icings, confections and fondants. They are also useful for increasing the pliability and strength of pulled and spun sugar, and preventing crystallization of frozen desserts.

What happens to baked goods if egg or gluten proteins are stretched too thin?

They break and the baked good collapses unless enough starch is present for gelatinization.

What do reducing agents, such as L-cystein, do for dough?

They break or block bonds in gluten; increase the extensibility and reduce strength of doughs--the opposite of maturing agents.

What did the Spanish and Portuguese do for the cultivation of sugar cane?

They brought it into Africa and the New World, which made it readily available throughout Europe.

Do quinoa seeds oxidize quickly?

They can, especially given their high level of unsaturated fatty acids.

What do enzymes accomplish?

They catalyze, or speed up, chemical reactions without actually being used in the process. This makes them very efficient; a little goes a long way.

Why are fats and oils such effective tenderizers?

They coat structure builders, such as gluten proteins and starches, and interfere with their ability to hydrate and form structure.

What happens to hearth breads without sufficient gluten or pans to hold them in shape?

They collapse on themselves.

How do dough conditioners for soft water work?

They contain calcium salts, such as calcium sulfate, to increase the mineral content.

Why are sweet doughs, such as brioche, in danger of collapsing?

They contain large amounts of sugar and fat, which halt gluten development. Too little gluten and they won't have the structure needed.

Besides protein absorbing water, high-protein flours (being from hard wheat) also absorb more moisture for another reason. What is it?

They contain more damaged starch granules.

Dough conditioners are also called what?

Dough improvers.

How must dough be kneaded by hand? What if it's laminated dough?

Dough must be turned 90º with every knead. Likewise, when laminated doughs are folded or sheet, the dough is rotated with each fold or run through the sheeter. Otherwise, gluten strands align in one direction. This becomes especially evident when dough is not allowed to relax before being shaped and baked.

Why are yeast doughs made with aged flour easier to handle than those made with green flour?

Doughs with stronger gluten are less sticky and less likely to tear when stretched.

How was muscovado sugar originally made?

Draining excess molasses from crystallized raw, unrefined sugar before shipping the sugar to England for refining.

Ingredients such as flour that absorb liquids are also called what?

Driers

What are the opposite of moisteners? What do they do to moisteners?

Driers are ingredients that absorb moisteners.

Two main categories for sweeteners. Is there a third?

Dry crystalline sugars and syrups. Third is specialty sweeteners.

What forms is stevia sold in?

Dry herb to a concentrated liquid extract.

Not only is the grain coarsened by additional water but a longer bake time is needed to what?

Dry out the bread, resulting in a thicker, crisper crust.

Pectin can be purchased as what?

Dry powder.

Where does Kamut grow well?

Dry regions of the Great Plains on Montana and in Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta.

How do dough conditioners for hard water work?

They contains acids that prevent minerals from interacting with gluten.

Two main reasons objects may respond differently to light.

They differ in their chemical makeup or in their physical structure.

Whats the difference between relaxation and fermentation?

During fermentation and proofing, yeast continues to produce carbon dioxide gas, slowly stretching gluten strands. The stretching helps further develop gluten and mature the dough. During relaxation, gluten strands are not necessarily stretched, The dough rests, and gluten strands adjust to the new length.

When does potassium bromate usually work?

During final proof and oven spring.

When was sugar cane introduced to Europe?

During the Crusades in the eleventh and twelve centuries.

What is semolina flour?

Durum wheat is commonly sold either as finely ground flour, called durum flour, or as coarser granular product, called durum semolina or simply semolina.

Powdered dextrose is also called what? Is i better than powdered sugar? Why?

Dusting sugar or doughnut sugar, is superior to powdered sugar at dusting and coating doughnuts and plated desserts. It does not dissolve easily, even when finely pulverized, so it is less likely to liquefy when exposed to heat and humidity.

What if flour isn't the predominant ingredient for a recipe? How is the percentage determined? Examples: dates filling and custards.

Each ingredient is expressed as a percentage of the predominant and characteristic ingredient. Ex: for date filling, each ingredient is expressed as a percentage of the amount of dates. For baked custard, each ingredient is expressed as a percentage of the dairy ingredients--milk and cream.

When are lighter-colored maple syrups produced in the season? Describe.

Earlier in the season, lighter flavor, and higher price. Better for candies and confections.

When was purified gelatin available for purchase?

Early 1800s, although a British patent for its manufacturer was issued as early as the mid-1700s.

Example of fondant sugar.

Easy Fondant

What happens as the undissolved sugar crystals begin heating up? How is it similar to melted fat?

They dissolve in water that is present, forming a sugar syrup. This thins out batters and doughs as they approach 160ºF (70ºC), much as melted fat thins them out; makes batters and doughs susceptible to tunneling or collapse.

What happens until molecules either dissolve or are hydrated in water?

They do not act as expected.

What are coarse sugars good for muffins and other baked goods?

They do not readily dissolve, and have an attractive sparkle.

What two forms of honey are appropriate for baking? What's the difference?

Either clover honey or baker's honey. Baker's honey is a relatively inexpensive blend that has a darker color and stronger flavor than straight clover honey.

To reach the olfactory cells at the top of the nasal cavity, molecules must travel where?

Either directly from food through the nose (orthonasal pathway), or up the bak of the throat (retronasal pathway), as food is warmed and chewed through the mouth.

Triticum dicoccum.

Emmer

What is very likely to be the wheat used by Egyptians to make bread?

Emmer

While many brands of dough conditioners are available, most contain a mixture of the following ingredients.

Emulsifiers, such as DATEM and calcium stearoyl-2-lactate; salts and acids, such as calcium carbonate or mono calcium phosphate; maturing agents that strengthen such as potassium bromate, ascorbic acid, potassium iodate, and azodicarbonamide (ADA); yeast foods, such as ammonium salts; enzymes, such as amylase; reducing agents, such as L-cystein.

What are other ways to thicken and gel food products besides adding an ingredient? Example.

Emulsions or foams provides thickening and sometimes gelling. Whipping heavy cream causes it to foam and thicken.

Glutenin and gliadin are found exclusively in what part of the wheat?

Endosperm

What makes up the largest part of a wheat kernel?

Endosperm is about 80%.

Three main parts of a wheat kernel.

Endosperm, germ and bran.

What is the whitest part of a kernel?

Endosperm, part that's used for white flour and contains all the gluten forming proteins. No wonder that commercial grades of white flour are defined by how much is pure endosperm.

Increasing oven temperatures increase the activity of what?

Enzymes

Stage 9

Enzymes Are Inactivated

Why are objects black?

They essentially absorb all light, leaving little or nothing to reflect.

How do syrups add a glossy sheen to icings and many confections?

They form a smooth, mirror-like surface over the jagged irregularity of sugar crystals.

Invert syrup is made up of what?

Equal parts fructose and glucose, dissolved in water with a small amount of residual acid.

Bakers and pastry chefs usually make simple syrup by heating what?

Equal parts granulated sugar and water.

Does Europe grow spelt? Where?

Europe has shown a renewed interest in spelt. Germany and surrounding regions grow significant amounts of spelt, locally called dinkel.

What happens as long as water continues to evaporate off the crusts of baked goods (think Maillard)?

Evaporative cooling keeps the surface from rising in temperature.

Are the higher grade molasses products best for baking? More expensive?

Even though they are more expensive but not necessarily best for baking.

As weight is added to a scale with the readability of 5 grams, how will the numbers progress?

Everything divisible by 5 i.e. 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and so on. If the weight is 6g, it will read 5g.

What are these trendy sugars called?

They go by many names, but mostly they are called evaporated cane juice or natural cane juice crystals.

What is the benefit of old gristmills on flour?

They grind slowly, creating very little friction that would kill active enzymes or cause oil to oxidize.

What's "wrong" with trendy sugars?

They have been refined through one--rather than three--washings and centrifuge cycles. They have also not been filtered or decolorized.

Is gum tragacanth expensive?

Extremely because its main supply is in a politically unstable part of the world. For this reason, its is being replaced by other gums in most foods.

What premium grade called in Canada?

Fancy molasses

What is Cream of Wheat an example of?

Farina

What is coarsely ground from the endosperm of hard red wheat, farina or semolina?

Farina

Another name for einkorn and emmer.

Farro

Unlike many ingredients in baking, what doesn't dissolve in water or hydrate?

Fat

Why are low-fat and fat-free foods notorious for having an unappealing taste?

Fat affects flavor perception because many flavor molecules dissolve in fat, so when fat is eliminated, there is a change in the release of flavor molecules to the taste buds, olfactory cells, and nerve ending below the skin; this is why low-fat foods require extra time and effort to flavor properly.

Examples of nutrients in food.

Fat, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals.

Stage 1

Fats Melt

One of the first things that happen when baked goods are placed in the oven.

Fats melt

How do you compensate for water that is too hard or soft?

They have dough conditioners designed for this.

Even when properly wrapped, baked goods continue to change during storage. Explain what happens with fats.

Fats resolidify and greasiness decreases. Depending on the fat, however, the product could become hard and waxy, as is the case with puff pastry made with a high-melting fat.

What items off the list will only affect high-ratio liquid shortening cakes and other baked goods made from cake flour?

Fats, sugars, and water pH - they have a larger affect on structure builders like eggs and starch in liquid shortening cake.

What stops once yeast dies? Why is this desirable?

Fermentation stops. Over-fermented dough has an overpowering sour flavor.

What is insoluble fiber?

Fiber that will sink or float in water but remains essentially unchanged because it does not absorb what.

What is soluble fiber?

Fiber that will thicken or form a gel when placed in water.

Regular granulated sugar is also called what?

Fine or extrafine sugar.

What important changes take place as gas escapes from baked goods?

First, a dry, hard crust forms on the surface from a loss in moisture. At this stage, the crust is still pale white. Two, baked goods lose weight through moisture. Three, a change in flavor; gases escaping from products like vanilla.

Why do fats that melt early tenderize more than those that melt later in baking?

They have more time to coat structure builders.

What three distinct stages occur in baking once ingredients are weighed?

First, ingredients are mixed into batters or doughs. Next, the batter or dough is baked, and finally it is cooled.

Best-quality gelatin comes from which extraction? Why?

First, it has the strongest gel, the clearest, lightest color, and mildest flavor.

Flour milling has two main objectives.

First, it is a process that separates the endosperm from bran and germ. Second, it involves grinding the grain to fine flour.

Disadvantages of natural aging.

First, it requires time, often several weeks or months; flour takes up valuable silo space and isn't paying the bills. Plus it's likely to support mold growth or become infested with insects. It's also inconsistent, and not as effective as many chemical bleaching and maturing agents.

Why does air do to flour?

First, it whitens flour. Second, it strengthens the gluten that forms from flour.

How flour is milled. First step.

First, milling operation cleans kernels, to remove dirt, weed seeds, stones and other debris.

More often, what type of pie pastry is considered more desirable?

Flakey over mealy.

Which is more at risk to become tough, flaky or mealy pastry? Why?

Flakey pie pastry is particularly at risk for toughening because flour particles in flaky pastry are not well coated with fat; water can penetrate more easily.

Molasses is primarily used for color and what?

Flavor

How are malted wheat and malted rye flours different from malted barley?

Flavor and enzyme activity.

Even when properly wrapped, baked goods continue to change during storage. Explain what happens with flavors.

Flavors evaporate, and over the next day or so, wonderful fresh-baked flavors are lost. Some flavors loss occurs because flavors become trapped by starches as they retrograde. Where this is the case, a brief reheating in the oven recovers some lost flavor--and softens the structure.

Small, oily seeds that are typically dark brown color.

Flaxseeds

Why should water be added and fat taken away when adding ground flaxseed to batters and doughs?

Flaxseeds are already high in fat and, because of the water absorption capabilities of its soluble dietary fiber, the amount of water generally needs to be increased when flaxseed flour is added.

What are two main bakeshop ingredients that contribute to the toughening or structure building in baked goods?

Flour and eggs.

What happens when moisture content in flour rises above 14%?

Flour is susceptible to fungus and mold growth, flavor changes, enzyme activity, and insect infestation.

Why is it important to rub plenty of fat into the flour for pie dough?

Flour particles coated with fat will not easily absorb water. This limits the ability of structure building gluten to form, and makes for a more tender pie pastry.

Examples of driers.

Flour, cornstarch, dry milk solids, and cocoa powder.

Examples of structure builders.

Flour, eggs, cocoa powder and starch.

Most bakery items are made of what ingredients?

Flour, water, sugar, eggs, leavening agents and fat.

Do malted flours contain proteases?

Flours that have been malted contain many enzymes, including proteases.

Malted flours can be thought of as what?

Flours with active amylase activity.

What is honey?

Flower nectar collected and processed by honeybees.

Bakeshops often have what type of lighting?

Fluorescent

Both brightness and what type of light sources are important to consider?

Fluorescent, incandescent and halogen.

Because of the ability of batters and dough to trap air and gas cells they are sometimes referred to as what?

Foams

Best way to avoid rancid aged flour problems?

Follow FIFO rules. First in, first out - and do not add new flour to old. Store in a cool, dry area. This prevents flour from absorbing moisture and odors and from attracting insects and rodents. Wheat germ (and whole wheat flour) is generally stored under refrigeration if not used within a few months.

The three (scientific) sensations occur when what happens?

Food molecules--chemicals--stimulate receptors throughout the mouth and nose.

Why are flakiness and tenderness usually at odds?

For flakiness, fat is kept as large chunks; for tenderness and mealiness, fat is thoroughly rubbed into flour.

Why is genoise sometimes made with half cornstarch and half flour?

For tenderness.

How do manufacturers produce glucose corn syrup?

They heat starch in the presence of water and acid and treat it with enzymes, breaking the large starch molecules into smaller units. The syrup is filtered and refined, to remove color and flavor.

What other uses are there for soy flours in baked goods?

They increase water absorption in doughs and reduce fat absorption in doughnuts.

What is the main structure builder in products low in moisture, such as pie crusts and crisp cookies? Why?

They inevitably rely on gluten alone for structure, because starch gelatinization cannot occur in the absence of sufficient water.

What do fructose and glucose accomplish when they aren't bound together?

Fructose is particularly hygroscopic, meaning it's better than most sugars, including sucrose, at moistening. Also, a mixture of sugars crystallizes more slowly than pure sugar. Adding a small amount of invert syrup to icings, fondants, and confections means less sugar crystallization and more softness, creaminess, and shine. Additionally, monosaccharides, being smaller in size, are better at lowering the freezing point of water than sucrose. Fructose and glucose are also more reactive, meaning they break down and brown faster.

Order of fastest browning sugars. Fastest first.

Fructose, glucose, lactose, sucrose, maltose, isomalt

Heat and/or other enzymes break down inulin to what?

Fructose, much as starch is broken down to glucose in the making of glucose corn syrup.

What is generally considered sweeter, fructose or sucrose?

Fructose, the other common sugars are less sweet.

What should fruit sugar not be confused with?

Fructose, which is also called fruit sugar because it is found in fruit.

Crystalline fructose is expensive, but has a clean, distinct sweetness that compliments what?

Fruit flavors.

Crystalline fructose is most commonly used in what?

Fruit-based desserts, sorbets, and confections.

What is the main cause of oven spring and fast expansion of yeast dough during the first few minutes of baking?

Gas bubbles expanding due to heat and stretching cell walls during leaving.

Stage 2

Gases Form and Expand.

Even when properly wrapped, baked goods continue to change during storage. Explain what happens with gases.

Gases continue to escape or they contract, and products without sufficient structure, such as soufflés and under baked items collapse.

What ingredients are added exclusively to thicken and gel?

Gelatin, vegetable gums, and starches.

Much of the soft crumb of freshly baked bread is from what?

Gelatinized starch.

What occurs when water and other molecules in a product are prevented from moving around at all? Examples.

Gelling. When large molecules, such as protein and polysaccharides, bond with one another, forming a large we or network that traps water and other molecules. Also happens when extremely large amount of air bubbles or fat droplets are incorporated into food.

Why not use stainless steel instead of marble to cool confectionary products?

Generally, it's the price but they are also very thin and heat up too quickly.

What part of the wheat plant germinates given the right conditions?

Germ

What proteins are unique to the wheat endosperm?

Gliadin and glutenin.

What is the most abundant sugar in nature?

Glucose

Give an example of low-conversion glucose syrup.

Glucose Crystal

What are the two main monosaccharides?

Glucose and fructose, although there are others.

All glucose corn syrups contains a certain amount of sugar (primarily what?) that sweetens, browns, moistens and tenderizes. The rest remains as larger fragments, called what?

Glucose and maltose; higher saccharides.

Maltose is commonly found in what?

Glucose corn syrup and malt syrup.

What is dried glucose syrup?

Glucose corn syrup with most of its water removed (only 7% or less remaining).

High saccharides are present is what?

Glucose corn syrups and other thick syrups, such as honey and molasses.

Dextrose is another name for what?

Glucose, when the monosaccharide is purchased dry as sugar.

High fructose corn syrup is one of the newer corn syrups. What's it called in Canada?

Glucose-fructose

What does milk contain that softens dough?

Glutathione

The most potent reducing agent.

Glutathione.

What is responsible for much of the structure-building properties in flour?

Gluten and starch.

With the loss of moisture and in the presence of heat, what happens to gluten? Is it unique to gluten?

Gluten coagulates into a firm and rigid yet porous structure that holds up its shape. While not unique to gluten (egg proteins, when heated, also coagulate into a firm,rigid structure), this is nonetheless and important feature of gluten.

Why is gluten important especially important in yeast baked doughs?

They rely heavily on gluten for unbaked dough structure. Without gluten, yeast-leavened dough is not good at retaining gases produced during the fermentation process. The dough does not expound well, if at all, and the expansion does not hold throughout the baking process. Cell wall tear, and the final crumb is dense.

At a molecular level, why does dough need a relaxation period?

Gluten consists of a 3D tangled network held together by strong and weak bonds. As dough is rolled and shaped, weak bonds are apt to break, allowing particles to slide past one another. Once rolling and shaping stops, new bonds form and dough takes on a new shape. When dough is stretched and pulled quickly, it doesn't stretch as far as when it's done slowly. Instead, dough resists and is apt to tear. When done slowly, dough has time to make small adjustments on the way.

What happens if you mix bread dough beyond mechanical dough development?

Gluten networks break down. This is sometimes called the letdown stage, and it is what is meant by over-mixed yeast dough.The dough becomes soft and sticky, it tears into stringy pieces when stretched and it no longer retains water or gas.

What specific components in flour make it a structure builder?

Gluten protein molecules and starch molecules.

Main thing that happens when doughs relax.

Gluten strands have time to relax and adjust to there new length and shape.

Once melted, fat slithers through batters and doughs coating what 3 things?

Gluten strands, egg proteins and starches.

What is the most difficult structure builder to control? Why? What about in yeast doughs?

Gluten, because small changes in a formula or mixing method have large effects on gluten development.

Wheat is the only cereal grain that contains sufficient what? For what?

Glutenin and gliadin for good quality formation of gluten in bread making.

Two important proteins in the endosperm are what?

Glutenin and gliadin.

Light brown sugar is also called what?

Golden

Color of whole white wheat flour.

Golden color.

Despite having the name amount of molasses as muscovado, Sucanat is what color and flavor?

Golden colorant less intense flavor.

Name a lighter-colored maple syrup.

Grade A Light Amber (Canada No. 1 Extra Light).

Name an all-purpose maple syrup.

Grade A Medium Amber in the United States (Canada No. 1 Light).

Why do liquid shortening cakes require very little gluten?

They rely on a soft structure of gelatinized starch.

If high-ratio liquid shortening cakes can't develop much gluten, why must you still mix them properly?

They rely on proper mixing for adequate air incorporation and leavening.

What happens if you have large amounts of pentosan?

They result in a lower volume of baked goods.

Whole wheat flour is sometimes called what?

Graham or entire wheat flour in North America and wholemeal flour in Great Britain and other countries.

Flours by definition are what?

Grains milled to a relatively fine granulation size.

Most common sweetener in the bakeshop?

Granulated sugar

Sweeteners that are neutral in flavor.

Granulated sugar, powdered sugar, light glucose corn syrup, and invert syrup.

The presence of glucose in what is essential to the fermentation of grapes to wine? What do winemakers call glucose?

Grapes, this is why winemakers call glucose grape sugar.

A hydrometer actually measures specific what?

Gravity, which is related to density.

Where is demerara popular?

Great Britain as a sweetener in coffee or on cereal.

What do amaranth plants and seeds look like?

Green herbs with seeds that are small and light brown.

How flour is milled. 5th step.

Grinds the endosperm middlings into flour between a series of smooth, reduction rollers.

Corn is typically sold as what?

Ground cornmeal, but is also available in a coarser grit or finer flour.

What is traditionally done with teff?

Ground into flour, fermented, and made into mildly sour spongy pancake called injera.

Other carbohydrates in flour besides starch include what? What's their %?

Gums are between 2 and 3%, primarily pentosans.

AP flour is not always used be professional pastry chefs. However, it is sold in the foodservice industry as what?

H&R flour (hotel and restaurant)

How well does aluminum conduct heat compared to copper?

Half as well.

In the U.S.S, sugar is mostly purified from what?

Half sugar cane and half sugar beets.

Raw and cooked starch granule texture.

Hard and gritty but swell to a larger size and soften when cooked.

AP flour is often made from a blend of what?

Hard and soft wheat, but this is not always the case.

Whole wheat flour is typically milled from what?

Hard red wheat

Six major classes of wheat in the US are described as what?

Hard red winter, soft red winter, hard red spring, hard white, soft white, and durum.

Rye bread formulas in North America generally contain what? Why?

Hard wheat flour (clear, high-gluten, or bread flour) to supply needed gluten and balance flavor.

What type of flour forms high-quality gluten?

Hard wheat flours.

High gluten flour is milled from what?

Hard wheat, generally hard spring wheat.

Describe the taste of whole white wheat flour. Why is this good for some customers?

Has a sweeter, milder taste than whole wheat flour made from red wheats. This makes it more acceptable to consumers who prefer lighter, milder-tasting breads and pastries.

What is a super taster?

Have the highest number of taste buds.

What size should fat be in pie crust for very flakey crust?

Hazelnuts

Of common breads, which usually require the most gluten if high volume is desired?

Hearth breads - those that are baked directly on sheet pans or baking stones.

Raw foods retain their what?

Heat-sensitive nutrients and natural enzyme activity.

Of the last list, what items apply exclusively to yeast-raised doughs?

Heat-treated milk and dough conditioners. The others apply to all baked goods.

Name some (8) ingredients that can be added to thicken food.

Heavy cream, sour cream, many cheeses, jams and jellies, fruit purees, thick syrups, yogurt, and buttermilk.

What is an emulsion of butterfat droplets in milk?

Heavy cream.

Explain the conductive properties of heavy-gauge compared to this-gauge material.

Heavy-gauge material is thicker and conducts heat to food more slowly than thin-gauge.

Why is having a batter or dough thats soft and fluid good for cookie dough and cake?

Helps cookies spread further and cakes to rise higher than with a stronger flour.

Why does rye flour absorb noticeably larger quantities of water than wheat flour? How does this affect fermentation and mixing?

High pentosan gum content. For this and other reasons, doughs made from rye flour are gummy and sticky, are easily over mixed and fermented, and have poor gas retention qualities during later stages of proofing and baking.

Materials that conduct heat quickly are referred to as having what?

High thermal or heat conductivity.

Benefits of powder.

High volume allows to keeps prices low, in large production you don't worry about losing powder to dissolving water. Because it is produced in the US there are no import taxes to worry about.

What is high protein essential for in bread?

High volume and fine crumb in yeast-raised baked goods.

Does hard water have high or low minerals?

High, and soft water has low.

Despite having low protein, why must the protein in Artisan bread flour be high?

High-quality protein forms gluten with a good balance between strength and extensibility. If gluten is poor, it tears as dough is stretched, and the dough collapses from the rigors of a long fermentation.

There are few, if any, _______ _____________ present in various brands of agave syrups, making them easy to use because they are very thin and pourable.

Higher saccharides.

Best way to evaluate food tastes. Why?

Hold your nose so it's focused on your tongue.

Example of premium imported molasses.

Home Maid

Example of product with sheen.

Honey

What other syrups contain the monosaccharide glucose?

Honey, molasses, invert syrup, and malt syrup.

Millet can grow despite what?

Hot, dry conditions and poor soil, making it a valuable staple in countries where little else is grown.

Viscosity or consistency is a measure of what? It's determined by what?

How easily a liquid flows. If a liquid's particles or molecules slide past each other easily it's considered thin; if they bump or tangle, it's thick.

How flour is milled. 4th step.

They separate, or purify the endosperm from the bran and the germ, using sieves and air currents. The resulting farina-size endosperm chunks are called middlings.

Do raw egg proteins looks like straight lines or clumps?

They start off as clumps and unwind as heat is introduced.

What is the study of sensory perception?

How the sensory organs--eyes, ears, nose, mouth and skin--detect and interpret the world.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO BAKING

How are "no-time" doughs able to skip bulk fermentation?

If dough undergoes mechanical dough development by intensive high-speed mixing, or if it undergoes chemical dough development through the use of maturing agents and dough conditioners, less fermentation is needed.

Does powdered sugar help or stop spread in cookies?

If it contains cornstarch, it will prevent the spread of cookies.

Rule of thumb for accuracy of a scale.

If the rate of error does not exceed 10%.

How do scorbutic acid and potassium bromate affect gluten?

They strengthen it.

How do you know (by sight) if water is hard or soft?

If you ever see hard white mineral deposits, called scale, on equipment surfaces, you know the water is hard.

Once ground, when must pearl millet be utilized? Why?

Immediately to prevent off flavors developing in the oils.

Where is Glucose Crystal from?

Imported from France and also highly refined, giving it a crystal-clear appearance and a premium price.

What do ammonium salt provide for dough?

Improve yeast fermentation.

What does amylase provide for dough?

Improved yeast fermentation, browning and prevent staling.

What does insoluble fiber do for the body?

Improves intestinal health and is thought to reduce the risks of certain cancers.

Why are some crystals off white?

Impurities are trapped between the crystals.

When did powdered gelatin come about?

In America during the late 1800s, at the request of housewives.

When were roller-mills invented?

In Europe as early as the 1500s but did not have widespread use in North America until the late 1800s.

What does the high amount of sorbitol in prunes do for baked goods?

In addition to even higher amounts of glucose and fructose, make dried plums - and the baked goods they're added to - soft and moist.

Pros and cons of "no-time" dough.

They take less time to prepare (time is money). The added cost off chemicals is somewhat offset by the higher amount of water absorbed by the doughs. However, breads develop a good amount of flavor during bulk fermentation; bread may lack the subtle flavors that are the pride of a baker.

Where is Irish moss popular? For what?

In the Caribbean for thickening beverages and as an aphrodisiac.

What happens to doughs and batters during starch gelatinization around 170ºF?

They thicken considerably and take the final shape.

When did flour enrichment begin? What did it eliminate?

In the early 1940s after gov't surveys found that high incidence of disease was caused by certain vitamin and mineral deficiencies. This virtually eliminated two of these diseases, beriberi and pellagra.

Although the receptors for smell are at the top of the nasal cavity, it often seems smell takes place where? Explain.

In the mouth. Because our brains sense the food is there, it perceives the smell is coming from there as well.

Where does quinoa grow best?

In the very high elevations of the Andes Mountains in South America.

What does flavor include to a scientist?

Includes the basic tastes, smell and trigeminal effects, or chemical feeling factors.

The main role of dough conditioners is what?

Increase gluten strength, contributing to chemical dough development.

Does amylase activity increase or decrease during baking when starch granules gelatinize and become more susceptible to its action?

Increases

A fourth type of heat transfer.

Induction, which takes place on a special stovetop surfaces.

In the United States, blackstrap molasses usually refers to what?

Inedible final extraction molasses, extremely bitter and not very sweet.

What are structure builders?

Ingredients that hold the volume and shape of baked goods.

What is ash composed of?

Inorganic matter--mineral salts--naturally present in wheat kernels.

Once at the site of the receptors, flavor chemicals do what?

Interact with, or stimulate, receptors in some way, by bonding to them, for example. This generates electrical impulses that travel through nerve cells to the brain, where the info is processed.

Agave sap contains what polysaccharide?

Inulin, along with smaller amounts of glucose and fructose.

What gives invert syrup its special properties?

Invert syrup has different properties than sucrose because it contains the monosaccharides fructose and glucose. While sucrose is made up of fructose and glucose, in sucrose they are bound to each other as a disaccharide. In full invert syrup, they are not.

How does hot liquid go to soft solid using gelatin?

Invisible strands are moving around rapidly. As the mixture cools, the strands slow and could up like telephone cords, and the coiled sections double over onto themselves. Over time, they stack up forming junctions. Water trapped in the 3D web is unable to move around. Now its a soft solid.

Another form of carrageenan is what?

Irish moss.

What vitamins and minerals are added to white flour?

Iron and B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid) in amounts greater than or equal to whole wheat flour. Certain other vitamins and minerals are optional.

How do you check accuracy of a digital scale?

They usually come with a brass weight. If the amount is off when scaled read manufacturer's instructions to adjust the scale.

Why are some syrups thicker than others?

They usually contain less water or higher saccharides in addition to sugar.

While some polyols are not found in nature, others are. Explain using plums.

Isomalt is not found in nature but dried out plums (prunes) contain 15% sorbitol.

What else does water do for yeast?

It activates yeast and allows fermentation to occur. Without sufficient water, yeast cells remain dormant or die.

Why is superfine sugar good for batters and creamed shortenings?

It allows smaller air cells in, and is good for sugaring baked goods.

What happens if fat has too high a melting point?

It can have an unpleasant waxy mouthfeel.

Benefits of sheet gelatin.

It cannot spill, sheets can be counted (many find it easier than weighing), great for small-scale recipes.

Why is saliva important to taste perception?

It carries molecules into the crevices and taste buds.

What else does heat causes gas bubbles to do besides rise? What does this accomplish?

It causes them to expand which is necessary for leavening and tenderizing.

What happens when you add too many structure builders?

It causes toughening.

Why is wheat flour considered a whole wheat product?

It contains the entire wheat kernel.

How much does liquid oil contribute to leaving? Explain.

It contributes no leaving because it contains no air or water and has no melting point.

Why is it important that amylase is rendered inactive by heat?

It controls the amount of starch breakdown.

What happens if fondant is melted above 100ºF (38ºC)? Why?

It cools to a rougher, grayer, duller surface because tiny crystals recrystallize above 100ºF to form jagged edges as the fondant cools.

What effect does gluten have on hole size if it's weak and tears easily?

It creates appealing large, irregular holes.

Why is the breaking down of bread dough starch a good thing?

It creates food for yeast fermentation, increases browning, and slows staling.

What does steaming oats do to lipase enzymes? Is this good?

It deactivates them and slows oxidation of oils in oats.

As the amount of protein in flour increases, what happens to starch?

It decreases.

What happens to the perception of saltiness as a products temperature rises?

It decreases.

What happens to pectin when it is heated (one word)?

It dissolves.

Advantages of isomalt over sucrose?

It does not easily brown, pick of moisture, or crystallize and grain, so sugar work remains relatively dry and white.

Why must pearl millet flour be combined with wheat flour in baked goods?

It doesn't contain any gluten.

Pectin thickens, but what does it do in the presence of acid and high amounts of sugar?

It gels.

Describe stevia's flavor.

It has a long-lingering sweetness, and at high levels, is bitter.

Some are made from organically grown agave and marketed as raw food, which means what?

It has not been heated above 120ºF (50ºC).

An example of why sensory evaluation is important for chefs.

It helps determine whether or not a dish is properly balanced. Even if it is one you may not like.

Why is copper good to use for cooking sugar?

It helps reach high temperatures quickly.

How does having 3% cornstarch in powdered sugars hurt and help?

It helps stiffen meringues but you may notice a raw starch taste when using it in certain applications.

Why is chlorine great with cake flour?

It improves baking properties of soft wheat flour by substantially weakening gluten and by allowing starch to absorb water more quickly and easily.

Besides water absorption, how else does mixing help (3 things)?

It incorporates oxygen, which oxidizes and strengthens gluten; wears down particles, until they are small and no longer spherical; distributes particles evenly throughout the dough, so that ultimately a strong, continuos gluten network form.

Why is a small amount of baking soda usually added to baked goods?

It increases pH and creates more browning.

What happens when baking soda is added to cookies?

It increases the cookies spread by increasing pH of the dough, raising the set temperature of gluten and egg proteins. With more free water and less structure for longer time, cookies that contain baking soda spread more and have a coarser, more porous crumb. Since moisture evaporate from a porous crumb more easily, baking soda provides a crisper crumb as well.

What happens to sweetness as product temperatures rise?

It increases when heated.

Is ascorbic acid one of the most popular maturing agents?

It is becoming one because of potassium bromates decreased usage even though it's not as effective.

Why does thin gauge cookware have hot spots where food is likely to burn?

It is difficult to roll any metal to a thin gauge evenly. Because of its unevenness, thin gauge cookware has hot spots where food is likely to burn.

What does vital wheat gluten look like?

It is purchased as a creamy yellow powder.

What happens to the molasses?

It is recycled, often two or three more times, by heating and recentrifuging until no more sugar crystals can be easily extracted.

What happens when light hits an object?

It is reflected (bounced off), transmitted (passed through), or absorbed by the object.

Why does Sucanat for granules rather than crystals?

It is slowly stirred while it dries and cools.

Why can the term "maturing agent" be confusing?

It is used to describe additives that have completely opposite functions.

Does dusting sugar contain other ingredients besides dextrose? Benefits and downfalls?

It may contain other ingredients such as vegetable oil. VO helps the sugar adhere to doughnuts and baked goods, but it changes mouthfeel and produces an off flavor as it ages and oxidizes.

What must be done immediately after tin bakeware is washed?

It must be dried thoroughly so it doesn't rust.

Ground, how long will flaxseed hold? Why?

It must be used immediately or refrigerated once ground. ALA is a highly polyunsaturated fat, which means it oxidizes rapidly.

What is meant by a product being volatile?

It must evaporate and escape from food.

Does salt prevent excess tearing of dough?

It prevents excessive tearing when gluten stretches, so bread is easier to handle and has a finer crumb.

How much heat is needed to dissolve baking powder so it releases carbon dioxide?

It ranges from room temperature and continues up to 170ºF (75ºC) and above.

What does superfine sugar do to meringues and cookies?

It reduces beading in common meringues and increases spread in cookies.

What does the breakdown of protein from protease activity do for flavor?

It releases amino acids that are valuable for the flavor of bread.

Einkorn has a high ratio of gliadin to gluten in, what does this mean for bread?

It results in a soft, sticky dough that is not particularly suitable for bread.

What is said about strong flours water absorption mixing time to develop gluten?

They usually have a high water-absorption value and require a longer mixing time to fully develop, but they are tolerant of over-mixing.

When sugar pulls water away from structure builders and driers, what happens to dough? Explain.

It softens and thins out. The proteins, starches and gums are no longer able to hydrate, trapping and holding water. Instead, the water is released to sugar, forming a thin syrup as part of the batter or dough.

Why is a certain amount of starch breakdown desirable in bread?

It softens the bread and keeps it from becoming stale too quickly.

What happens when enzymes are denatured?

It stops their activity.

How does a hard and firm or thick and viscous product affect flavor perception?

It takes a few moments for flavor molecules to be dissolved in saliva, or evaporate to the nasal cavity, or to be absorbed through skin; if flavor molecules cannot reach receptors, they cannot be perceived.

Why are larger kernels good for diabetics?

It takes the longer to be broken down by the body; easier to control blood glucose levels.

What happens when you add a small amount of acid to a sweet product? Why?

It tastes less sweet because acid changes the perception of sweetness. Likewise, sugar decreases the perception of sourness in the mix.

What does chlorine gas do to gluten?

It weakens gluten but also whitens carotenoids and changes starch so that it absorbs more water.

How does your mouth perceive a product that is very bitter and sour?

It will be perceived throughout the mouth as a combo.

What happens when oven temp is very low for baking cakes?

It will have a thick, rubbery layer along the bottom and a low volume overall. Or, it could have a series of thin tunnels running from bottom to top, tunnels that follow the trails of disappearing bubbles.

What happens if bread is made with pastry flour? Explain.

It will not look or taste like the same bread made from bread flour. First, dough will be softer, even though less water is required is required in the mixing. It will readily bake and tear and be over mixed. Once bread is baked, it will have a lower volume. The crust will not brown as readily, and the crumb will be whiter. Air cells in the crumb will tend to be larger and more irregular. Expect a different flavor, and if the bread is stored for several days, it will become stale faster.

What happens to the final product when bread is made with a stronger gluten?

It yields a finer crumb and more volume.

What helps sensory organs "sense" the world around them?

It's actually receptors on the organs that do all the work.

Pros and cons of aluminum cookware.

It's cheap and conducts heat very well but also reacts with foods, especially when acidic, and discolors fruit products while turning milk and egg products gray; this limits the use over stovetop cookware. And since it's a soft metal, aluminum is easily scratched an pitted

Why is the metric system easier to use than stander U.S. common units?

It's easier to move forms grams to kilograms (1400 grams is 1.4 kilograms) because all it takes is moving a decimal; pounds and ounces isn't as easy.

When batters and doughs are baked, what happens to most of the moisture?

It's either absorbed by gelatinized starch granules or evaporates.

Why is benzoyl peroxide used in all types of flour?

It's extremely effective at whitening and produces no maturing effects.

Why store wheat germ in the refrigerator?

It's high in polyunsaturated oils that oxidize easily.

Brown sugar is soft and tends to clump because of what?

It's higher in moisture (3-4%) than granulated sugar.

Why is blue agave syrup typically more expensive than other agave syrups?

It's naturally high in inulin.

How is sourness perceived in your mouth?

It's perceived almost instantly, as soon as food is placed in the mouth. It is also perceived more on the sides of the tongue.

How much water is in milk?

It's primarily water, about 85-89% water.

What happens to crude raw sugar?

It's sent to the refinery, where it undergoes a series of processes involving more washing, centrifuging, clarifying, and filtering. The sugar syrup is also decolorized.

What happens to cookie dough made from cake flour instead of pastry flour?

It's stiff and dry, and the lack of free water prevents much, if any, spread during baking.

Why was sugar cane under the control of Arab traders for many years?

It's tropical and doesn't grow well in Europe.

Why does pastry flour have a low capacity to absorb water?

It's typically low in protein, water grabbing pentosans, and damaged starched granules.

Besides hardness of the kernel, how else can wheat be classified?

Its botanical species, the time of year it's planted or grown, or by the color of the kernel.

What happen to gluten when contacted with proteases?

Its broken down into smaller pieces, becoming more soft and extensible.

Because demerara crystals also used as decorative sanding sugar?

Its crystals are large, crunchy, and glistening.

Brown sugar is primarily used for what?

Its distinct molasses flavor and color.

Gelatin is rated by what?

Its gel strength, also called Bloom rating.

Why is marble often used in bakeshops?

Its good heat conductivity helps cool hot confectionary products quickly.

Why is wheat germ typically added as an ingredient?

Its nutritional value.

What high expectations did triticale have in the 1960s and 1970s?

Its superior nutritional quality (compared to wheat) would provide the means of feeding growing populations in India, Pakistan and Mexico.

What is the main reason untoasted soy flour is added to dough?

Its whitening capabilities.

What is the most common example of unrefined sugar? Where is it from?

Jaggery, made in the villages of India, where it is often called gur.

Who first presented the idea of umami? When did this occur?

Japanese scientists did in the early 1900s when MSG was purified from dried seaweed.

Are there many different types of polyols?

Just as there are many different types of sugars, so too are there many different types of polyols.

What is tritium turgid called? Is it an ancient relative of modern wheat?

Kamut, and yes, it is.

What is agar called in Japan?

Kanten

Example of dark glucose corn syrup.

Karl dark corn syrup, which also contains salt and an antimicrobial agent.

Roasted buckwheat groats are called what?

Kasha, consumed in parts of Eastern Europe and Russia.

What part of the wheat plant is illdd into flour?

Kernel

When shakkar is washed with water, centrifuged, and crumbled into grains, the resulting semi-refined product is called what?

Khandsari

Who responded to the American housewives' powdered gelatin inquiries?

Knox Gelatin dried gelatin sheets until brittle, then pulverized them into granules, which were easy to measure with spoons. A few years later, Jell-O gelatin was born.

Most common reducing agent used by large-scale commercial bakeries.

L-cysteine

How can pizza dough benefit from L-cysteine?

L-cysteine helps it stretch and handle easily, and doesn't shrink.

When are darker-colored maple syrups produced in the season? Describe.

Later in the season, have a stronger flavor, lower grade, and lower price. Better for baked goods.

What does more fructose and less glucose in agave syrup mean more crystallization?

Less likely to crystallize and sweeter.

The amount of sugar naturally present in flour as a %?

Less than 0.5%.

What % of flour is ash?

Less than 0.6%

Fructose is sometimes called what?

Levulose or fruit sugar.

The mildest-tasting, most common rye flour used in North America used in rye and sour rye breads.

Light and white rye flour.

Why do beaten egg white appear opaque?

Light bounces off the tiny, rounded air bubbles and scatters in many directions; scattered light appears opaque.

What happens to light when it is absorbed by food?

Light energy disappears from sight because it is converted into another form--heat or kinetic energy.

Can many cakes be made successfully with pastry flour or bread flour? What's the exception?

Light, sweet, moist, and tender high-ratio cakes cannot. High-ratio cakes are made from formulas that contain a high ratio of liquid and sugar to flour. Without cake flour, these cakes would not rise, or more likely they would rise and then collapse during baking and cooling.

What is carrageenan?

Like agar, is extracted from a red seaweed (Chondrus).

What does xylitol provide? Most common application?

Like dextrose, provides a cooling sensation when used in crystalline form. Its most common application is sugar-free gum.

Second step of milling sugarcane?

Lime (calcium oxide, an alkali) and carbon dioxide are added to this cloudy juice, to trap impurities. The impurities settle to the bottom and the liquid is strained to remove them from the clear juice.

How do you create a pie pastry that is flaky and tender?

Limit the extent of mixing, both before and after water is added, and chill the dough before rolling and baking.

Industrial name for flaxseed.

Linseed

Why do quick oats take less cooking time?

Liquid penetrates thin pieces faster.

Once released, carbon dioxide dissolves into what portion of the batter?

Liquid portion.

Layers of water form what around hydrated molecules?

Liquid shells that suspend them.

Name this method: All ingredients blended on low speed, then whipped on high, and finally medium speed to aerate. Examples?

Liquid shortening method; High-ratio liquid shortening cakes.

Main structure builder when using cake flour. Explain.

Little, if any, gluten forms from cake flour or from non wheat flours, Instead, starch, or starch and gums, becomes the main structure builder.

Does water have low or high heat conductivity?

Low

Is rice flour a high or low-protein flour? Does it contain gluten?

Low protein that contains no gluten.

What type of glucose corn syrup is best for fudge? Why?

Low-conversion GCS, one that is low in sugar and high in higher saccharides, is best to use as an interfering agent in fudge and other confections. Higher saccharides thicken the sugar mixture, greatly slowing crystallization.

Does air have a higher or low heat conductivity than water?

Lower

Many of the differences between bread made with pastry flour vs bread flour are due to what?

Lower amount of high quality protein in pastry flour compared with bread flour.

Hearty, robust flavor and dark color.

Lower-grade molasses.

How have manufacturers tried to "improve" stainless steel's heat conductivity?

Lower-quality cookware is manufactured to a thin gauge.

What does soluble fiber do for the body?

Lowers blood cholesterol and can reduce the risk of heart disease.

The protein in wheat is low in what essential amino acid? How does it compare to eggs or milk?

Lysine, which means it's not as nutritionally complete as eggs or milk.

What is an alveograph?

Machine that blows air into dough made from flour, water, and salt, forming an expanding bubbles. This mimics the fermentation process. Three values are measured: dough strength, dough tenacity, and extensibility.

How does maple syrups prized and very sweet aroma develop?

Maillard reactions that occur as sap is boiled over high heat.

Corn is also called what?

Maize

Name one of the main acids in apples.

Malic acid.

Malt syrups are also called what?

Malt extract.

What is put into water of boiled bagels for added sheen?

Malt syrup

What are other good sources of maltose besides malt syrups?

Malted barley flour and certain glucose syrups.

Name three bread dough ingredients amylase is present in.

Malted barley flour, diastic malt syrup and certain dough conditioners or improvers.

Malted barley flour is often referred to as what?

Malted flour or, more simply, malt.

If amylase is not added by the miller, what list of ingredients can a baker add instead?

Malted flour, diastatic malt syrup, untoasted soy flour, or any number of dough conditioners that contain amylase.

Unlike molasses, malt syrup is very high in what?

Maltose

What does the malting process initiate?

Many biological processes in the cereal, including breakdown of large starch molecules into sugars.

Altogether, does it seems like gluten structures are held together by some very strong and many more weak bonds that break and reform easily? Explain.

Many bonds break, in particular, during mixing, only to reform around the surfaces of expanding air bubbles during proofing and the early stages of baking. It is this combination of strong and weak forces breaking and reforming that contributes to the unique nature of gluten.

Weak flour is desirable for what?

Many cakes, cookies and pastries.

Why are the three distinct steps so hard to control?

Many chemical and physical changes occur in products as they pass through all three phases.

Why is it difficult to define the coagulation temperature of egg proteins in baked goods?

Many factors such as sugars, fats and starched change it.

Why could poor temperature use ruin a dish?

Many ingredients change properties with temperature.

How should syrups high in moisture be stored?

Maple and simple syrup must be refrigerated to prevent mold growth. It is best not to refrigerate other syrups.

Why does marble feel cooler than wood to the touch, even in a warm bakeshop?

Marble has a greater heat conductivity than wood, so heat transfers faster from the body to marble than t does wood. Because the hand touching the marble cools more quickly, the marble seems cooler to the touch (when, in actuality the marble is now slightly warmer, because heat was transferred to it from the hand).

Put teflon, marble, wood, water and air in order concerning heat conductivity.

Marble, water, teflon, wood, air.

How does oxygen strengthen gluten?

Maturing agents that strengthen gluten simulate natural aging; they oxidize portions of glutenin and gliadin molecules, altering them so that more bonds form when gluten forms.

How is sugar syrup decolorized? Explain how some manufacturers use bone char.

Meaning it passes through an ion exchange or activated carbon filter, much as you would pass water through a filter. A few cane (but not beet) sugar manufacturers still use bone char from cattle for decolorization, which strict vegetarians find unacceptable.

Cake flour is short or fancy patent flour. What does this mean? What does it give the flour?

Meaning that it comes from the absolute heart of the endosperm. This gives cake flour a finer granulation, whiter color, lower protein and slightly higher starch content.

The longer and more vigorously bread doughs are mixed, the more _______ _______ development takes place.

Mechanical dough

Mixing and kneading is sometimes called what?

Mechanical dough method.

What is MOP?

Method of preparation

Stage 4

Microorganisms Die

Like fondant and other crystalline confections, fudge consists of many microscopic what?

Microscopic crystals suspended in a thin layer of syrup.

Widespread consumption of cereal grains began when and where?

Middle East about 10,000 years ago, when agriculture first began. It was then that wheat was first planted and cultivated.

What parts of North America have ideal conditions for wheat?

Midwest and southern prairie region of Canada.

Example of an opaque product.

Milk

Where is carrageenan particularly effective?

Milk products, which is why it's added to eggnog, chocolate milk, ice-cream, and instant flan mixes.

How do you maintain oven temperatures during baking?

Minimize the number of times you open the oven. Even a few seconds carries a significant amount of the ovens warmth into the bakeshop.

What does cold liquid in pie pastry dough do?

Minimizes gluten development and prevents solid fat in dough from melting.

Pectin is commonly used in what?

Mirrors, glazes, jams and jellies, bakery fillings, and fruit confections.

To prevent lumping, how must instant gelatin be mixed?

Mixed with other ingredients, such as sugar, before it is added to water.

Three main ways gluten is developed during baking.

Mixing and kneading, chemical dough development, over time during bulk fermentation and final proof.

Obvious reason to mix ingredients.

Mixing distributes ingredients evenly throughout batters and doughs.

Methylcellulose is also called what?

Modified vegetable gum.

Name three functions of salt in baked goods.

Modifies flavor, increase crust color, and controls the rate of yeast fermentation and enzyme activity.

Undissolved sugar crystals aren't able to do what?

Moisten or tenderize cakes, to stabilize whipped egg whites or to taste sweet.

Name a few uses of simple syrup.

Moistening cake layers, glazing fresh fruits, thinning fondant, poaching fruit, and preparing sorbets.

Even when properly wrapped, baked goods continue to change during storage. Explain what happens with moisture.

Moisture is redistributed within the crumb of baked goods, and may also contribute to staling. In high-moisture products like bread, moisture moves from moist crumb to dry crust, and crust losses its crispness over the next day, sometimes becoming tough and rubbery.

Malt syrup, which is also called malt extract, has a distinct flavor and color that is somewhat similar to what?

Molasses

What is considered premium grade molasses?

Molasses made by directly boiling and concentrating sugarcane juice, with no sugar crystals removed.

Some crystalline sugar contain extra ingredients such as...

Molasses or cornstarch.

Why do aromas typically increase as temperatures rise?

Molecules evaporate more readily at higher temperatures, more reach olfactory cells.

Why do liquids and gases become less dense when heat?

Molecules not only vibrate faster when heated, they move apart. This expansion lowers the density of hot liquids and gases as they rise and move away from the source of heat.

What are simple carbohydrates at a molecular level?

Molecules that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms arranged in a specific way.

What is more effective at lowering freezing point, mono or disaccharides?

Monosaccharides

After simple carbohydrates, sugars are further classified as what?

Monosaccharides or disaccharides.

Does the baker usually add all the proteases?

More often, proteases are not added by the baker, but naturally present in flours.

Nature of flavor chemical for basic tastes.

Most dissolve in water (saliva).

Example how how some syrups are better for some projects than others.

Most syrups tend to sweeten, moisten, and brown when used in baked goods. But syrups high in fructose, such as invert syrup, and honey, excel at these functions.

How is pearl sugar used?

Much like coarse crystalline sugar, to provide a crunchy decorative topping on sweet baked goods, but it has a very different look than clear, glistening crystals of coarse crystalline sugar.

Two methods used to make muffins.

Muffin method and creaming method.

Name this method: Sifted dry ingredients stirred or blended on low speed; liquid fat and other liquid ingredients added in one stage and lightly blended just until moistened. Examples?

Muffin or one-stage method; muffins, quick breads, quick coffee cakes.

To substitute granulated sugar for syrup.

Multiply the weight of syrup by 0.80 to determine the weight of granulated sugar to use. Increase the amount of liquid by the difference between the two. (16oz syrup gets 12.8oz of sugar and 3.2oz of liquid)

Nature of flavor chemicals for trigeminal sensors.

Must absorb through skin; must be volatile to be perceived in nasal cavity.

Nature of flavor chemicals (smell).

Must evaporate to reach the olfactory bulb and dissolve in water (mucous membranes); must be volatile.

Commercial production of sucrose involves removing and purifying what from where?

Natural sucrose from sugarcane or from sugar beets.

There are several brands of agave syrup, also called agave _______, on the market.

Nectar

What is a fifth sweetener? When was in approved?

Neotame was approved in 2002 but is not yet in general use.

Trigeminal receptors and location.

Nerve endings underneath the surface of the skin, throughout the mouth and nose.

Are all starch molecules alike?

No

Do all sugars and syrups sweeten to the same degree?

No

Do bran protein form gluten?

No

Do oat, soy, corn or buckwheat form gluten?

No

Do products like seven-grain bread or stone-ground flour guarantee a whole grain product?

No

Do wheat germ proteins form gluten?

No

Does anodized aluminum conduct heat as fast as regular aluminum?

No

Does buckwheat contain gluten?

No

Does germ protein form gluten?

No

Does isomalt have the same melt-in-the-mouth feeling as sucrose?

No

In both US and Canada today, are there any regulations that differentiate graham flour from whole wheat flour based on a particular size?

No

Is anodized aluminum reactive with foods?

No

Is buckwheat an actual wheat?

No

Is chlorination of flour allowed in European Union?

No

Is gelatin found in any vegetable source?

No

Is pastry flour usually bleached?

No

Is pectin present in batters or doughs?

No

Is the pasteurization of milk enough to destroys glutathione?

No

Is wheat flour the same as whole wheat flour?

No

Is white flour a good source of fiber?

No

What wheat gym contribute to the structure of baked goods?

No

Is stainless steel a good conductor of heat? Advantages (cleaning, pricing, durability)?

No but it is easy to clean, moderately priced and durable.

Millers recommend flours be stored for how long?

No more than 6 months.

Should you expect much softness and moisture from maple syrup?

No more than sugar and water. Instead, it's used for flavor.

Does density affect weight measurements (flour example)?

No, a pound of flour weighs the same as a pound of unsifted flour.

Does the conversation for 230 Bloom powdered gelatin means that 17 sheets weigh 1 ounce?

No, although that is essentially true for platinum sheets. It just means that 17 sheets of any grade provide about the same gelling strength as 1 ounce of powdered gelatin.

Does agar have the same mouthfeel as gelatin?

No, because it does not melt as readily as gelatin.

Is "high-quality" flour particularly high in nutritional value? Why?

No, because it is white flour and contains no bran or germ particles. Which means it's not a good source of dietary fiber and low in lysine (no complete proteins).

Will a sorbet mix taste properly sweetened at room temperature be sweet enough frozen? Why?

No, because sweetness decreases as temp drops.

Do sugar crystals need to be bleached?

No, because they're pure sugar crystals are naturally white in color.

Does soy flour contain gluten forming proteins?

No, but it does provide good nutrition.

Does strawberry ice cream tinted with red food coloring have a stronger strawberry flavor?

No, but that is our perception.

Is buckwheat flour higher than wheat flour in protein?

No, but the protein buckwheat contains is more nutritionally balanced than wheat.

Is durum wheat the same as common wheat? Why?

No, durum has a very hard kernel. Harder than so called hard wheat kernels and is very high in protein (12-15%).

Where do convection currents occur? Only the air?

No, in the air, in thin batters baking in the oven, within thin liquids in a saucepan, and within fat in the fryer.

Is shortening viscoelastic? Why?

No, it cannot stretch or flow like liquid. While it's soft enough to change shape and hard enough to hold, it cannot stretch and hold expanding gases.

Is there a single coffee molecule?

No, it consists of hundreds of separate chemicals.

Does glucose corn syrup contain only glucose?

No, it does contain a certain amount of the monosaccharide but generally contains significant amounts of other components as well, so the name is somewhat misleading.

Is corn syrup viscoelastic? Why?

No, it does not have elasticity or rubberiness; it cannot bounce back to original shape once it flows. Also not strong enough to hold gas bubbles.

Is peanut brittle viscoelastic? Why?

No, it is too firm and rigid. While it holds its shape quite nicely, PB will not stretch or change shape easily. If gases were able to expand at all in PB, the brittle would crack and shatter from buildup of pressure.

Is superfine sugar as fine as confectioners?

No, it isn't mechanically crushed like confectioners'.

Is stale flour dangerous?

No, it just has a distinct cardboard flavor.

Is the term "sponge" used only for certain textures?

No, it's used whether the product has a springy, spongy texture or not.

Do baked goods only contain the three main gases? Explain.

No, many liquids, including vanilla flavoring and alcohol, evaporate to a gaseous state when heated, and any liquid that evaporates to a gas functions as a leavening gas.

Have all dry milk solids (DMS) been exposed to enough heat to destroy glutathione?

No, only DMS labeled as high-heat have been heated sufficiently.

Are cereal husks acceptable as feed for humans and animals?

No, only animals.

Does being categorized as a "taster" influence taste buds and aroma?

No, only taste buds.

Is water always added in as an ingredient in its own right?

No, other items such as eggs, milk etc contain water.

Does salt bleach flour? Why does bread seem whiter when salt is added?

No, salt acts by strengthening gluten, preventing it from tearing when it stretches from pressure of expanding gases. The result is a fine, even crumb. Light bounces off a fine crumb more evenly than it does off a coarser crumb.

Is evaluating food the same as eating for enjoyment? Why?

No, sensory evaluation takes practice and deliberate concentration, because the perception of food is complex.

Do all flour have the same granulation? Example.

No, soft wheat flours are usually ground finer than hard wheat because the softness of their kernels allows it.

Do all maturing agents strengthen gluten?

No, some weaken it.

Do higher saccharides have the properties of sugar?

No, that is, they do not sweeten, brown, moisten or tenderize.

Is astringency a taste sensation?

No, the drying is from tannins in foods binding with proteins in saliva.

Should you use baking soda at high altitudes when baking cookies? Why?

No, the lower air pressure at high altitudes already encourages spread.

Do these ingredients only thicken?

No, they add flavor, alter appearance, and they contribute to the nutritional value of a final product.

Are most corn products sold today whole grain? Why?

No, they are milled from the corn endosperm, since corn germ is extremely high in oil (30-35%) and becomes rancid very quickly.

When used at high levels, are sugars a source of food for microorganisms?

No, they have the opposite effect and act as preservatives. This is why rich, sweet doughs ferment and proof more slowly than those with less sugar.

Do reducing agents have the same effect as maturing agents? Explain using ascorbic acid.

No, they have the opposite effect. While maturing agents like ascorbic acid oxide-ze gluten-forming proteins, allowing them to form more bonds, reducing agents alter the gluten-forming protein so that they form fewer bonds.

Do semi-refined sugars, including organic versions, have added health benefits?

No, they just cost three times more.

For the most part, do maturing agents that strengthen also whiten flour?

No, they mostly don't.

Are dough relaxation and dough fermentation the same thing?

No, they should not be mixed up.

Does wheat flour contain all the health benefits of whole wheat flour?

No, this is a common misnomer.

Can bakers and pastry chefs make adjustments in food along the way?

No, this is the main difference between savory and pastry.

Can agar be whipped as gelatin can? What does this mean for substitutions?

No, this means it cannot be substituted for gelatin is aerated products.

Should you throw away light syrups when they darken?

No, use them in darker products.

Is wheat bread the same as 100% whole wheat bread? Why?

No, wheat bread typically has white flour as its main ingredient. While it contains some whole, it often contains caramel color or molasses, for the darker look of 100% whole wheat bread.

Even with flours that contain gluten, is gluten necessarily the only, or most important, structure builder? Explain using yeast-raised baked goods.

No. Gluten is certainly the most important for developing unbaked dough, but starch is arguably more important to the final structure of the baked product.

What is nondiastatic malt?

Nondiastatic malt has no active enzymes and is used primarily for flavor, mostly in beverages. It sometimes contains sugar, coloring agents, and other additives.

High-intensity sweeteners are sometimes called what?

Nonnutritive or artificial sweeteners.

Why does the source of amylase matter in bread making?

Not all amylase is alike. Different amylase enzymes are inactivated at different oven temperatures. Since amylase can have its greatest activity on bread dough during baking, its heat stability is extremely important.

What if a formula calls for AP flour? Substitute?

Not all professional bakeshops stock AP flour. The standard substitute is a blend of bread and cake flour, usually a 60:40 blend. Yet this is not generally the best substitute.

Why is protein content not a good indicator of quality?

Not all proteins in variety flours form gluten (except for rye and triticum grains, to a degree).

Do Americans use straight flour?

Not commonly used in North America but French bakers use a type of it in breads.

Do fibrous foods have a fibrous texture?

Not necessarily.

Are dark colored products all whole grain?

Not necessarily. often, molasses or caramel coloring is added to baked goods to give them a heartier look.

Why should you be careful adding gelatin to bavarian creams and chiffon pie fillings?

Not only does too much gelatin in these products produce a tough, rubbery dessert, but it also reduces the release of flavor.

Has mad cow disease been found in gelatin products?

Not to date, but North America and EU follow strict quality control guidelines for gelatin manufacturing. They were even reviewed and updated since mad cow disease spread through cattle herds in Great Britain during the late 1980s.

Color of whole wheat flour.

Nut-brown color from pigments in the bran.

Aspartame is also called what?

NutraSweet

So-called "high quality" flours (high in endosperm) are lacking in what?

Nutrients

CHAPTER 3

OVERVIEW OF THE BAKING PROCESS

How are steel-cut or Irish oats made?

Oats are chopped into small chunks instead of rolled.

What is gum tragacanth?

Obtained in a way similar to gum arabic, but it is from a shrub (Astragalus) that grows in the Middle East. Much thicker than gum arabic, gum tragacanth is probably best known to pastry chefs as an ingredient in gum paste, used by cake decorators for making flowers and other designs.

Boiled linseed oil is one of the main ingredients in what?

Oil-based paints.

Examples and location of smell receptors.

Olfactory cells on the olfactory bulb at top of the nasal cavity.

In addition to mono and disaccharides, two other main classifications of carbohydrates are?

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

Taste cells are clustered where?

On taste buds.

Most digital scales provide info about precision--also called readability--where?

On their front or back panels

When is a baked good considered a sponge? Why?

Once cell walls set into a porous crumb during baking because air is no longer trapped inside.

Syrups are mixtures of what?

One or more sugars dissolved in water, usually with small amounts of the other components, including acids, colorants, flavorants, and thickeners.

Proteins absorb how much water compared to their weight?

One to two times.

Two ways to avoid "tunnels" in muffins.

One, don't over mix the batter. Two, use soft flours and add tenderizers to the formula, making it difficult to over mix.

What several properties of invert sugar make it valuable in the bakeshop?

One, it keeps baked goods soft and moist longer. Two, it keeps icings, fondants, and confections smooth, shiny, and free from cracking and drying. Third, it prevents formation of ice crystals in frozen desserts, keeping them softer while frozen.

Starch granules absorb how much water compared to their weight?

One-quarter to one-half their weight in water.

Which syrups provide the longest shelf life? Why?

Ones containing a significant amount of fructose, such as invert syrup, honey, HFCS, and agave syrup provide more moistness than other syrups or granulated sugar. Differences are significantly noticeable after several days of storage.

Is invert syrup more expensive than sucrose? Yes, but...

Only slightly more, but it, like all syrups, is messier to use and has a shorter shelf life. This means that syrups like invert should only be used if they have properties that sugar cannot provide.

Is the expression, "a pint's a pound the world around" always true?

Only when measuring ingredients with the same density, such as water.

Besides color, or hue, what other important factors influence appearance?

Opacity, sheen, shape, size and a visual evaluation of texture.

What is pearl sugar?

Opaque white irregular granules that do not dissolve readily.

Artisan bread flours typically don't contain bleaching or maturing agents and are more likely than other flours to be ________.

Organic

What happens if you use ingredients other than cornstarch, pectin or gelatin for gelling? Examples.

Other ingredients will only thicken, not gel. Instead, they will get thicker and gummier. Examples include guar gum, gum arabic, and waxy maize starch.

Why is it harder for humans to eat an ugly plate of food where as a dog has no problem?

Our sense of sight is more highly developed than the other senses. This is not the case with many animals. Dogs depend primarily on smell.

Why don't microwaves cook bread well?

Ovens are hot and heat from the outside in, microwaves remain cool and heat products more evenly throughout. This means the bread's outside surface doesn't get very hot in the microwave; no Maillard reaction.

Main changes that occur in stored flour.

Oxidation of the oils when flour is exposed to air.

What do the enzymes in untoasted soy flour do?

Oxidize carotenoids, whitening flour without the use of chemical b;eating agents.

Most important gas in air? Why?

Oxygen because it is required for life and many chemical reactions important to the baker.

How does oxygen change the color of flour?

Oxygen oxidizes the carotenoid pigment in flour, changing their chemical structure and whitening them.

The active ingredient in air is what?

Oxygen, which is considered an oxidizing agent.

Why is potassium bromate no longer allowed as a flour additive in Canada and Europe? What's up with the US?

PB is considered a carcinogen because it has been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals. While still approved in the US, it's slowly diminishing, and much lower levels are added today than previously.

Bread flour is typically used for what?

Pan breads, rolls, croissants and sweet yeast doughs.

Viscoelastic products can be thought of as what?

Part liquid, part solid.

What should you do when powdered or brown sugar clumps?

Pass it through a sieve. Make sure you gently warm the brown sugar first in the oven or microwave.

Where is carrageenan used?

Pastry chefs are generally less familiar with it than agar, but it's used in many commercial food products for thickening and gelling.

Why do todays muffins often resemble tender cupcakes than coarse-grained, rustic muffins of yesterday?

Pastry or cake flour and lots of tenderizers are added in todays version.

Most flours purchased by bakers are what type of flour?

Patent flour

Like flaxseed, what does soy contain?

Phytoestrogens (lignans in flaxseed, isoflavones in soy).

What is the third reason pie pastry should rest for several hours after mixing (think water and gluten)? Why?

Pie dough contains little water to stop gluten formation. If water is not mixed properly, dough may become crumbly in some spots and soggy in others. On the other hand, if dough is mixed thoroughly to assure even distribution of water, gluten overdevelops. If instead doughs rests for several hours, water distributed itself evenly throughout the dough. This is important in pie pastry doughs, which are barely mixed and contain little water.

How do you make superfine sugar in your home?

Place regular granulated sugar in the food processor for a couple minutes.

What is dietary fiber?

Plant matter that humans cannot digest. Classified as soluble of insoluble.

How is carob bean flour made?

Pods are roasted, then ground, and used as a cocoa powder substitute.

Is agar a polysaccharide or a protein?

Polysaccharide, but it is sometimes nicknamed a vegetable gelatin because gels made from agar are similar to those made from gelatin.

What are starch and inulin?

Polysaccharides

What are pentosans?

Polysaccharides of five‐carbon sugars (pentoses). Widely distributed in plants, e.g. fruit, wood, corncobs, oat hulls. Not digested in the body, and hence a component of non‐starch polysaccharides and dietary fiber.

What are vegetable gums?

Polysaccharides that absorb large quantities of water, swelling to produce thick liquids and gels.

Dietary fiber consist of what?

Polysaccharides that are not digested by the human body.

Bread made with over-mixed dough suffers from what?

Poor loaf volume and a coarse crumb.

In California, what maturing agent must carry a warning label?

Potassium bromate

What's the standard against which all other maturing agents are judged?

Potassium bromate

HGF typically has what added for even stronger gluten?

Potassium bromate or a bromate replacer.

What dissolves faster, shredded or powdered gelatin?

Powdered

How is sheet gelatin made?

Powdered gelatin is redissolved, reheated, then cast, cooled, and dried as a del film.

At about 250 Bloom, platinum-labeled gelatin sheets are closest in Bloom rating to what?

Powdered geltain.

Superfine sugar has crystals that are intermediate in size between what?

Powdered sugar and regular granulated sugar.

Sometimes jaggery is grated from hardened blocks and sold as what?

Powdery crystals called shakkar (Hindi for sugar).

Why shouldn't you overuse HGF?

Product will become to tough and chewy.

What is the bran?

Protective outer layer covering the wheat kernel.

Hard whet kernels are high in what?

Protein

Soft wheat kernels are low in what?

Protein

When bran particles are small what does it mean for nutrition?

Protein and other nutrients are more readily available for digestion. This is why stone-ground flour manufacturers sometimes advertise digestibility and higher nutritional value.

Why do hard wheat kernels feels harder than soft ones?

Protein in these kernels forms large, hard chunks that hold tightly to starch granules.

What happens to heat transfer when old aluminum sheet pans are pocked with bits of blackened food?

They will radiate heat unevenly.

Even when properly wrapped, baked goods continue to change during storage. Explain what happens with proteins.

Protein molecules also bond and solidify and may contribute to staling. Until delicate baked goods cool and structure solidifies, it is best not to cut into them, so they will not crush.

Very large molecules made of many amino acids linked one to the next.

Proteins

What do proteases break down?

Proteins

Proteases are enzymes that break down what?

Proteins such as gelatin and gluten.

What are enzymes?

Proteins that acts as biological catalysts in plants, animals and microorganisms.

Which provides more leavening, puff pastry shortening or puff pastry margarine? Why?

Puff pastry margarine because it contains 16% water where shortening contains none.

How do you make a windowpane?

Pull off a piece of dough about 1 inch or so in diameter. Roll it between your hands to shape into a ball, then gently pull the dough between your hands. Rotate the dough as you do this so that you are pulling it in all direction, forming a paper thin sheet of dough. Fully developed dough should form a thin film without tearing.

Whole rye flour is also called what? Whats it made from?

Pumpernickel, made from whole rye kernel.

Examples of trigeminal effects.

Pungency, burn, numbing, cooling and others.

Certain brands of flour are sold with added malted barley flour but what can you do if it's not added?

Purchase dry malt flour separately and add it to yeast dough at around 0.25 - 0.50 percent (baker's percentage).

Last stage of refining process in sugar.

Pure sugar is crystallized for the last time, then dried, screened through wire meshes, packed, and sold.

How do fats, oils, and certain emulsifiers effect gluten?

They work by coating gluten strands (and other structure builders). This reduces gluten development in at least one way.

What is gum arabic?

Purified and dried from the exudate--gummy sap--of a tree (Acacia) that grows in northern Africa. The sap forms when a tree trunk or branch has been damaged, either through extreme climatic conditions or deliberate knife cuts.

What is needed if large, sparkling crystals are to form?

Purity often exceeding 99.98%

How are grains steeped, germinated and dried? Explain the process.

They're gently stirred in a tank of cool water, After gaining close to half their weight in water, the swollen kernels are transferred to a flat bed to germinate. Germinating kernels produce a mix of enzymes, including proteases, which break down proteins, as well as amylase. After about 4 or 5 days germinating in a cool, humid environment, sprouted kernels are transferred to an oven and gently dried to their original moisture (less than 14%). This stop germination but leaves the active enzymes intact. The final step is to grind the dried malted kernels into flour.

Three main ways heat is transferred.

Radiation, convection, conduction.

Oxygen causes certain destructive reactions such as what?

Rancidity of fats and oils.

What is radiation?

Rapid transfer of heat through space from a warmer object to the surface of a cooler one.

Is the amount of naturally accruing sugar in flour enough for yeast fermentation?

Rarely, which is why most yeast dough formulas include at least some sugar or source of amylase.

Alcohol and carbon dioxide are associated with the taste of what?

Raw dough

Do eggs affect gluten? Do they make baked breads tougher?

Raw eggs in bread dough interfere with gluten development during mixing and fermentation. The final baked bread might be tougher than if eggs were not added, but the added toughening is due to coagulated eggs, not gluten.

Why do high-ratio cakes rise and collapse during baking and cooling without cake flour?

Recall that chlorine modifies the starchy in flour, so that flour absorbs more water than it otherwise would. This makes for thicker cake batters, even when large amounts of water and sugar are added. Thick batters are good at holding tiny air bubbles, for a light texture, high volume, and fine crumb. Recall, too, that starch is a structure builder. With so much water and sugar in high-ratio cakes batters, and with weakened flute, chlorine-treated starch becomes essential for keeping the cake from collapsing in the oven, so cake volume stays high and light.

Rule of thumb when switching from conventional to convection oven.

Reduce oven temp about 25ºF (15ºC) and reduce baking time about 25%.

Fondant sugar may contain ingredients such as maltodextrin for what purpose?

Reduce stickiness and improve icing's ability to adhere to baked goods.

What is dough autolysis?

Refers to a rest period that follows a brief, slow mixing of the flour and water that is used in yeast dough.

What is brown sugar?

Refers to fine granulated sugar with a small amount -usually less than 10% - of molasses or refiners' syrup.

By the 1800s, what changed in sugar?

Refining methods were improved and prices came down, making it readily available to the middle class.

While pastry chefs have traditionally used hydrometers and Bumé units, what is being used now?

Refractometers to measure Brix. They are more expensive than hydrometers but are faster and require a smaller sample.

Why is it best not to refrigerate syrups (other than simple or maple) that aren't high in moisture?

Refrigeration causes syrups high in glucose to crystallize. This occurs with honey, invert syrup, and high fructose corn syrup.

What is dark corn syrup?

Regular light glucose corn syrup with added molasses or refiner's syrup, caramel coloring, and flavoring.

How can you tell if a starch is high in amylopectin?

Relatively high clarity Thickens, does not gel Much less likely to weep over time Much less likely to weep when thawed Essentially the same thickness hot or cold Less likely to mask flavors

What happen to remaining syrup from refining process?

Remaining syrup, commonly called molasses, is referred to as refiners' syrup by the sugar industry. This differentiates it from molasses syrup left from the milling operation of sugar manufacture.

Rice syrup is made from what?

Rice starch, much as GCS is made from cornstarch.

Name three starches that partially replace flour in cakes, cookies and pastries.

Rice, corn and potato starches.

Maillard browning flavor is often described as what?

Roasted cocoa, roasted coffee, roasted nuts, toffee, maple syrup, and molasses.

Oat products used in baking include what?

Rolled oats and quick-cooking rolled oats. Steel-cut oats are also available.

What three things are traditionally make with buckwheat flour?

Russian pancakes (blini) Breton crepes (North of France), and Soba noodles in Japan.

Problems with tin bakeware.

Rusts easily and darkens with acidic foods.

First clear is commonly added to what? Why?

Rye and whole grain breads. Its protein adds much needed strength to low-gluten grains, while its slightly gray cast is hidden by the dark color of rye or whole grain.

Why is rye bread consumption high in areas such as Russia, Eastern Europe, and Scandinavia?

Rye grass is tolerant of poor soil and cold climates, where wheat cultivation is difficult.

What oxidizes more easily, rye or wheat flour?

Rye, even though it is not significantly higher in oil than wheat flour. You should buy it sparingly or only when needed. No longer than a three month period.

CHAPTER 4

SENSORY PROPERTIES OF FOOD

CHAPTER 8

SUGAR AND OTHER SWEETENERS

Sucanat stands for what?

SUgar CAne NATural

Four most common high-intensity sweeteners in America.

Saccharin, the sweetener in Sweet 'n' Low; aspartame, also known as NutraSweet and Equal; acesulfame potassium, more commonly known by its brand names Sunett and Sweet One; and sucralose, also known as Splenda.

What else changes the perception of smell besides temperature? Why?

Salt and sugar affect the perception of smell, probably by changing the rate at which molecules evaporate.

Why would you add salt late in the mixing process?

Salt noticeably strengthens gluten, so adding salt to dough made from strong flour may be better at a later stage of mixing. Plus, the dough mixes faster and cooler, since there's less frictional heat generated during mixing.

Baking soda increases browning significantly, and if you use it at too high a level, it leaves a district what?

Salty-chemical taste. Too much also causes eggs in baked goods to turn a grayish green.

Coarse crystalline sugar is sometimes called what?

Sanding sugar, although that term also refers to a different product called pearl sugar.

Three of names for pearl sugar.

Sanding sugar, decorative sugar, or nibs.

Agave syrup is made from what?

Sap of the agave, a succulent plant farmed in Mexico.

What type of bread does emmer make?

Satisfactory dough but still very heavy textured bread.

How do bakers halt glutathione in milk?

Scalding milk at 180ºF and cooling before using in yeast-raised doughs.

While most tender products are soft and moist, some are not. Give an example

Shortbread cookies are tender yet dry and crumbly. Sugar contributes to this form of tenderness.

Throughout the 1800s, gelatin was sold as what?

Shredded or in sheets.

Pros and cons of silicon bakeware, molds and sheets.

Silicone is not a good conductor of heat. For this reason, items bake more slowly and brown more evenly.

Put copper, silver, stainless steel and aluminum in order concerning heat conductivity.

Silver, copper, aluminum, stainless steel.

All sugar are classified as what?

Simple carbohydrates

What can be used to thin prepared cream fondant?

Simple syrup, pasteurized egg white, flavored liqueur, or any other liquid to thin it before use.

The simplest syrup is called what?

Simple syrup.

Should other gases (vanilla, alcohol) be underestimated? Example (yeast fermentation).

Since alcohol is an end product of year fermentation, all yeast-raised baked goods contain a measurable amount of alcohol.

How long has potassium bromate been around?

Since the early 1900s.

Benefits of using induction.

Since the pan heats directly, less heat is lost to the stovetop or air, so bakeshop stays cooler. Heat is more easily regulate than with gas or electric, and stovetop surface stays relatively cool, so it's safer.

The ideal pH for maximum gluten development is what?

Slightly acidic, at a pH around 5-6.

Undissolved salt is unable to do what?

Slow yeast fermentation or preserve food.

How much of the enzyme active soy flour is needed?

Small amount, about 0.5%. Too much has a detrimental effect on bread flavor and texture.

Although bakers and pastry chef don't create invert syrup in bulk, how is it made in the shop?

Small amounts are made. For example, when acid, such as cream of tartar or tartaric acid, is added during boiling of sugar to reduce browning, a certain amount of sugar is inverted to fructose and glucose. This mixture of sugars helps reduce sugar crystallization, so the confection is smoother, shinier, and less apt to crack and dry. A small amount of lemon juice is added to simple syrup. Depending on amount added and length of time the syrup is heated, the acid allows a certain amount of sucrose to invert. This mix helps certain syrups from crystallizing.

What are microorganisms? Examples.

Small living entities such as yeast, mold, bacteria and viruses.

What are starch granules?

Small particles or grains that are packed with starch molecules.

Are cookies made from cake flour smaller or bigger than those made with pastry flour? What about browning and texture?

Smaller, they also brown very little and have a cake like texture.

What part of flavor is it that best differentiates and describes food?

Smell

Why is a certain amount of tenderizing necessary in all baked goods?

So that they are easy to bite into and pleasant to eat.

Why is L-cysteine sometimes added to dough during mixing? What is added later to counteract the L-cysteine?

So the dough mixes faster and more easily and generates less frictional heat. The softening and slackening is later counteracted with maturing agents like potassium bromate, which helps rebuild gluten structure during proofing and baking, when structure is needed most.

Rapadura is also the generic name in Brazil for what?

So-called non-centrifugal sugars.

How is masa haring made?

Soaking dried corn in limewater before grinding it into flour.

Is spelt best used in place of soft or hard wheat?

Soft

Whole white wheat flour is made from what?

Soft or hard wheat, two new classes of wheat grown in North America.

Whole wheat pastry flour is usually milled from what?

Soft red wheat

What wheat is typically low in protein, and the protein quality is typically poor (from the standpoint of gluten development)? Explain.

Soft wheat has a lower amount of glutenin for the amount of gliadin, and the glutenin subunits tend to be smaller in size. Soft wheat forms gluten that is weak and tears easily.

Cake flour is milled from what?

Soft wheat, generally from soft red winter wheat.

Pastry flour is milled from what?

Soft wheat, generally soft red winter wheat, but it can be milled from soft white wheat, as well.

Thousands of different wheat varieties are classified as what two things?

Soft wheats or hard wheats.

What do solid fats and oils do during baking?

Solid fat breaks into small chunks and liquid fat breaks into tiny droplets during mixing, forming an emulsion. These small chunks and tiny droplets spread throughout doughs and batters, coating particles by bonding to them.

Two-step process for pie pastry dough.

Solid fat is first mixed or rubbed into flour before water is added.

Explain the process for flakey pastry dough.

Solid fat is rubbed into flour just until it is the size of hazelnuts of lima beans. Then, the dough is rolled to flatten the lumps of fat and distribute them evenly throughout.

Describe agave syrups on market.

Some are dark in color and strong in flavor while others are highly refined and pale in color.

Polls are purchased in what form?

Some as liquid syrups, others as dry crystals.

What is good and bad about oxygen in dough?

Some exposure is desirable for dough development but some bakers believe that too much oxygen causes the flavor of bread to deteriorate and the color to bleach excessively.

Shelf life of syrups such as invert syrup and some glucose corn syrups.

Some syrups darken after too long of a shelf life, particularly when temperatures are warm.

Where are minerals present?

Some water supplies, in unrefined syrups (malt, molasses, maple, honey, rice), and in salt.

How much salt or sugar does it take to affect the aroma of food?

Sometimes it only take a small amount of salt or sugar to change and improve the aroma and overall flavor of food.

Are proteases used in large scale commercial bakeries?

Sometimes they are used like reducing agents so dough mixes faster and more easily.

Can syrups be used interchangeably?

Sometimes, but often one syrup, because of its makeup, excels over others at a particular function.

Examples of polyols.

Sorbitol, glycerine (glycerol), maltitol, mannitol, and xylitol.

When it comes to a evaluating crispness, what is a response to pressure?

Sound - the louder, higher-pitched and more frequent the sound, the crispier it is.

Why is protease activity especially high in sourdough?

Sourdoughs are acidic and have a low pH, and proteases are particular to a low pH.

How is Wasanbon toh made?

Special variety of sugar cane is refined by repeatedly mixing sugar crystals with water, kneading the mix by hand, and pressing it with stones to remove molasses syrup. When complete, the sugar take form of a fine, ivory-white powder. It's said to have a delicate flavor and is important in traditional Japanese sweets.

Although less commonly used and often expensive, what fulfills needs that cannot easily be met by the common sweeteners?

Specialty sweeteners.

Of the five high-intensity sweeteners, what is the best choice for baking? Why?

Splenda. Unlike aspartame, for example, sucralose does not lose its sweetness from heat in the oven. Its safety is also less in question by consumers.

Both guar gum and locust bean gum are used as what?

Thickeners in a broad range of products, including cream cheese and sour cream. Also commonly used in frozen foods, such as ice cream and frozen pasteurized egg whites, to prevent ice crystal growth and freezer damage.

What occurs when water and other molecules or particles in a product move around rather slowly? Examples.

Thickening. Polysaccharides and proteins bump and entangle, water is absorbed and trapped by starch granules, or air bubbles (in foams) or fat droplets (in emulsions) slow water.

Where does spelt grow in the US?

This ancestor of modern wheat has been growing for years in the states, mostly Ohio as animal feed. Now small amounts are grown for specialty and health food stores.

Name this method: Liquid, yeast, part of flour, part of sugar mixed into batter or dough (called a sponge or preferment) and allowed to ferment; added to remaining ingredients and mixed until dough is smooth and well developed. Examples?

Sponge and dough method; yeast raised breads made with poolish (liquid sponge), biga (Italian sponge, usually stiff), leaving (naturally fermented sponge), or other sponge or preferment.

Name this method: Warmed whole eggs (or yolks) and sugar whipped until very light and thick; liquids added, sifted dry ingredients gently folded in, followed by melted butter (if required) or whipped whites (if separated). Examples?

Sponge or whipping method; Sponge cake (biscuit), genoise, lady fingers, madeleins.

Gum arabic is good at what?

Stabilizing emulsions while maintaining a pleasing, non gummy mouthfeel. That is why it continues to be used in icings, fillings, and certain flavoring, even when its supply in scarce.

What does stainless steel cookware with an aluminum core provide for consumers?

Stainless steel provides nonreactive, light colored surface that makes it easy to view food and clean; aluminum provides improved heat conduction.

Explain sweetness of aspartame. Compare to sucrose.

This high-intensity sweetener may be sweet but has a different sweetness than sucrose (table sugar). Sucrose tastes sweet almost immediately while aspartame lingers much longer as a sweet aftertaste, and it tastes bitter to many people.

Once bread is baked, its structure is built as much, or more, on _____ than gluten.

Starch

White flour contains mostly what?

Starch

Flour is made up mostly of what two things?

Starch and protein.

Name one element of baking that would not happen at room temperature.

Starch gelatinization.

At the next level of gluten structure, gluten aggregates interact to form a tangled network of larger gluten particles that loosely interact with what?

Starch granules, fats, sugars, and gums.

Small, gritty particles that are found in the endosperm of cereal grains.

Starch granules.

What is a more effective thickening, starch or inulin? Why?

Starch has more sugar units making it a much more effective thickener.

Even when properly wrapped, baked goods continue to change during storage. Explain what happens with starch molecules.

Starch molecules bond and solidify, and the structure gets firmer and more rigid. Starch bonding--called retrogradation--continues over the next several days, and it is the main reason for the staling of baked goods. Stale baked goods have a hard, dry, crumbly texture.

What happens to starch granules if enough water is present?

Starch molecules can leach out of the granules.

By estimate, almost half the water in bread dough is held by ________, about one-third by _______ and close to one-quarter by small amount of ______ in white flour.

Starch, proteins, gums

Stage 6

Starches Gelatinize

Three main components in flour that absorb moisture and oil, helping bind ingredients together.

Starches, proteins and gums.

Color of cake flour.

Stark white color.

Why is so-called no leavening yeast sold that intentionally contains high amounts of glutathione?

This is sometimes used in large scale bakeries for pizza and tortilla production, so that doughs will stretch more easily and not shrink when baked.

How to create the whitest sugar for showpieces of not using isomalt.

Start with sugar relatively free of impurities, such as coarse AA confectioners. Use water that is pure. If necessary, use distilled water, which would have a neutral pH and be free of minerals. If formulas calls for glucose corn syrup, use low-conversion syrup, which is low in sugars that brown. Add a small amount of acid, such as tartaric acid, during the last stage of cooking or after sugar is removed from heat.

Regular rolled-oats, also called large flake or old-fashioned rolled oats, are whole groats that have been what?

Steamed, then flattened between rollers. The steaming makes it easy to flatten the oats.

Three main steps for malting grains for flour.

Steeping, germination, and drying.

What should you do if syrup does crystallize?

Stir well to distribute the crystals evenly throughout. While it's generally unnecessary to heat syrup to dissolve crystals, you can do this--be sure to heat gently.

Damaged granules are more susceptible than intact ones to breakdown by amylase. Why is this good for yeast?

This makes more sugar available to yeast for fermentation into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.

Name this method: All ingredients are mixed until dough is smooth and well developed. Examples?

Straight dough method; yeast-raised breads.

What do strands and powdered agar require before use? How quickly do they gel?

Strands require soaking and several minutes of boiling in water to dissolve, agar powder dissolves in water water in about a minute. Both gel quickly as they cool, much faster than gelatin.

What does oxygen do for gluten and flour?

Strengthens gluten and whitens flour.

Gliadin is thought to contribute what?

Stretchiness and extensibility.

Three foods that are predominantly bitter.

Strong black coffee, strong dark beer, unsweetened chocolate.

Foods that are predominantly astringent.

Strong black tea, unripe persimmons, grape skins.

Why isn't high-grade molasses best for baking?

Strong flavors from spices and whole grains can easily overwhelm the mild, sweet flavor of premium, imported molasses. A darker, lower-grade molasses might be more suitable.

Because they form strong gluten, hard wheat flours are considered what?

Strong flours.

Gluten--and dough--is considered fully developed when it is what?

Strong, cohesive and elastic.

Powdered sugar consists of what?

Sucrose crystals finely pulverized into powder and is available in various degrees of fineness.

How does maltose aid in fermentation?

Sucrose, fructose and glucose are all quickly broken down and fermented by yeast in early stages of bulk fermentation. Lactose generally is not fermented at all, while maltose is fermented slowly. By including maltose, yeast food is available through final proof, and ensures adequate gassing during this critical stage. The result is properly leavened bread.

What three sugars are fermented more quickly than maltose?

Sucrose, fructose and glucose.

The sugar solids in maple syrup are almost entirely what?

Sucrose, with a small amount - usually less than 10% - invert sugar.

What was considered so precious in Europe that it was used in mostly medicine?

Sugar

Stage 3

Sugar Dissolves

In Europe, sugar is mostly purified from what?

Sugar beets.

Predominant source of sugar in Europe?

Sugar beets.

In Canada, granulated sugar is mostly purified from what?

Sugar cane.

Products sweetened exclusively with polyols can be labeled as what?

Sugar free

How does sugar help cookies spread?

Sugar keeps proteins, starches, and gums from hydrating and absorbing liquids and interferes with their ability to form structure. This means cookie dough will thin out until proteins coagulate.

Sugar crystals are highly ordered arrangements of what?

Sugar molecules bonded together.

Why do sugar crystals form?

Sugar molecules of the same type are attracted to one another.

Molasses is the concentrated juice of what?

Sugarcane

Examples of tenderizers.

Sugars and syrups, fats and oils, and leavening agents.

Even when properly wrapped, baked goods continue to change during storage. Explain what happens with sugars.

Sugars recrystallize on the crusts of low-moisture, high-sugar products, such as cookies and certain cakes and muffins. This gives these products a desirably crunchy crust.

Caster sugar is sold as what in the United States?

Superfine sugar

Names of sugar can refer to particular size of crystals, use, or to the user. Give examples.

Superfine, extrafine,sanding sugar, confectioners' sugar, baker's special sugar.

Three categories of tasters and their percent of population.

Supertasters (20%), normal tasters (60%), non-tasters (20%).

What happens once evaporation slows significantly (think Maillard)?

Surface temperatures rise quickly to 300ºF (150ºC) or so. High heat breaks down sugars and proteins and results in a desirable baked flavor.

What easier to identify, sweet and salty or sour and bitter? Why?

Sweet and salty because most things sour are also bitter.

The most common honey throughout the world is what?

Sweet clover honey, but others--orange blossom and tupelo--are also popular.

Describe the highest grades of molasses.

Sweet, light in color, and mild in flavor.

Whole-grain Kamut has a ______, milder taste than common wheat. Why?

Sweeter. Probably because its larger size means it has less bran for the amount of endosperm.

Dextrose provides many of the properties of sugar with less what?

Sweetness

What one function do high-intensity sweeteners provide?

Sweetness

Helpful hints for evaluating smells.

Take several small "bunny sniffs." This pulls flavor molecules up to the olfactory cells. Block your briefly while you chew food. Then, release your nose and breathe in deeply. Your olfactory cells will be bombarded will smells as flavor molecules are pulled up the back of your throat. Move the food around as you chew it well. This gives it time to warm up. Give your ode frequent breaks and breathe fresh air. Your olfactory cells--and brain--are easily fatigued; breaks will improve sensitivity.

What is the most plentiful cereal grain in Ethiopia?

Teff, its been grown for thousands of years.

Dough temp is often controlled through what?

Temperature of ingredients, especially water and other liquids.

The finest ingredients can be selected, they can be properly mixed and accurately weighed, but if _________ aren't carefully regulated, there's still a chance of failure.

Temperatures

When are newer versions of bacterial amylase inactivated? Do they make bread gummy and stale?

Temperatures that are intermediate to fungal amylase and early versions of bacterial amylase. They provide an appropriate breakdown that delays staling without gumminess.

What are the opposite of structure builders? What do they do?

Tenderizers are ingredients in baked goods that interfere with the formation of structure.

Who adopted and refined the process of sugar beet manufacturing? Why?

The French in the early 1800s, when the Napoleonic Wars created a need for a domestic source of this important ingredient.

Where was sugar cane first cultivated? How long ago?

The South Pacific at least eight thousand years ago.

What is viscoelasticity?

The ability of a material to stretch and easily change shape--like a thick of viscous liquid--without breaking or tearing, and to partly bounce back to its original shape--like a rubber band.

What does adding lemon do to simple syrup?

The acid could help prevent darkening and possibly crystallization, especially syrups high in sugar.

How does fermentation help gluten? Explain.

The action of expanding air bubbles pushing on gluten. Bonds that were broken during mixing slowly reform around these expanding bubbles

Why does chocolate icing look different than vanilla?

The added ingredient, chocolate, absorbs all the light.

As temperatures rise, gases move where?

The air cells formed during mixing, enlarging them.

Gluten is so important to bread making that when bakers speak of flour, they are generally referring to what?

The amount of quality gluten that form from flour.

What happens every time you with each extraction of the molasses?

The amount of sugar decreases while the color, flavor, and ash increase

Besides melting point, what effects a fats ability to leaven?

The amount of water and, to a lesser extent, the amount of air in fat.

Besides Napoleonic Wars, what else drove interest in sugar beet cultivation?

The antislavery movement in Europe and the Americas, because sugar beets grow in temperate climates without extensive labor.

What is happening to flavor as gases escape and fill a room with a pleasant aroma?

The baked goods are losing this flavor.

Guar gum is from where?

The beans of a plant (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) that grows in India and Pakistan.

What is the organ that actually perceives flavor?

The brain, not eyes, mouth, ears, nose or skin.

Where is ash concentrated?

The bran layer.

What is rapadura?

The brand name of an organic dehydrated cane juice which is similar in appearance and texture to Sucanat.

Although difficult in preindustrial times, how has harvesting free-threshing grains turned into and advantage?

The close fitting husk protects the kernel from insects and fungus, so these grains are easier to grow organically.

Why do pleasant smells bring tears to our eyes?

The connection between smell, memory and emotion. As signals are transferred to our brains there is often a crossing of wires with nearby regions, especially those related to memory and emotion. That is what makes perfume so powerful and why smells from a bakeshops are good marketing tools.

As solid fats melt and liquefy, they thin out batters and doughs. Why is this a possible problem (think cookies and cakes)?

The cookie that spreads and bakes up thin and crisp is desirable but a really thin cake batter will collapse and form tunnels as it bakes.

How is agave syrup made?

The core of the agave is heated and sap pressed from the plant.

What should AA confectioners not be confused with?

This pure, coarse sugar should not be confused with finely pulverized powdered sugar.

Dough most susceptible to over-mixing.

Those that do not develop strong gluten to begin with; doughs made from rye flour, low-quality wheat flours, or those high in sugar and fat are least resistant to over mixing.

Often, how many amino acids are linked together in a single protein molecule?

Thousands

When did emmer fall out of favor?

Thousands of years ago when people switched to durum wheat.

Damaged starch granules take up how much more water than intact ones?

Three to four times as much.

Where is maple syrup produced?

Throughout northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, where over 80% of the world's supply of maple syrup is produced.

Where are basic taste receptors?

Throughout the mouth but concentrated on the tongue.

History of glucose corn syrup.

Tied to the political history of Europe. In the early 1800s, when Napoleonic Wars were being fought, England set up blockades around France. They prevented imported items from entering France. Needing to feed his army, Napoleon offered cash rewards for new ways to produce and preserve food domestically. One cash reward was given for production of sugar from native plants. Starch sugar was originally produced by treating potato starch with acid. The resulting starch sugar was not as sweet as cane sugar, so when the blockade was lifted, France stopped producing it. Production began again in the mid 1800s, this time in the US. Shortly thereafter, Americans began producing starch sugar from cornstarch instead of potato starch, and the corn syrup industry was born.

Although it can be made from scratch, fondant requires what to prepare?

Time and skill.

Why must ingredients with widely different temperatures be carefully combined. Example?

To avoid damaging one ingredient with shock of the heat, or cold, of another. Cold yolks cannot be added directly to hot milk, or the yolks curdle.

Why is wheat flour given its name?

To distinguish it from rye flour, corn flour, oat flour, or rice flour. A helpful distinction for those with wheat allergies.

Why does flour need to hydrate?

To form the flexible web called gluten.

To rest or relax dough means what?

To let it rest or sit for awhile.

Why did farmers begin growing more white wheat?

To satisfy the Asian market, where white wheat is preferred to red wheat flour in noodle making.

How is wheat germ typically sold?

Toasted

How can toasted soy flour be used?

Toasted soy no longer has active enzymes and has more appealing flavor, so it can be used in higher amounts than untoasted soy flour.

While so-called first, second and third extraction of cane molasses are sometimes blended and sold for food use, final-extraction is considered what?

Too dark in color and too harsh in flavor for use by humans.

What happens if too few or too many crystals form in fudge?

Too few and fudge is soft and sticky; too many and fudge feels gritty.

What happens to structure if too much sugar is added?

Too little structure will form, and it will never use, or it will rise and collapse as it cools.

What happens if you add too much VWG?

Too much gluten can make a product tough and chewy.

What's the difference between a formula expressed with baker's percentages and in total batch?

Total batch has each ingredient expressed as a certain percentage of total batch size; they all add up to 100%. Baker's percentages has each ingredient expressed as a certain ratio or percent of the total amount of flour (or predominant ingredient) in the formula; percentages will exceed 100%.

What does too much starch produce?

Toughness and dryness.

How did patent flour get its name?

Traditional gristmills of the mid 1800s had difficulty milling the hard kernels of Midwestern and Canadian spring wheat. Eventually, a Frenchman name LaCroix developed a purifier, which improved the yield and quality of white flour, that hard spring wheat was more easily milled into white flour. In 1856 the US patent office granted a patent for the purifier. This was followed by hundreds more patents for refining white flour. These new patented processes--used in the mills of Minnesota--revolutionized the milling industry. Consumer demand rose both in America and Europe, and the center of the milling industry moved from Eastern cities to the upper Midwest, which became an internationally renowned center of milling. Today, the term patent flour still refers to highly purified white flour.

What do batters and doughs do to air while mixing?

Trap it.

What is treacle?

Treacles are dark cane syrups sold in Great Britain. Just as molasses varies in color and flavor, so do treacles.

Why does cake flour absorb as much water as it does?

Treated with chlorine and milled very fine.

True of false: Many expensive specialty honeys are available, but they should be considered flavoring agents and not to be used in general baking.

True

True or False: Since amylase can have its greatest activity on bread during baking, its heat stability is extremely important.

True

True or False: Smell is so important to taste it is why we say, "I can't smell anything" when sick.

True

True or False: Syrups having a higher Brix or Baumé have a higher specific gravity, are denser, and therefore contain more soluble solids and less water than those with a lower reading.

True

True or false: It is produced worldwide and in much lager quantities than sheet gelatin.

True

True or false: Only a small amount of protein is needed to speed up Maillard reaction, so less heat is needed than caramelization.

True

True or false: only dry sugars, not syrups, assist in leavening in this (air between crystals) manner.

True

Is the potato a tuber or cereal grain?

Tuber, but it can be cooked, dried, and cut into flakes or milled into flour.

Why do tunnels form in over-mixed muffins? How does this happen?

Tunnels are a defect that occurs when over mixing develops too much gluten in muffins. When over mixed batter is baked, evaporated gases have difficulty escaping from the product. Thick, gluten-reinforced cell walls prevent muffins from slowly letting off steam. Instead, gas builds up, until finally enough pressure forces them to escape upward, much like a volcano erupts.

Sugar in the Raw and Florida Crystals are two brands of what?

Turbinado brown sugar.

What happens to bread if too much starch is destroyed?

Turns to mush.

Today, where is emmer primarily grown?

Tuscan region of Italy, where it is known as farro.

Disaccharides consist of what?

Two sugar units bonded together.

Good team reference for conduction and radiation.

Two teams of ten stand next to each other. One (radiation) passes the ball from first to last while the other (conduction) can only hand it off one at a time.

How much do glutenin and gliadin swell when contact with water is made?

Two times their weight in water.

Name this method: Sifted dry ingredients blended on low speed; softened fat cut in with paddle; liquids added slowly to blend in two stages (eggs added in second stage), then beaten to aerate. Examples?

Two-stage or blending method; high-ratio cakes.

Food-grade gelatin is sometimes called what?

Type A gelatin. A for the acid treatment it receives.

% of protein in whole wheat flour.

Typically 11-14% or more.

High-intensity sweeteners are how much sweeter than sugar?

Typically 200X sweeter.

When is fungal amylase inactivated? When is this good? Does it help bread staling?

Typically before starch granules gelatinize, which is when the granules are most susceptible to action. If the only reason for amylase is to improve fermentation, it is acceptable, even desirable, for amylase to stop working early on. However, the enzyme will not have enough time to break down enough starch and slow bread staling.

Typical gauge of anodized aluminum? Expensive?

Typically comes in a heavy gauge so it cooks evenly, but it's more expensive than regular.

Describe high quality pastry flour.

Typically low in gluten, has a very fine granulation, is relatively low in pentosans and other gums, and has few damaged starch granules.

Name two darker-colored syrups.

U.S. Grade A Dark Amber (Canada No. 1 Medium) or Grade B (Canada No. 2 Amber).

What countries won't allow stevia to be added in food? Which will?

US, Canada, Australia, and European Unions don't allow it. China, Japan, much of Southeast Asia, and countries in South America allow its use.

Superfine sugar is also called what?

Ultrafine

What are batters?

Unbaked flour mixtures that are relatively high in moisture, making them thin and pourable or scoop able.

What are doughs?

Unbaked flour mixtures that are relatively low in moisture, making them thick and moldable.

Naturally aged flours are often labeled what?

Unbleached

Carotenoid pigments provide a creamy, off-white color to what?

Unbleached flour

What is crude raw sugar considered North America?

Unclean and inedible.

When are the effects of dough conditioners very important?

Under extreme conditions, like those caused by high-speed commercial equipment.

What happens if batters and doughs are high in sugar or low in moisture? Examples?

Undissolved sugar crystals will be present at the start of baking. These undissolved crystals help thicken and solidify batters. Examples are most cookie doughs and some cake batter recipes.

How long is the shelf life of dry sugar?

Unlimited when stored properly.

What is panela? Where is rapadura, piloncillo and panocha sold/from?

Unreifined sugar from Columbia that's sold as rectangular or round flat loaves throughout South America; rapider, from Brazil; cone-shaped piloncillo from Mexico; and panocha from the Philippines.

Which soy flour contains powerfully active enzymes useful in yeast breads?

Untoasted

National Honey Board recommends the following substitution for using honey in place of granulated sugar. This substitution accounts for the amount of water in honey and its intense sweetness.

Use 1 pound of honey in place of 1 pound granulated sugar; reduce water (or other liquid) in formula by 2.5-3 ounces. Or, use 500 grams honey in place of 500 grams granulated sugar; reduce water (or other liquid) in the formula by 80-95 grams.

How do you avoid burning baked goods on aluminum pans? What if you're baking delicate items?

Use heavy-gauge pans and parchment paper. Use silicon silicon baking pads or double sheet tray if food is delicate.

What is chemical dough development?

Use of ascorbic acid and other maturing agents that strengthen.

What is baker's sugar used for?

Used by bakers to produce the finest crumb in certain cakes; it also produces greater spread in cookies and is good for sugaring doughnuts.

Because of its strong flavor, dark color, and lack of gluten, buckwheat flour is typically used in combination with what? What ratio?

Used with wheat flour, usually one-quarter to one-half part buckwheat flour to one part wheat flour.

How do bakers achieve these large, irregular holes?

Using low protein flour and a lot of water, sometimes or 70 percent bakers percentage, compared with 50-60 percent for irregular lean dough.

Except for durum (Triticum durum), most wheats milled in the North America are what?

Varieties of so-called common wheat (Triticum aestivum).

Polysaccharides are what?

Very large molecules made up of many (poly), often thousands, of sugar units.

When were early versions of bacterial amylase inactivated? Why would this be an issue?

Very late in baking, or sometimes not at all. With these enzymes, starch breakdown could be so extensive that bread became gummy.

Example of how all starch in baked goods rarely gelatinizes (pie and cookie dough).

Very little starch gelatinization occurs in pie or cookie dough, because they contain very little water. Instead, structure of pie relies mostly on gluten, and cookies rely on gluten and egg proteins.

How many minerals are needed to significantly increase browning?

Very little, parts per million.

How is honey like invert syrup?

Very sweet, browns easily, and has the ability to keep baked goods and icings soft and moist.

Four things that should be avoided when using a scale.

Vibration, heat currents, cordless and cell phones, and static electricity can affect the ability of a scale to read consistently.

Gluten's makeup and structure are responsible for its unique nature, which scientists describe as what?

Viscoelastic

Do not confuse HGF with what?

Vital wheat gluten, which looks like flour but is best thought of as a flour additive.

Lower, darker grades of clear flour are used for what?

Vital wheat gluten.

What's another name for ascorbic acid?

Vitamin C

To use prepared cream fondant as a simple icing or glaze, what do you do?

Warm it gently to 98-100ºF (37-38ºC).

What is cream fondant used for?

Warmed and thinned, is used for glazing doughnuts, petit fours, and other baked goods. It also serves as a base for cream praline centers and for uncooked icings. Rolled fondant is primarily used for wedding cakes.

What happens when hot gelatin is added to cold cream? How is this fixed?

Warmed gelatin hardens into tiny rubbery balls if it is added too quickly. Stirring gelatin into a small amount of whipped cream dilutes it, so it can be added safely.

Anything coated by fat cannot absorb what easily?

Water

Example of clear or translucent product.

Water

Steam forms when what is heated?

Water

What ingredient is a convenient means for adjusting the temperature of batters and doughs?

Water

What is the universal solvent?

Water

Moisteners include what?

Water and ingredients that contain water, such as milk, eggs, cream, and syrups. Moisteners also include liquid fat ingredients, such as oil.

What happens as particles hydrate?

Water becomes less able to move freely and the batter or dough becomes thicker.

What happens during the autolysis rest period?

Water hydrates proteins and starches, improving extensibility, or stretchiness, of doughs.

Third step in milling process of cane sugar.

Water is evaporated from the clear juice until it is a thick yellow syrup. The syrup is filtered then concentrated by gently heating it in vacuum pans. As water evaporates and syrup becomes super saturated, sugar crystals form.

Setback to water that is treated with a water softener (think blood pressure).

Water treated with water softener is high in sodium, which in some people can contribute to high blood pressure.

With the right amount of leavening gases, baked goods are what (think of gluten)?

Weak enough to be pleasantly tender, yet strong enough to keep from collapsing.

Liquids high in acid, such as lemon juice, may do what to gelatin?

Weaken it slightly, but they will not liquefy it. A slightly higher amount of gelatin may be needed with these ingredients.

Later extractions produce what?

Weaker gelatin that is darker in color and slightly meaty in flavor.

Most common cereal grain with a good amount of gluten-formin protons, making it the most popular grain for baked goods in North America and many other parts of the world.

Wheat

Most popular cereal grain used in baked goods.

Wheat

Xanthan gum is often used along with starch, often rice starch, to replace what?

Wheat flour in gluten free baked goods.

What flours have a relatively mild, slightly nutty flavor?

Wheat flours but each has a different flavor.

People with celiac's cannot consume what?

Wheat, rye, barely, and oats may be a problem.

8 majors food allergens that must be labeled in the US?

Wheat, soy, egg, milk, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and crustaceans.

When is sugars hygroscopic nature undesirable?

When a dusting of powdered sugar on doughnuts liquefies; when the surface of cookies, cakes, and muffins becomes gummy or soggy; or when spun or pulled sugar becomes sticky and collapses.

When does enzyme activity stop?

When amylase is inactivated by the heat.

What happens to the intestines of celiac patients?

When gluten is consumed, even in very small amounts, the body reacts by damaging the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed by the body. This causes the patient to be malnourished and develop a number of symptoms related to intestinal distress or to poor nutrition.

When are dough conditioners particularly useful?

When good gluten development is necessary for high volume and a fine crumb, especially when flour quality is poor or dough undergoes rigorous conditions.

Why do professional bakers seldom use active dry yeast?

When it is used improperly, that is, when water or dough temp is low, glutathione is released into dough and can weaken it.

How important is oven temperature when baking cakes? Explain.

When oven temp is low, a cakes structure sets later than it should. In the meantime, the batter slowly warms and as it does, it thins out. Air bubbles easily rise through the thin batter to the surface of the cake, while starch in the flour sinks to the bottom.

When does starch gelatinization occur?

When starch granules absorb and trap water as they are heated.

Where do caramelized burnt sugar colors and flavors come from?

When sugars are heated, a series of chemical reactions occur that break down sugars into smaller fragments. These smaller molecules evaporate easily and trigger our sense of smell, providing wonderful aromas. With continued heating, the fragments react with one another and form large molecules called polymers. Large polymers do not evaporate, but they do absorb light, imparting a brown color. With continued heating, bitter-tasting polymers form.

When are hygroscopic sugars called humectants?

When they are used to keep certain products (such as cookies or icings) soft or stop them from cracking, dulling or drying.

Where are nonstick pans acceptable?

Wherever fast heating is not needed.

Where is dried glucose corn syrup used? Example.

Wherever the functionality of glucose corn syrup is needed without added water. For example, DGCS can provide added body to the mouthfeel of ice cream and other frozen desserts.

Why do convection oven work faster than conventional ovens?

Whether air is being blown by a fan or food is moving in the oven (reel and rotating ovens), the hot air is moving more rapidly toward cooler surfaces.

What should be carefully checked when measuring in ounces?

Whether it's fluid ounces or weighted ounces.

Are there different grades of clear flour? Are they high in bran? Color?

While different grades are available, all clear flours are relatively high in bran, high in protein and ash, and slightly gray in color.

Gluten quality in clear vs patent flour.

While it is higher in total protein than patent flour, the gluten formed from clear flour if typically of lesser quality than that from patent flour.

Does bran change during the baking process?

While it may soften slightly, bran remains relatively unchanged.

Why is the presence of enzymes a mixed blessing in flour?

While low heat of gristmills might not oxidize the wheat germ oils, enzymes can. This is probably why stone-ground flours have a short shelf life, and probably have a stronger flavor than roller-milled flour.

Why do gases and air cells become important during baking?

While more gases are generated during baking, no new air cells form. This means if baked good are to have proper structure they must be mixed properly.

What unique property does modified vegetable gum have that makes it useful in bakery fillings?

While most gels thin out at oven temperatures and thicken as they cool, modified vegetable gum gels at oven temperatures and thins out as it cools. Instead of bleeding and running as it is baked in Danish pastries, a bakery filling made with modified vegetable gum holds its shape.

Are agar and gelatin gels identical? Why?

While they are similar they are not identical. For one, much less agar is needed than gelatin, and agar gels stay firm without refrigeration. This makes agar useful for firming piping gels and in certain jellied confections. Agar is also a good warm weather stabilizer for icings and fillings, and it can be used to replace pork-based gelatin whenever dietary or religious restrictions warrant its use.

How does a regular bakeshop use intensive high-speed mixing for "no-time" dough?

While this requires special equipment, any bakeshop can use chemical maturing agents and dough conditioners to shorten or eliminate bulk fermentation.

Why does white flour have a shelf life?

While whole wheat flour and wheat germ are most likely to oxidize because of their high oil content, even the small amount of oil present in white flour (about 1%) eventually causes changes to flavor.

Gelatin is a good stabilizer for what?

Whipped creams and many cakes fillings.

Corn products are typically what color?

White or yellow but blue is also available.

Isomalt is sold in what form?

White powder or small beads.

Coarse white sugars are often best for what? Why?

Whitest fondants and confections and clearest syrups, because they have the fewest impurities of all granulated sugars.

Today, stone grinding is mainly used for what?

Whole grain flours and meals rather than white flour.

If milled from the same wheat, what has a higher protein content?

Whole wheat flour has more than white flour.

What's the difference between wheat flour and whole wheat flour?

Whole wheat flour is a whole grain, milled from the whole wheat kernel. Wheat flour is another name for white flour, milled from the endosperm.

How quickly do most of the gelled junctions in a gelatin web form?

Within the first one to two hours of chilling, but the process continues over the next 18 hours or so.

Besides providing minerals, ash increases what? How?

Yeast fermentation by contributing minerals to yeast.

Maltose and, to a lesser degree, trace amounts of protein and ash, improve what? Benefits?

Yeast fermentation, one reason why malt syrup is often used in bread, bagels, biscuit, and cracker production.

Besides gluten, what else is controlling temp good for in yeast raised doughs?

Yeast fermentation.

HGF is almost exclusively used for what?

Yeast-raised baked goods, particularly those requiring maximum strength and structure.

What requires the most gluten of all baked goods?

Yeast-raised breads.

What is "no-time" dough?

Yeast-raised dough that does no undergo bulk fermentation. Instead it undergoes a quick 10 or 15 minute bench rest before being divided.

What is VWG added to? Why?

Yeast-raised doughs to improve flour quality, to increase mixing and fermentation tolerances, for a finer crumb, and improving volume.

Strong flours are typically used for what?

Yeast-raised products, such as breads, rolls, croissants, and Danish.

Dough conditioners are used in the production of what products?

Yeast-raised products.

What provides the desirable yellow color in durum?

Yellow carotenoid pigments, which provide a desirable golden color to pasta products.

Are agave syrups, especially those high in fructose, said to have low-glycemic response?

Yes

Are all sugars hygroscopic?

Yes

Are all vegetable gums a good source of soluble dietary fiber?

Yes

Are batter and dough temperature a factor in controlling gluten development?

Yes

Are cereal grains in the grass family?

Yes

Are dextrins and higher saccharides found in many syrups in the bakeshop?

Yes

Are egg and gluten proteins two of the oct important structure builders?

Yes

Are eggs structure builders?

Yes

Are flours milled from soft wheat kernels whiter and finer to the touch than hard wheat flour?

Yes

Are fructose and glucose naturally present in many ripened fruits?

Yes

Are granular products coarser than flour?

Yes

Are hard wheat kernels generally higher in carotenoids and water-grabbing pentosans?

Yes

Are high-heat DMS the only DMS used in yeast doughs?

Yes

Are lipids in flour important for proper gluten development?

Yes

Are many maturing agents more effective than natural aging?

Yes

Are most bread, pastry and cakes flours today patent grade?

Yes

Are mousses and creams prepared with gelatin always firmer the second day?

Yes

Are precautions taken to ensure all raw materials used in gelatin manufacture are from healthy animals that have been approved for human consumption?

Yes

Are quinoa seeds very high in unsaturated fatty acids?

Yes

Are some additives required by law?

Yes

Are some barley products high in beta-glucan?

Yes

Are starch molecules tightly packed in an orderly fashion?

Yes

Are supertasters especially sensitive to bitterness?

Yes

Are syrups sometimes described by their solid content?

Yes

Are there many different types of dried glucose syrups?

Yes

Are there moderate amounts of invert sugar in molasses?

Yes

Are there specialty brown sugars available?

Yes

Are thousands of different wheat varieties grown throughout the world?

Yes

Are traditional muffin batters low in tenderizing fats and sugars?

Yes

Are trigeminal effects a part of flavor?

Yes

Are wheat kernels seeds of the wheat plant?

Yes

Can amaranth seeds be popped like popcorn?

Yes

Can any grain be malted?

Yes

Can bread flour be purchased bleached or unbleached?

Yes

Can dried malt syrups be used to increase amylase?

Yes

Can enzymes cause reactions to occur that might not happen otherwise?

Yes

Can even very small amounts of impurities cause undesirable crystallization and browning in sugar confectionary?

Yes

Can fruits high in pectin be made into jams and jellies without any added pectin?

Yes

Can malted wheat and malted rye flours be used as well?

Yes

Can spelt be milled into whole grain or white flour?

Yes

Can too much mixing develop too much gluten?

Yes

Can wheat germ be purchased and added to goods?

Yes

Can you use almost any liquid to bloom gelatin as long as it's cold?

Yes

Do all whole grain cereals contain fiber?

Yes

Do allspice and cloves smell similar?

Yes

Do batters and doughs made with pastry flour remain relatively soft and fluid in the early stages of baking?

Yes

Do bleaching agents whiten carotenoids?

Yes

Do different sweeteners provide different qualities of sweetness?

Yes

Do different varieties of wheat vary in the amount of quality gluten that forms from them?

Yes

Do dull black sheet pans bake food faster than bright shiny ones?

Yes

Do grains of pearly millet pop like popcorn?

Yes

Do higher protein flours typically undergo more Maillard browning than lower protein flours?

Yes

Do many variety flours contain as much, or more, protein than wheat does?

Yes

Do maturing agents and dough conditioners affect gluten?

Yes

Do millers often put small amounts of additives in flour?

Yes

Do mixing and kneading affect gluten?

Yes

Do most air cells and gas bubbles start fairly large?

Yes

Do nutmeg and mace smell similar?

Yes

Do nuts, roast beef and baked breads benefit from Maillard browning?

Yes

Do objects absorb light selectively?

Yes

Do rye and wheat have equal amounts of protein?

Yes

Do small, fine particles absorb water faster than larger ones?

Yes

Do soft wheat flours typically form weak gluten that tears easily?

Yes

Do some maturing agents weaken gluten?

Yes

Do some maturing agents work during the mixing process?

Yes

Do soy flours sometimes function as milk and egg substitutes?

Yes

Do starch granules grab any water they can get, including water released from protein coagulation?

Yes

Do strong flours require more mixing to fully develop gluten?

Yes

Do sugar crystals provide bulk and substance to fondant, confections, and certain other products?

Yes

Do tenderizers and softeners affect gluten?

Yes

Do wheat germ and bran interfere with gluten development?

Yes

Does AP flour come bleached and unbleached?

Yes

Does Artisan bread flour have higher ash content than patent flour?

Yes

Does Kamut form strong gluten?

Yes

Does a small increases in protein have a noticeable increase in the amount of water absorbed in doughs?

Yes

Does ash have a grey color that is carried over to flour?

Yes

Does bread flour, considered lower in starch than regular flour, contain mostly starch?

Yes

Does breed dough usually require a short bench rest before being shaped?

Yes

Does degerminated cornmeal have a milder flavor than whole grain?

Yes

Does degerminated cornmeal last longer than whole grain cornmeal?

Yes

Does density decrease when flour is sifted?

Yes

Does enzyme activity influence gluten?

Yes

Does fermentation affect gluten development?

Yes

Does flour contain a very high amount of starch?

Yes

Does glucose have an abundance of names?

Yes

Does gluten become stronger as it is mixed?

Yes

Does heat destroy glutathione?

Yes

Does microwave energy penetrate the surface of food more easily than radiant energy?

Yes

Does milk affect gluten?

Yes

Does products temperature affect flavor perception?

Yes

Does protease activity weakened gluten but also make it more extensible?

Yes

Does salt strengthen gluten, improving its cohesiveness and making it less sticky?

Yes

Does superfine sugar dissolve more quickly in liquids than regular granulated?

Yes

Does the amount of water in batters and doughs affect their viscosity or consistency?

Yes

Does water hardness affect gluten?

Yes

Essentially, are all baked goods and pasta products made from white flour in North America enriched?

Yes

For many batters and doughs, does sugar usually dissolve completely?

Yes

For most practical applications. is sugar refined in Norht America from either source used interchangeably?

Yes

Has Kamut been specially marketed to consumers in specialty stores?

Yes

In a way, is untoasted soy flour a bleaching and maturing agent?

Yes

In some areas of the world, is sugar cane juice still evaporated in open pans until it's dry, to produce crude, unrefined brown sugar, much as it was made thousands of years ago?

Yes

In theory, can sheet and powdered gelatin be used interchangeably?

Yes

Is a common misconception that graham flour is either coarser or finer than whole wheat flour?

Yes

Is air one of the three main leavening gases?

Yes

Is amylase an enzyme?

Yes

Is bran high in protein, fat, vitamins and minerals?

Yes

Is bread dough made from high-quality flour best at holding gases produced during fermentation and oven spring?

Yes

Is clear flour less expensive than patent flour?

Yes

Is cocoa powder a source of fiber?

Yes

Is conduction a form of direct heat?

Yes

Is degerminated enriched with vitamins and minerals?

Yes

Is dextrose sold as crystals and pulverized powder?

Yes

Is flour a structure builder and drier?

Yes

Is gelatin necessary in Bavarian creams, fruit mousses and cold soufflés?

Yes

Is gelatinized starch structure often softer and more tender than coagulated egg and gluten proteins?

Yes

Is glucose present in nearly all ripened fruit?

Yes

Is isomalt used as a bulking agent in low-calorie and "sugar-free" hard candies and confections?

Yes

Is it important to allow several hours of rest for water absorption when working with grain having large particles, such as durum semolina?

Yes

Is it safe to say that products containing significants amounts of other structure builders require less gluten?

Yes

Is oil both a tenderizer and moistener?

Yes

Is pectin one of the main components holding fruit together?

Yes

Is pentosan a good source of soluble fiber?

Yes

Is perfect fudge smooth and creamy?

Yes

Is protease activity high in a polish or sponge?

Yes

Is radiation a means of transferring microwave energy?

Yes

Is regular glucose corn syrup, a medium conversion syrup (DE of 42), a goos all-purpose glucose corn syrup?

Yes

Is saliva mostly water?

Yes

Is sound just as important as touch?

Yes

Is spelt often mistaken for emmer?

Yes

Is sucrose naturally present in maple tree sap, palm tree sap, dates, ripe bananas, and many other ripened fruits?

Yes

Is sugar cane a tall reedy grass?

Yes

Is the ability of water to dissolve or hydrate particles an important part of mixing?

Yes

Is the absorption value of flour an important quality factor in bread baking?

Yes

Is the amount of water important for gluten development?

Yes

Is the type of flour important in gluten control?

Yes

Is tinware used in traditional French bakeware?

Yes

Is wheat a cereal grain?

Yes

Is whole white wheat flour being used in many breakfast cereals and baked goods?

Yes

Like bread flour, is HGF sometimes bleached and contain added malted flour?

Yes

Over the years, have sugar beets been selectively bred to contain high amounts of sucrose?

Yes

Should flour quality be judges by its intended use?

Yes

Should you expect clear flour, with its higher protein and ash content, to have a stronger flavor than patent flour?

Yes

Since the earth varies in composition from one location to the next, does water hardness also vary?

Yes

To maple tree sap and sugar cane provide small amounts of protein for Maillard reaction?

Yes

Today, is there a trend towards using sugars that have not gone through the complete refining process?

Yes

When used at low levels, are sugars a source of food for microorganisms?

Yes

Do genetics, gender and health contribute to an individuals ability to evaluate food? What is most important.

Yes but experience is most important.

Does oxidized ALA have a strong, off flavor?

Yes reminiscent to paint in turpentine.

Can gelatin be heated in a sauce pan before adding?

Yes, after it has been bloomed. But it is faster and easier to add with a hot liquid.

Is simple syrup the only syrup made by bakers and pastry chefs?

Yes, all others are purchased (invert syrup, honey, molasses, glucose corn syrup).

Is Karo light corn syrup similar to glucose corn syrup?

Yes, although it contains fructose, salt and vanilla.

Can dark glucose corn syrup be used as an inexpensive substitute for molasses in baked goods and confections?

Yes, although it is much milder tasting than most molasses syrups.

Can fructose, sucrose, glucose, maltose and lactose all be purchased in dry white crystal?

Yes, although, except for sucrose, it is more common to purchase them in syrup form.

Does flaxseed contain more lignin than any other plant source?

Yes, and ALA.

Is the structure of cake dependent heavily on starch gelatinization because they are high in water?

Yes, and coagulated egg proteins.

Is dextrose less sweet than sucrose? When is it useful?

Yes, and is useful when the properties of sugar are desired, but the sweetness is not.

Is invert sugar sweeter than sugar? Does it brown faster?

Yes, and it browns much faster.

Like quinoa, is amaranth used in multigrain breads?

Yes, and it is also high in lysine.

Are light and white rye patent flours?

Yes, and it is sometimes bleached.

Can flaxseed flour be added to batters and doughs in small amounts?

Yes, and it won't affect flavor much.

Do the US and Canada periodically evaluate nutritional needs? What happened in 1990? Why?

Yes, and they found that folic acid needed to be added; Folic acid prevents certain birth defects, including spine bifida, and can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.

Does flour settle over time? Is this an issue with measuring?

Yes, and when it settles, there is less air between flour particles; this becomes a problem when using volumetric measuring instead of weight.

Do fiber, bran, fruit pieces, spices, and the like affect gluten?

Yes, any particle that physically gets in the way of forming gluten strands will decrease gluten development. Surprisingly, even spice particles interfere with gluten formation.

Is stevia available in the US?

Yes, as a dietary supplement but is not allowed to be added to food products sold in this country.

Do leavening gases tenderize baked goods? How?

Yes, as the gases expand during baking, they stretch gluten strands--and egg proteins. Stretched gluten strands form thin , weaker cell walls that are easily broken.

Is honey sometimes called natural invert syrup? Why?

Yes, because enzymes in the honeybee invert sucrose in the nectar to fructose and glucose.

Is whole wheat flour a whole grain product? Why?

Yes, because it contains all three parts of the kernel - bran, endosperm and germ - in the same proportion as they occurred in the original kernel.

Does rye have a limited ability to form gluten? Why?

Yes, because it holds a sufficient amount of gliadin but is low in gluten in. In addition, it's high in pentosan gums (8% or more), which interfere with what little gluten can form.

Does dextrose increase the shel-life of confections?

Yes, because it is more effective at inhibiting microbial growth than sucrose.

Are all unrefined sugars different? Why?

Yes, because of differences in regional practices.

Is it rare for all the starch in baked goods to fully gelatinize? Why?

Yes, because there is usually not enough water or time available for it to occur.

Are all enzymes denatured by heat? Why?

Yes, because they are all proteins.

Do many fats provide more volume and flakiness than butter? Why?

Yes, because they have higher melting points.

Are heavy-gauge materials preferred over thin-gauge? Why?

Yes, because they transfer heat more evenly.

Do whole grains contain more proteases than white flour? Why?

Yes, because whole grains include protein rich bran.

Is amylase and active enzyme in untoasted soy flour? What about proteases?

Yes, breaking down starch into sugars, improving fermentation, crust color, and bread softness. Proteases are another type, acting on proteins, improving dough mixing and gluten development.

Are high-gluten flours often described as high quality? How is this wrong?

Yes, but all baked products don't necessarily need high amounts of gluten.

Are the same components that form structure also driers? What's the difference?

Yes, but all proteins in flour (not just glutenin and gliadin) absorb moisture, while only gluten in and gliadin form structure.

Are baked goods made with 100% whole wheat flour darker and stronger in flavor than white flour?

Yes, but also less cohesive and resilient.

Is ash content also affected by wheat variety and soil conditions?

Yes, but ash still provides some indication of the amount of bran in the flour and, therefore, the flours commercial grade.

Does emmer have similarities to spelt?

Yes, but emmer predates spelt by thousands of years.

Do many factors influence water absorption?

Yes, but flours that absorb more water typically have higher protein content.

Is honey sold mostly ad syrup?

Yes, but honey cream is available as well, consisting of tiny crystals suspended in concentrated syrup.

Are the specifics of processing cane and beets somewhat different?

Yes, but in both cases sucrose is not changed chemically.

Is well-hydrated dough messy to work with?

Yes, but it can produce fine artisan breads.

Is vegetable oil thicker than water?

Yes, but it is also less dense.

Does white flour contain amylase?

Yes, but it's typically too low to be of much benefit.

Can regular glucose corn syrups be used in candies and confections?

Yes, but low-conversion glucose corn syrups are much more suitable.

Do some gums have a gummy texture?

Yes, but most don't when used properly.

Sometimes, are all sugar molecules in a polysaccharide the same?

Yes, but often there is a mix of two or more different sugars.

Do the most common HFCS contains equal parts fructose and glucose?

Yes, but other versions of HFCS contain up to 90% fructose.

Is unrefined sugar generally consumed where it is produced?

Yes, but quantities are available through specialty distributors, as interest in unique flavor of each regions sugar has grown.

Is pectin present in all fruits?

Yes, but the amount varies.

Do spelt proteins form gluten?

Yes, but the gluten is weak and easily overworked.

Are oats higher in proteins than most grains products?

Yes, but the proteins don't form gluten.

Ideally, does milling try to separate as much endosperm as possible without damaging starch granules?

Yes, but this is difficult to do.

Does rye have the same amount of protein?

Yes, but very little of it is gluten forming.

Will bread dough made with a polish or that is autolysed stretch more easily? What does this do to the crumb?

Yes, but will also be sticky and tear more easily. This provides volume and a large open crumb.

Can you always tell whether flour has been bleached on the label? What can't you tell?

Yes, but you can't necessarily tell what bleaching agent was used. Ask the manufacturer if you would like to know.

Does mixing promote the absorption of water? How?

Yes, by exposing new surfaces of flour to particles of water.

Are the types and amounts of additives strictly regulated by the gov't?

Yes, by law, millers must label flour with the additives it contains.

Do acids and alkali affect browning?

Yes, by their affect on pH.

Is teff eaten daily in Ethiopia?

Yes, by those who can afford it.

Although water hardness and pH are completely different concepts, can they influence each other? Explain.

Yes, certain minerals that increase water hardness also increase pH. Some acids that decrease pH also decrease the effects of water hardness.

Does chlorine, potassium bromate and ascorbic acid do different things to gluten? Explain.

Yes, chlorine weakens gluten while potassium bromate and ascorbic acid are maturing agents that strengthen it.

Is glucose shorthand for glucose syrup? What's it commonly called in the United States?

Yes, commonly called corn syrup in the US because it is usually derived from cornstarch.

Are there different grades of patent flour? Why?

Yes, depending on which streams of flour milling process are blended.

If enough times occurs, can Maillard reaction occur at room temperature? Example using dry milk solids.

Yes, dry milk solids undergo Maillard browning and develop off flavors after a year or so of storage at room temperature.

While it is present in many syrups, can fructose also be purchased in crystal form?

Yes, dry, white crystals.

Are various forms of dry crystalline sugar available?

Yes, each differing primarily in granulation or particular size.

Are the components of flavor--smell, taste and trigeminal effects--distinctly different? How?

Yes, each is detected by different receptors and stimulated by different chemicals.

Is gluten one one the three main structure builders in baked goods?

Yes, egg proteins and starch are the other two.

Do most polyols have a laxative effect?

Yes, especially when consumed in large amounts.

Should you expect a different flavor from dextrose? Explain.

Yes, especially when undissolved. Dextrose is less sweet thank sucrose, and dextrose crystals provide a cooling sensation when they melt in the mouth.

Do all flours have a limited shelf life?

Yes, even white flour.

Will first crystallization sugars function in baked goods as regular granulated sugar?

Yes, except for a slight off-white cast they give to light-colored products.

With today's soft cake flour, is it probably unnecessary to use starch to tenderize baked goods?

Yes, except special circumstances.

Does whole wheat flour come in different granulations?

Yes, from coarse to fine. This is true of stone-ground and milled flour.

Can wheat and other cereal grains be milled into many different forms? Examples.

Yes, from very fine flour to cracked or whole kernels.

Do the names of certain sugars explain how they're used?

Yes, fruit sugar, for example, is so fine it dissolves quickly when sprinkled on fruit.

Do some thickening and gelling agents do both? Explain.

Yes, gelatin, cornstarch, and pectin thicken when used at low levels and gel when used at higher levels.

Do different flour require different mixing times? Explain.

Yes, hard flours that are high in glutenin tolerate, even require, longer mix times than flours that are soft. Rye flour, which contains glutenin, is very easily over-mixed. Rich yeast doughs require less mixing to fully develop and are highly susceptible to over-mixing. Finally, dough that will undergo a long bulk fermentation should be mixed for less time, since fermentation also contributes to dough development.

Are regular rolled oats and quick-cook oats used interchangeably in baking?

Yes, in basic formulas.

Does the browning of sugar increase in the presence of salt and certain minerals? Name three minerals.

Yes, including copper, iron and lead.

Is cast iron reactive? Is it pragmatic for bakeshops?

Yes, it adds a metallic taste and discolors food; this is why it's rarely used in bakeshops.

Does the term bloom have another meaning besides gelatin strength? What is it?

Yes, it also refers to the method used for hydrating gelatin; adding it to cold liquid to swell.

Is invert syrup sometimes called invert sugar, or simply invert?

Yes, it comes as a clear light-colored liquid or a thicker opaque cream, which contains tiny crystals of sugar suspended in syrup.

Does heat destroy vitamin C?

Yes, it destroys ascorbic acid.

Does corn contain protein? Is any of it gluten-forming?

Yes, it does contain a good amount of protein; none is gluten forming.

Are coarse flours absorbed and digested slower than fine grain? Does it help blood glucose?

Yes, it helps control blood glucose levels.

Is blood sugar another name for glucose? Why?

Yes, it is the sugar that flows through the bloodstream.

Is Bloom rating related to gelatin quality? What does this mean?

Yes, it mean gelatin with a high Bloom rating also has a light color and clean flavor. It sets fast and produces a short, less stringy gel than gelatin with lower Bloom rating.

Does fermentation contribute to dough maturation?

Yes, it strengthens gluten, improving cohesiveness and elasticity.

What does AP flour usually contain vitamins or malted barley flour?

Yes, it typically is enriched with vitamins and minerals, and may contain added malted barley flour.

Will adding acid so pH drops below 5, or adding alkali so it rises above 6, change gluten?

Yes, it weakens gluten.

Recall: Is chlorine a maturing agent? Why?

Yes, it weekends gluten and increases the ability of starch to absorb water.

Does oil interfere with gluten development?

Yes, it's a tenderizer.

Is sheet gelatin a specialty item?

Yes, it's imported from Europe.

Can doughs have too much gluten? What is it called when dough is too tight and bouncy?

Yes, it's usually called "bucky."

With less gluten, does a dough break and tear more readily?

Yes, it's why you have larger air pockets in rustic, artisan breads.

Does sugar keep water from reacting with structure builders?

Yes, its strong ability to attract water keep some water from interacting. But it's also likely sugar interacts with the structure builders as well.

Can malt syrup be made from any cereal?

Yes, just like malted flour, but barley and heat are the most common used.

Can you ferment dough too long? What happens?

Yes, just like over-mixing you can over-ferment. Dough becomes too soft, sticky and loses its gas retaining abilities.

Do baking powder biscuits require some gluten? How much?

Yes, light mixing or kneading is needed allows biscuits to remain tender but still hold their shape. Too little mixing, and the biscuits slump during baking from lack of structure. Too much mixing, and they hold their shape but are tough.

Can granular products be whole grain?

Yes, like flour, if they are milled from the whole kernel, or not, if milled from the endosperm.

Should you worry about adding water to biscuits and pie doughs?

Yes, low water is what keeps them tender.

When invert syrup is used in baked goods, should the temperature be changed?

Yes, lowered 25ºF (15ºC) to prevent excessive browning.

Does dough tighten more when you add salt?

Yes, making it more difficult to stretch but it will stretch further without tearing.

Is the bran usually darker than the endosperm?

Yes, much darker; white wheat, which has a lighter color, is also available.

Do agave syrups vary in the amount of fructose that they contain? Why do these variances occur?

Yes, much like HFCS. Variances occur because of differences in how sap is processed or because of differences in the amount of fructose-containing inulin naturally present in agave.

Has the cultivation of teff spread? Why?

Yes, popularity of Ethiopian food in Europe and North America has caused it to spread.

Does Maillard browning sometimes cause discoloration and off flavor during storage? What products are most at risk?

Yes, products that contain dairy ingredients are particularly susceptible because they contain milk proteins and lactose, a sugar that browns relatively quickly.

Does heat change certain nutrients in very important ways? Example: proteins and starches.

Yes, proteins and starches in flour are more digestible once they are heated. This means that baked foods containing flour are often more nutritious than raw foods.

Do pie pastry doughs benefit from relaxation? Explain.

Yes, resting after mixing makes it easier to roll and shape. Some pastry chefs also relax rolled and shaped pie dough before baking, so it will not shrink.

In India, is pearl millet used in flatbreads?

Yes, roti.

Do maltodextrins have some of the properties of sugar? Does Splenda provide enough of the sugar properties for baking? Any differences?

Yes, so Splenda provides some of the properties of the volume, tenderness, and browning of sugar. Start with a one for one ratio of Splenda for sugar, but expect some differences in appearance, taste, and texture in the finished product. By adjusting levels of Splenda and other ingredients, an acceptable, if not identical, product can be made.

Is fructose considered sweeter than sucrose?

Yes, so generally less is needed.

Does rice syrup usually undergo less refining than GCS?

Yes, so it has a brownish tan color and a distinct flavor.

Does golden syrup contain a moderate amount of invert sugar?

Yes, so it has the properties of a medium invert syrup.

Is a poolish made if equal parts flour and water? Does it allow high enzyme activity?

Yes, so it is watery and that allows for high enzyme activity.

Does spelt have a lower water absorption value than wheat? What does this mean?

Yes, so less liquid is needed when forming batters and doughs.

Historically, were glucose corn syrups manufactured for the glucose they contained?

Yes, so while misleading, the name is logical.

Are there many different types of patent wheat flours? Why?

Yes, some of these differences are due to the type of wheat being used, others occur because of differences in milling practices or additives.

Do starch and inulin differ in their amount of sugars?

Yes, starch usually contains thousands of sugar units while inulin has 60 at most.

Is the amount of protein dependent on environmental conditions?

Yes, such as climate, solid quality, and the amount of fertilizer applied.

Does sugar reduce iciness and hardness in frozen desserts? How?

Yes, sugar lowers the freezing point by holding on to water and interfering with the formation of ice crystals.

Is sugar typically more attracted to water than proteins, starches, and gums?

Yes, sugar will pull water away from these structure builders and driers.

Do other ingredient increases the temperature of starch gelatinization? What does this mean for sweet, rich bread dough?

Yes, sugars and fats make these doughs gelatinize at higher temps than lean dough.

Do bitterness and sweetness have the same relationship as sourness and sweetness?

Yes, sweetness helps balance many trigeminal effects.

Are thick syrups, such as low-conversion glucose corn syrups, good at preventing iciness in frozen desserts? Why?

Yes, the large high-saccharides in low-conversion glucose corn syrups interfere with ice crystal formation by preventing water molecules from easily moving around. This limits water's growth into large, sharp ice crystals.

Is carotenoid in the same family as beta-carotene?

Yes, the orange pigment for carrots.

Can enzymes also convert glucose to fructose in the same way that HFCS is made from GCS?

Yes, the sap can be clarified, filtered and concentrated.

Is texture often ignored unless it's extreme?

Yes, the texture of breakfast cereal, for example, might go unnoticed until unpleasantly soggy.

Is there air between sugar crystals? What about syrups?

Yes, there is air between crystals, which are irregular in shape, while there is little or no air in syrups.

Are some starch granules damaged during the milling process? How does relate to amylase and fermentation?

Yes, they are also damage when stored under damp conditions. When this happens, starch can be broken down by the enzyme amylase into sugars that are readily fermented by yeast.

Are all vegetable gums vegetable in origin?

Yes, they are extracted and purified from trees, bushes, shrubs, seeds, seaweed, or microorganisms. Many are natural.

Were Europeans relatively late in using cane sugar? What did they use instead?

Yes, they relied more on available sweeteners such as ripened fruit and honey.

Whenever dry sugar is added to batters and doughs is air also added? What about creaming fat?

Yes, this is also true when fats are creamed with sugar.

Are carbon dioxide and other gases lost in small amounts from batters and doughs as temperatures warm above room temp? Why?

Yes, this is because cell walls are not completely solid; the network of egg and gluten proteins allows slow but steady movement of gases throughout unbaked products.

Does autolysed dough experience a certain amount of protease activity?

Yes, this is especially true if salt is withheld at this stage, since salt slows enzyme activity.

Is glutathione also found in wheat germ?

Yes, this is one reason weaker gluten develops from whole wheat flour than from white flour.

Do monosaccharides brown faster than most disaccharides?

Yes, this is true with both caramelization and Maillard browning.

Do potassium bromate and bromate replacers work at different times in baking? How does this affect commercial dough conditioners?

Yes, this is why commercial dough conditioners often contain a combination of maturing agents to strengthen dough throughout the process.

For the most part, are sugar crystals pure? What does this mean?

Yes, this means that crystals of sucrose consist entirely of sucrose, even when they form from syrups that contain a mix of the sugars. The mix just makes it more difficult for crystals to form, because it makes it difficult for molecules of the same type to come together.

Do whole cracked kernels and coarse meals and flakes often require soaking or gentle heating before use?

Yes, to allow for proper absorption and softening.

Should all sweeteners be covered when stored? Why?

Yes, to prevent picking up odors, gaining or losing moisture.

Can wheat germ be purchased raw or toasted? Does one have less glutathione?

Yes, toasted wheat germ will not have the same high glutathione activity as raw.

Does conduction continue when a pan is removed from the heat source?

Yes, until the pan and food reach the she temperature.

Do laminated doughs, such as croissants, Danish, and puff pastry, usually rest? Is it import?

Yes, usually in the refrigerator between folds. It is important because it makes shaping, rolling and folding dough properly much easier.

Can grains be purchased as whole kernels? What are they generally called?

Yes, wheat berries.

Do minerals strengthen gluten? What does this do to yeast breads?

Yes, which causes them to become too strong and elastic; they do not stretch when gas expands or they quickly bounce back.

Does weight of gelatin sheets increase as Bloom rating decreases?

Yes, which makes it easy to switch from one quality of sheet gelatin to another, as long as sheets are counted, not weighed.

Does autolysis reduce total mixing time of dough? What does this accomplish?

Yes, which reduces the dough's exposure to oxygen in air.

Do most syrups contain some acid? What about fry sugars?

Yes, while dry sugars do not.

Are starches and gums polysaccharides? What are gelatins?

Yes, while gelatins are proteins.

Does pentosan gum also contribute to flour structure?

Yes. Gums appear to form their own structure or to interact with gluten.

Do all unrefined sugars retain a rich, hearty flavor of molasses?

Yes. In fact, they can be thought of as crystallized molasses or evaporated cane juices, with nothing removed at any stage.

Can the quality of flour within any of the categories vary greatly? Explain.

Yes. In particular, geographic, climatic, and soil variation affect composition and quality of wheat.

What happens when you hold a prism up to white light?

You can see it separate into its component colors (the colors of the rainbow).

Monocalcium phosphate, an acid salt, is also present in many _____ ________.

baking powders

While locust bean gum is from the ______, another food ingredient, carob flour, is from the ______.

bean; pod

Why is bread flour coarser in texture than pastry flour and contain a higher percentage of broken and fragmented starch granules?

because it is from hard wheat kernels.

Malted grains are used in ______ _________ as well as in baking.

beer making

Benzoyl peroxide is commonly used in what types of flour?

bread, high-gluten, AP, cake and pastry flours that are bleached.

What is happening if something close to an oven wall is baking up darker than everything else?

"Hot spots," created by radiant energy.

The readability of a scale is sometimes represented as what?

"d" for scale division; literally the increments in weight that are read off the scale's display panel.

Reasons whole wheat flour has a higher protein content but will not form as much gluten as white flour.

- Sharp bran particles in whole wheat flour literally cut through gluten strands as they form. - Bran is high in pentosan gums, which interfere with gluten formation. - Much of the protein in whole wheat flour is from the bran and the germ, which do not form gluten. - Wheat germ contains a protein fragment (glutathione) that interferes with gluten development.

Besides the main three, are the other ways of controlling gluten development? List ingredients and methods.

- type of flour - amount of water - water hardness - water pH - mixing and kneading - batter and dough temperature - fermentation - maturing agents and dough conditioners - reducing agents - enzymes - tenderizers and softeners - salt - other structure builders - milk - fiber, bran, fruit pieces, spices, and the like *Most items tend to have their greatest effect on baked goods that rely heavily on gluten, and not eggs and starch, for structure.

Typically, how much dough conditioners should be used with flour?

0.2-0.5 percent of the weight of flour.

What should you substitute with if brown sugar is unavailable? Think in kilograms.

1 pound (1 kilogram) molasses and 9 pounds (or 9 kilograms) sugar for every 10 pounds (or 10 kilograms) brown sugar in formula.

National Honey Board recommends using how much baking soda to neutralize the acid in one cup (12oz/340g) of honey?

1/2 teaspoon (1.2 milliliters)

Pure dextrose has a DE of what?

100

Of 6X and 10X, which is better for what? Why?

10X is best for smoothest uncooked icings and confections; anything coarser would be too gritty. For decorative dustings on desserts, 6X is the better choice, since its coarser grind means it is less likely to cake or liquefy.

After mixing, how many separate events happen during baking?

11 that are interrelated and may occur simultaneously.

Artisan bread flour protein %.

11.5 - 12.5%

Dark muscovado retains the full amount of molasses (13%) from what?

13% molasses from sugar cane syrup.

How much protein is in high gluten flour?

13.5 - 14.5% protein

The pH scale runs fro 0 to what?

14

Besides protein and starch, what else is in flour?

14% moisture, 2% gums, 1% lipids and 0.5% ash.

Bronze-labeled sheets are about _____ Bloom and weigh how much?

140 Bloom; 0.12 ounces (3.3 grams)

Amount of water in raisins.

15%

Percentage of protein in bran.

15%

Silver-labeled are about ____ Bloom and weigh how much?

160 Bloom; 0.09 ounces (2.5 grams)

For powdered gelatin with a 230 Bloom rating, the following conversion holds.

17 gelatin sheets = 1oz (28g) gelatin powder.

Amount of water in honey.

17%

How much sucrose do today's beets contain compared to the 1700s?

17% sucrose, over twice the amount from 1700s, and slightly more than sugar cane.

A significant amount of CO2 and alcohol have evaporated at what temp? What happens to flavor?

170ºF (75ºC) creates a subtle yet important change in flavor to products high in these gases, such a test doughs.

On average, how many ounces of dough must be scaled to yield 454 grams of bread?

18 ounces

Amount of water in butter.

18%

Bloom scale is a rating that was invented when?

1800s

The milk used in DMS has been heated and held at what temp?

190ºF for 30 minutes prior to drying.

When was high fructose corn syrup popularized? Why?

1970s and 1980s, when high sugar prices and improved syrup quality made it the standard sweetener in the US for carbonated beverages.

How many ways can glucose units be arranged in starch?

2

While many different glucose corn syrups are available to bakers and pastry chefs, most bakeshops stock how many?

2 or 3 at most.

How much of the sugar maple tree's sap is sugar?

2 to 3% - 40 gallons are needed to produce 1 gallon of maple syrup.

Turbinado's refining steps turn crude raw sugar into an edible light golden brown sugar that typically retains what percent of molasses?

2% molasses.

Xanthan gum, used at about ___ to ___%, helps batters and doughs hold in gases, leaven, and provide an acceptable crumb to these baked goods.

2-3%

How much of the kernel is made up of wheat germ?

2.5%

More than ____ common amino acids make up proteins.

20

Low-conversion syrups have Des between what?

20 and 37

Most syrups contain what % water?

20%, but there are exceptions.

Gold-labeled sheets are rated about _____ Bloom and weigh how much?

200 Bloom; 0.07 ounces (2 grams)

Gelatinization is not complete until what temperature? What happens to granules?

200ºF (95ºC) or so, and only if enough water is available. If it is, granules begin to deform and collapse, and starch molecules move out of granules.

Before roller mills revolutionized the milling industry in the late 1800s, how many neighboring gristmills were there across the United States?

22,000 mostly run by windmills or water wheels.

Even with a lower oven temp, no more than ______% of the sugar in a formula should be replaced with invert syrup.

25

Invert syrup usually contains how much water?

27%

The ratio of sugar to water in a simple syrup shouldn't exceed what? Why?

2:1 or the sugar is likely to crystallize.

pH of honey is typically what?

3.5-4.5

How quickly does instant gelatin firm up?

30 minutes.

2 pints = ____ fluid ounces

32

Sucrose must be heated to what before it caramelizes?

320-340ºF (160-170ºC)

Maple syrups usually contains how much water?

33%

How long does bread dough usually relax after mixing.

45 minutes or longer, depending on the dough.

1 c = _____tsp and _____tbsp

48, 16

To bloom gelatin, add powder to how much cold liquid?

5 or 10 times its weight.

On average, how many taste buds are located around one papillae?

5 or 6.

Gelatin powder and sheets take how long to hydrate properly?

5 to 10 minutes.

Water absorption in most bread ranges around what?

50 to 65%, meaning that 1 pound (450g) of flour absorbs over 0.5 pound (225g) of water.

Ideal dough temp for fermentation. What happens if temps are too high?

70º-80ºF (21º-22ºC). If temps are too high fermentation occurs too rapidly and flavor suffers.

Amount of water in sour cream.

71%

Commercial milling operations only extract how much flour for every hundred pounds?

72lbs on average, even though the endosperm makes up 85% of the wheat kernel.

Very high-conversion syrups have DEs greater than what?

73

Amount of water in bananas.

74%

If typical glucose corn syrup contains about 80% solids and 20% water, such a syrup is described as having _____º Brix.

80

Most syrups contain water ratio of sugar to water?

80 sugar:20 water

By some estimates, what % of flavor is smell?

80%

Glutenin and gliadin make up what % of protein in the endosperm?

80%

Gelatin generally melts completely to a liquid at what temp?

80-90ºF (27-32ºC), which is lower than body temp.

Amount of water in orange juice.

88%

Amount of water in whole milk.

88%

The often cited conversion from gelatin to agar is what?

8:1 meaning that agar is 8 times stronger than gelatin. However, they are both natural products, and like the rest they vary in strength between manufacturers.

AP flour typically is what % protein?

9.5 - 11.5% but can vary with the brand.

Taken together, the 8 food allergens account for what percent of the food allergy cases in the US?

90%

Most fats melt somewhere between what?

90º-130ºF (30º-55ºC)

Amount of water in lemon juice.

91%

Amount of water in strawberries.

92%

Regualr granulated sugar from with sugar beets or cane is more than what % pure sucrose?

99.9

The consistency of a flour mixture defines whether it is what?

A batter or dough.

Why are leaves perceived as green?

A green leaf contains chlorophyll that absorbs most light except green light. Only the green light is reflected of the leaves and reaches the eyes.

When a field of wheat starts to grow what does it look like?

A lawn of grass.

Low-conversion syrups undergo what?

A low amount of hydrolysis and are low in sugars (and high in higher saccharides.

What is DE?

A measure of the degree of conversion of starch to sugar is glucose.

What is Brix?

A measure of the percentage of soluble solids (sugar, primarily) in syrups and other products, including fruit juices.

What is dough tenacity?

A measure of the pressure reached as the bubble inflates

What is air composed of? Percentages?

A mixture of gases: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, .04% carbon dioxide.

What is induction?

A new form of heat transfer where cooking takes place on special smooth-top ceramic surfaces, below which are coils that generate a strong magnetic field. The magnetic field causes molecules in the pan to rapidly flip, generating frictional heat within the pan.

What is instant gelatin?

A new product that does not need to be bloomed or heated before use. It has undergone a special drying process. It is fine grained that dissolves instantly in cold water.

The fineness of a powdered sugar grind is often indicated as what?

A number before an X--the higher the number, the greater the fineness.

What's lighter, an under-mixed or properly mixed chocolate cake? Why?

A properly mixed because it has more round and consistent air bubbles trapped inside.

Roller mills consist of what? How are they different from gristmills?

A sequence of paired iron rollers, either grooved or smooth, that rotate inwards. Because one roller is set to spin faster than the other, the grains caught in the middle are twisted and chopped. This flattens the bran into large flakes and breaks the endosperm into large chunks. This is different the the rubbing and crushing in gristmills.

What is stainless steel?

A type of low carbon steel (iron alloy) that contains a mix of metals including chromium and often nickel.

Mealy pie pastry is less likely to do what?

Absorb pie juices and toughen.

How do gelatin, vegetable gums, and starches function in thickening and gelling?

Absorbing or trapping large amounts of water.

Why do Irish oats have such a strong flavor.

Active lipase enzymes breaking down oils.

What's the solution for impurities causing browning and undesirable crystallization? Why?

Add or increase the amount of cream of tartar to the formula. Cream of tartar and other acids prevent both crystallization and browning by lowering pH.

General rule of thumb with tempering ingredients.

Add small amounts of the ingredient that causes problems into the ingredient that is the problem.

Why are high absorption values desirable in bread baking?

Added moisture slows staling and means less flour needs to be used (most cost effective).

How are sheets generally bloomed?

Added to excess water and gently squeezed later.

What happens if you add too much low-conversion GCS to fudge?

Adding too much prevents so much crystallization that fudge takes on the consistency of chewy icing.

What are maturing agents?

Additives that change the baking properties of flours.

What is convection? How is an an invisible helping hand?

Aids heat transfer through liquids and gases, which otherwise conduct heat slowly. Convection involves the constant movement of cold currents of air or liquid toward warmer currents. The warmer, less dense liquid/gas and rise while colder ones sink; like a hand stirring the pot.

Natural aging occurs when freshly milled green flour is exposed to what?

Air for several weeks.

Three most important leavening gases in baking.

Air, steam and carbon dioxide.

Fermentation involves what?

Allowing yeast in dough to convert sugars into carbon dioxide.

What does breaking up large particles help accomplish?

Allows them to dissolve or hydrate faster in water.

How fast do induction burners work?

Almost immediately.

What do pentosans provide in rye dough?

Along with starch, they provide a type of cohesive structure in rye dough.

What are polyols?

Also known as sugar alcohols, although they are neither sugars nor alcohols. Like sugar, polyols are carbohydrates.

Is isomalt classified as sugar? Explain.

Although it sweetens and is derived from sugar, chemically isomalt is not sugar. It is classified as a polyol, a type of sugar.

Do the other components in syrups play a crucial role?

Although present in small amounts, they are extremely important because they provide the unique characters of each syrup.

The best aluminum/stainless steel cookware has how much aluminum? Why?

Aluminum extending up the sides of the pan.

What is dark hard-anodized aluminum?

Aluminum that has undergone an electrochemical treatment that changes the surface of the aluminum so that it is hard and durable.

Best cookware for stovetop cooking of fruit mixtures, vanilla custard sauce and pastry cream?

Aluminum-core stainless steel cookware.

Ancient seed that was a staple crop of the Aztecs and Mayans of South and Central America.

Amaranth

What is gelatin?

An animal protein.

When properly prepared, gelatin form what?

An appealing crystal-clear gel with bounce back and spring. Best of all, gelatin melts quickly and cleanly in the mouth.

To produce invert syrup, the manufacturer treats a sugar (sucrose) with what? Why?

An enzyme or heats it with an acid. The enzyme, or a combo of heat and acid, breaks the bond between the two monosaccharides, releasing them. The process is sometimes called inversion, and what remains is invert syrup.

Stone-ground flour is usually characterized by what?

An even distribution of germ oil throughout the flour, and often by small bran particles.

What else is needed in the addition of VWG to a formula? What does it accomplish?

An increase in water for full hydration. This additional water and the higher volume achieved with added gluten can extend shelf life by keeping the bread softer longer.

Name this method: Egg whites and sugar whipped until soft peaks form; sifted dry ingredients gently folded in. Examples?

Angel food method; Angel food cake.

The term invert syrup is sometimes used by bakers and pastry chefs to describe what? What's the more specific meaning?

Any liquid syrup, including glucose corn syrup, maple syrup, honey, and molasses. The terms more specific meaning is a table syrup that contains approximately equal amounts of fructose and glucose.

What creates the first impression customers have of food?

Appearance

How is triticale primarily used today?

As animal feed in North America and many other places of the world. It is used instead of soft wheat, especially in Mexico, in tortillas, crackers and cookies.

How much baking soda should be added to cookies?

As little as 0.25 to 0.5 ounce (5 to 15 grams) for 10lbs (4.5 kilograms) of cookie dough.

What are the two ways glucose units can be arranged? What are they called?

As long straight chains (amylose) or as short but highly branched ones (amylopectin).

Explain what happens as fat melts in the oven.

As they melt, trapped air and water escape. Water evaporates into steam vapor, and the air and steam expand, pushing on cell walls so that the baked goods increase in volume. In other words, fat melting contributes to leavening.

A third sensation that is sometimes confused with bitterness and sourness.

Astringency

T avoid lumps in a gelatin solution, how hot must the liquid be?

At least 140ºF (60ºC), not just warm.

Why is radiation described as indirect heat?

At no time does the radiation body come into direct contact with the object.

Because flavor perception changes with product temperature, when should you evaluate it?

At serving temp.

Use HGF for what?

Bagels, hearth breads, thin crust pizzas and hard rolls.

Advantage of baker's percentages over those based on total batch size.

Baker's percentage requires fewer calculations when adding or changing the amount of one ingredient. If a recipe is based on total batch size then every ingredient will have to be recalculated, since the total batch size would also be changed.

An example of an alkali added to baked goods.

Baking soda.

Muscovado is sometimes called what?

Barbados sugar, after the island in the Caribbean where it was produced in the 1700s.

Although changes to gluten network cannot be seen, what happens, how are they reflected by what is seen?

Batters and doughs become smoother, stronger, and less lumpy as they are mixed and kneaded, and they are better able to stretch and trap solid particles, liquids, and gases as they expand.

Formula that provides a good relationship between Brix and Baumé.

Baumé = 0.55 x Brix Brix = Baumé/0.55

Flavor chemicals must do what to reach the nerve endings?

Be absorbed by the skin, evaporate, etc.

Where is locust bean gum from?

Beans of an evergreen tree (Ceratonia siliqua) that is originally from the Mediterranean.

How does leavening make baked good easier to bite in to?

Because cell walls are stretched, they are thinner, making baked goods easier to bite in through; that is, making it more tender.

Why should dough be mixed evenly in all direction when gluten is involved?

Because gluten strands align in the directions they are mixed.

Why do convection, reel and rotating ovens require a lower temperature and shorter baking times than conventional?

Because hot air is being forced into cooler spots faster. This is also why they work more evenly with fewer hot spots.

Why does oil often tenderize more than solid fat?

Because it begins coating structure builders during the mixing stage.

Why is endosperm so white?

Because it contains mostly starch, around 70 to 75%.

Why does clear flour contain more proteases than patent flour?

Because it contains the inner bran layer.

Why is flour used as the basis for baker's percentages?

Because it is typically the predominant ingredient in most baked goods.

Why is water often a factor in browning?

Because it usually contains, acids, alkalis and minerals.

Why is some heat transferred by radiation with anodized aluminum?

Because it's dark in color

Why is durum so hard to reduce to a flour?

Because it's extremely hard, which means reducing it to a flour causes a high concentration of damaged starch granules.

Why is it more difficult to bring bread flour?

Because it's from hard wheat kernels.

How does water play a part in mixing even when it is not an ingredient in the formula?

Because many ingredients are significant sources of water.

Why is brown sugar soft, sticky and tends to clump?

Because most, if not all, of the molasses is on the surface of the tiny sugar crystals.

Why is steam injected into ovens during bread baking?

Because of the nature of bread formulas, crusts form fairly quickly an many yeast breads. Once a dry, hard crust forms, bread can no longer expand in volume, even if gases within continue to expand. At beast, they may crack the surface of bread but won't provide more leavening. Steam keeps the bread moist and flexible allowing in to become giber, lighter and less dense.

Why do steel-cut oats take longer to cook than rolled oats?

Because of their chunky shape and the fact that they have not been previously cooked, steel-cut oats take longer to cook than rolled oats.

Why do HGF require a high amount of water to form acceptable dough?

Because of their high protein content and the high degree of damaged starch granules during milling.

What do higher saccharides add? Why?

Because of their larger size, they thicken and add body and pliability to products. They are superior at interfering with the movement of molecules, so sugars are less likely to crystallize and water molecules are less likely to form ice.

Why are messages received from other senses often ignored if they conflict with what we see? Example.

Because our sense of sight is so highly developed. Yellow candy is expected to be lemon flavored. If it is grape flavored, many people can not accurately identify the flavor.

Why is lower grade molasses darker in color, less sweet, and more bitter than premium molasses?

Because some of the sugar has been removed and it has undergone more processing.

Why does whole wheat flour have a shorter shelf life than white flour?

Because the bran and germ are high in oil, an oil which easily oxidizes to produce rancid, off flavors.

What does steam injection do for the crust of bread?

Because the formation of crust is delayed, steam injection promoted formation of a thinner crust. The crust is crisper and glossier because moist steam facilitates the gelatinization of starch on the surface of bread.

Using roller-mills increases shelf life of whole wheat flour. Why?

Because the germ is flattened in this process and not rubbed throughout the flour, its valuable oils remain in the germ.This is said to minimize oxidation of oils in the flour. It is also likely that the higher heat of a roller-mill destroys lipase enzymes, which helps prevent off flavors and helps extend shelf-life.

Why is heating with a microwave relatively fast compared to radiant energy?

Because the radiant microwaves penetrate further into the food--typically 1 to 2 inches--than radiant heat energy, which heats surfaces only.

How is the texture of regular rolled oats different from quick?

Because they are larger in size, they have a coarser, chewier texture.

Why can products made with polyols be useful for diabetics or reduced calorie diets?

Because they are not readily absorbed by the body.

Why do soft wheat flours tend to pack together when squeezed and don't flow or dust a bench easily?

Because they are so much finer than hard wheat.

Why are pie pastries made by rubbing fat thoroughly into flour considered short or mealy?

Because they are so tender that they crumble into short or corn-meal size pieces

Why do finer sugars promote more spread in cookies?

Because they dissolve sooner, and only dissolved sugars tenderize and thin out doughs

Why is the type of grain important?

Because wheat flour is the only common grain with the potential for forming a good amount of high-quality gluten.

Name two common flour bleaching agents.

Benzoyl peroxide and chlorine gas.

Where does the gumminess of oats come from?

Beta-glucan

At what temperature range do egg proteins coagulate?

Between 140º-160ºF (60º-70ºC)

Most enzymes are inactivated around what temp?

Between 160º-180ºF (70-80ºC), but they vary in heat sensitivity.

Name this method: Sifted dry ingredients stirred or blended on low speed; solid fat rubbed or cut in by hand or with paddle; liquids stirred in gently. Examples?

Biscuit or pastry method; biscuits, scones, pie pastry, blitz puff pastry.

How is bitterness perceived in your mouth?

Bitterness is often slightly delayed and tends to linger as an aftertaste. It also seems to to be perceived toward the back of the throat.

Black treacle is equivalent to low-grade edible what?

Blackstrap molasses, very dark in color and bitter in taste.

To standardize gelatin from batch to batch, manufacturers do what?

Blend solutions from several extractions. Once blended, gelatin is filtered, concentrated, formed into sheets or "noodles," dried, and ground.

How can flaxseed be ground into a powder?

Blender or food processor.

How are medium treacles made?

Blending molasses with higher-grade refiner's syrup.

What does actually melting temperature depend on?

Bloom rating and the level of gelatin used.

Gelatin sold to pastry chefs is rarely, if ever, labeled with what?

Bloom rating, but manufacturers can provide that information.

With a gelometer, the more force required for the plunger to drop the higher the what?

Bloom rating.

Bloom rating is also called what?

Bloom value or Bloom strength

Only agave plant allowed in making tequila.

Blue agave

What should fondant be warmed to before use?

Body temperature.

Like jaggery and other unrefined non centrifugal sugars, maple syrup is often what?

Boiled in pans, often wood fire.

How is maple syrup made?

Boiling and evaporating the sap of the sugar maple tree, which begins to flow in early spring.

How is Jaggery made?

Boiling and stirring sugarcane juice until it evaporates to a thickened crystallized syrup. The hot, fudge-like mixture is cast in cylindrical molds or formed into cakes and cooled to harden.

Why do bagels shine when they are boiled?

Boiling water gelatinizes starch that is on the surface of the bagel. The gelatinized starch forms a smooth film, a surface so smooth that light reflects off it in an even shine.

Does soy flour come toasted or untoasted?

Both

Which method of preparing brown sugar is more common?

Both are common, but the first method is typically used when brown sugar is made from sugar cane. The second method is always used with sugar beets.

Cake flour is typically bleached with what? What do these chemicals do?

Both chlorine and benzoyl peroxide, yielding a stark white color and distinctly changed flavor.

Why is white flour enriched?

Bran and germ are removed from the endosperm during the milling process; several vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, protein and fat are removed. Enrichment replaces certain vitamins and minerals that were lost.

Why does whole wheat flour not produce the same gluten as white flour?

Bran and germ interfere with gluten development, and that protein from these components does not form gluten.

If glutathione is not destroyed in milk, what happens to yeast-raised doughs?

Bread dough softens, and oven spring decreases. The result is a lower loaf volume and a coarser texture.

If a formula calls for AP flour in a yeast-raised product and you have none. Explain.

Bread flour is the best choice. Additional water will be needed to form the dough, and longer mixing will be needed to develop the gluten. The dough will handle more easily, the bread will be higher than if it was made from AP flour, and it will have a finer crumb.

What is the problem with "bucky" dough?

Bread tends to be tough and chewy, have a low volume because they cannot stretch, and develop soft and thin crusts.

Examples of dough.

Bread, pie pastry, cookie and baking powder biscuit doughs.

What does amylase do before it is inactivated?

Breaks down starches into sugars and other molecules.

What does amylase do to starch in bread dough?

Breaks it down into sugar and other products.

What is the traditional way to make bagels?

Briefly boil them in hot water before they are baked.

Just as temp can be measured in Fahrenheit or Celsius, the solids content of syrups can be measured by what?

Brix or Baumé.

When potassium bromate is added to flour, it is said to be what?

Bromated

In general, polls provide sweetness and bulk and certain other functions of sugar, except what?

Browning

Two separate stages of fermentation. How long does it take?

Bulk fermentation and final proofing - this can take several hours to complete.

How is ash measured in white flour?

Burning flour and grain samples at a very high temp--over 1,000ºF (538ºC)--and weighing the remains.

What melts first, butter or all-purpose shortening?

Butter

Three foods that are predominantly sour.

Buttermilk, pickles, yogurt.

How is patent flour made? Is it the lowest in ash?

By combining the first few streams of flour from the milling process. It consists of the inner most part of the endosperm and is essentially bran and germ free. This makes it the lowest in ash and whitest in color.

How are quick-cooking rolled oats (quick oats) made?

By cutting each groat into several thin pieces before steaming and rolling.

How do sugars tenderize?

By interacting with both water and gluten proteins, keeping gluten proteins from properly hydrating and interacting.

How is whole wheat flour from roller-mills usually made?

By recombining the endosperm, bran, and germ in the proportions that they were present in the original kernel.

Although still a luxury, when was sugar used in confectionery and in coffee, tea, and hot chocolate.

By the 1600s.

The main way texture is evaluated.

By touch: how food feels against the skin, how it feels as it melts in the mouth, and how it responds to touch as food is squeezed, bitten and chewed.

How is cream of tartar used to create great fudge?

COT is an acid, and the combo of heat and acid breaks down a certain amount of sucrose into invert sugar--equal parts fructose and glucose.

What does adding excess water do to cake batters? Form more gluten?

Cake batters are more fluid and have plenty of water already; adding more won't create more gluten development. Instead, adding more water dilutes out proteins, weakening gluten.

If a formula calls for AP flour in a fine textured, high-ratio cake product and you have none. Explain.

Cake flour instead of AP flour. For most other cakes, such as ginger bread or carrot cake, and for all other products, including pastries and cookies, use pastry flour.

Dextrose is added to many processed food products such as...

Cake mixes, chocolate chips, sausages, and hot dogs.

Examples of batter.

Cakes, crepe, and muffin batters.

World's largest producer of flaxseeds.

Canada, exporting mainly to Japan, US, South Korea and Europe.

Lower grades of molasses are by-products of what?

Cane sugar milling, often blended from first-, second-, and third-extraction molasses.

What triggers the hot, pungent sensation of chili peppers?

Capsaicin

Sometimes, but not always, dark brown sugar has what added?

Caramel color.

Stage 8

Caramelization and Maillard Browning Occur on Crust

Common addition that's an ancient spice native to the same regions as rye grass.

Caraway seed.

The acid in syrups, when mixed with baking soda in baked goods, produces what?

Carbon dioxide for leavening.

Undissolved baking powder doesn't produce what?

Carbon dioxide for leavening.

Why is water a convenient means for adjusting the temperature of bread-making?

Carefully controlling water temperature in bread-making ensures that mixed dough is at the proper temperature for fermentation. A small amount of frictional heat is acceptable, even desirable, but too much warms yeast doughs above the ideal temperature for proper fermentation.

For best volume, protein coagulation must be carefully timed with what? How is this accomplished?

Carefully timed with gas expansion. This occurs only if ingredients are correctly weighed, and if the oven is set and calibrated to the proper temperature.

Locust bean gum is also called what?

Carob gum

What is present in white flour that gives it the creamy, off-white color?

Carotenoid pigments present in extremely low amounts (1-4 parts per million).

What gives yellow cornmeal its color?

Carotenoids (organic pigments).

What red seaweed was once a popular gelling agent in Europe?

Carrageenan, which was found off the coast of Ireland near a town called Carragheen. Cooks made a flan type pudding by boiling the seaweed with milk, then cooling.

Why must baked items be removed right before (not after) being bakes to perfection?

Carryover cooking will either finish or ruin your product.

What types of metal work on induction burners?

Cast iron and some stainless steel pans.

What happens when too much tenderizer is added?

Causes products to crumble and fall apart.

Most common genetic disease in Europe.

Celiac

What makes up cell walls of all plants?

Cellulose, the most plentiful polysaccharide on earth.

Trigeminal effects often go by what other names?

Chemical feeling factors, pungency, chemical irritation, chemosensory irritation, or chemesthesis.

What triggers trigeminal effects?

Chemicals in food trigger these sensations.

Name this method: Sifted dry ingredients stirred or blended on low speed; oil and other liquid ingredients added and lightly blended until smooth; egg whites and sugar whipped until soft peaks form and folded into flour-oil mixture. Examples?

Chiffon method; Chiffon cake.

Why is pie pastry and laminated dough given a rest period in the fridge instead of at room temp?

Chilling solidifies fat, allowing for flakier pastry. Plus some laminated doughs must ferment.

Name four other major wheat growing countries.

China (more than everyone), India, France, and Russia.

The starch of an endosperm is tightly packed into starch granules, which are embedded in what?

Chunks of protein.

What acts as the cement that holds starch granules together in the endosperm?

Chunks of protein.

Powdered pectin is generally extracted and purified from what?

Citrus peel or apple skins.

What is the opposite of opacity?

Clarity or translucency.

How do you produce Type gelatin?

Clean, chopped pigskins are soaked for several hours or days in cold acid. This breaks down pigs connective tissue, transforming its rigid, replace protein fibers (called collagen) into smaller, invisible strands of gelatin. Hot water is then used for dissolving gelatin and extracting it from the pigskins. This process is repeated up to 6 times, with each extraction occurring at a progressively higher temperature. By the last extraction, water is at a boiling point and the last bits of usable gelatin are removed.

How can you tell if a starch is high in amylose?

Cloudy when cooled Forms a firm heavy-bodied gel when cooled Gel tightens and weeps over time Not freezer-stable; tends to tighten and weep Much thicker cold than hot Tends to mask flavors

Going from largest to smallest in particle size.

Coarse, regular, superfine, 6X powdered, 10X powdered, fondant sugar.

How do different sized granules of corn affect texture of baked goods?

Coarse-textured cornmeal makes slightly gritty bread. One that is denser and more crumbly than cornbread made with from fine cornmeal.

What flour did Reverend Graham first use for his crackers?

Coarsely ground whole wheat flour.

How do you season a cast iron skillet?

Coat with a thin layer of vegetable oil or shortening, then heat in an oven at about 350ºF (175ºC) for an hour.

Why is water a convenient means for adjusting the temperature of pastry pie dough?

Cold water helps regulate the temperature of fat and ensures a flakier crust.

Where does the name triticale come from?

Combination of the Latin names of each grain.

How is straight flour made?

Combining all usable streams of flour from the milling process and contains bran and germ particles that are not easily separated from the endosperm.

Most bakers prefer what type of yeast?

Compressed or instant yeast, which do not release glutathione.

Powdered sugar is often called what?

Confectioners sugar in the US and icing or fondant sugar in Canada.

Explain how sugar crystals provide bulk and substance to fondant and confections.

Consider that fondant contains 90% or more crystallized sugar. Without them, fondant would consist of liquid syrup. While sugar is not considered a structure builder in baked goods, in fondant and other products that contain sugar crystals, the solid crystals do provide substance. This substance defines the size and shape of these products. In this sense, solid sugar crystals do provide a type of structure.

When does ascorbic acid work?

Consistently throughout bread production, just not as effective as potassium bromate.

What is a gristmill?

Consists of two rotating circular granite millstones that rub or crush the grain that is sandwiched between the two stones.

What is full invert syrup?

Contains little, if any, remaining sucrose.

What do whole kernels add to bread?

Contrasting crunchy texture and visual appeal.

Glucose corn syrups are often classified by the amount of what?

Conversion to sugar that the starch has undergone.

Caramelized flavor is best described as what?

Cooked sugar.

What may happen to cookies if a formula specifies quick oats? How can you combat this?

Cookies may spread excessively. Adding extra flour will help soak up the free liquid that causes excessive spreading.

Oats are most commonly used in what?

Cookies, streusel toppings, muffins, and breads.

When is golden syrup used?

Cooking and baking, as pancake syrup, and as ice cream topping.

Stage III

Cooling

What types of metal don't work on induction burners?

Copper and aluminum.

Commercially, the main source of crystalline dextrose is what?

Corn

Name four other cereal grains.

Corn (maize), oats, rice and rye.

Dried glucose syrup is also called what?

Corn syrup solids or glucose solids.

Because durum semolina is yellow in cooler, it's often mistaken for what?

Cornmeal

By far the most common starch used in the production of glucose corn syrup is what?

Cornstarch, but any starch, including potato or wheat, can be used.

Soluble fiber in oat products has been shown to lower cholesterol, which can lower the risk for what?

Coronary heart disease.

The importance of _______ on the properties of cake flour cannot be overstressed. It is as much , if not more, the __________ treatment as the low protein content that defines cake flour.

chlorine

Gelatin is first hydrated so it is less likely to ______ later in use.

clump

During fermentation, amylase acts on available starch, primarily starch from _______ _________?

damaged granules

While sourness causes the mouth to water, astringency leaves a ________ sensation that makes the tongue feel rough.

drying

Being pure, coarse sugars are significantly more _______ than regular granulated sugars.

expensive

Wheat germ is high in protein and...

fat, B vitamins, vitamin E and minerals; all important to the germ as it sprouts.

Gluten is further made flexible by the presence of compact, coiled _______ molecules interspersed throughout.

gliadin

Sugars, once dissolved, interfere with what?

gluten formation, protein coagulation, and starch gelatinization. In other words, sugars delay the formation of structure and, in doing so, tenderize.

Portions of ________ are thought to loop, making gluten stretchy and flexible.

glutenin

Although amylose is a straight chain, that chain typically twists into a _________ shape, while amylopectin, with its many branched looks like a _______ _______.

helical (spring or DNA); coral fan.

Glucose corn syrups are clear syrups produced from the ________, or breakdown, of starch.

hydrolysis

Sometimes called first crystallization sugar, these sugars retain a small amount of ______-_______ refiners' syrup--generally less than __%. They have a pale ______ color and very ______ flavor, much closer to regular granulated sugar than to brown sugar.

lightly-colored, 2%, gold, mild

The maltodextrin-sucralose blend in Splenda can substitute ___ for ___ for sucrose (by volume, not weight).

one for one

Standard commercial rye bread formulas are generally what ratio?

one-quarter to one-half part rye flour to one part wheat flour.

Like gums, starch molecules are ___________.

polysaccharides.

Bakeries often rely on dough conditioners to reduce and eliminate what?

reduce mixing and eliminate bulk fermentation.

The sugar in regular glucose corn syrup provides some tenderness and sweetness to baked goods (although not as well as _______), and it moistens and browns (although not as well as ______ ________).

sucrose, invert syrup

Besides structure in baked goods, flour provides ________ to pastry creams and certain pie fillings.

thickening

Gelatin mixtures, when cooled to thicken, can be _________, much as egg whites can be.

whipped