HUM Module 1

Even though he was a contributor to it, Rousseau came to reject the aims of the Encyclopedia, especially its celebration of manufacturing and invention. In his 1755 Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among Men, he writes the following:

"As long as men were content with their rustic huts, as long as they confined themselves to sewing their garments of skin with thorns or fish-bones, and adorning themselves with feathers or shells, to painting their bodies with various color, to improving or decorating their bows and arrows; and to using sharp stones to make a few fishing canoes or crude musical instruments; in a word, so long as they applied themselves only to work that one person could accomplish alone and to arts that did not require the collaboration of several hands, they lived as free, healthy, good, and happy men . . . but from the instant on man needed the help of another, and it was found to be useful for one man to have provisions enough for two, equality disappeared, property was introduced, works became necessary, and vast forests were transformed into pleasant fields which had to be watered with the sweat of men, and where slavery and misery were soon seen to germinate and flourish with the crops."

The first thing that Descartes could not doubt was that he was thinking, which led him to the inevitable conclusion that he must actually exist in order to generate thoughts about his own existence as a thinking individual, which he famously expressed in the Latin phrase ______________________

"Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am")

The turmoil that had led to Civil War in 1642 to 1648 was followed in 1688 by a bloodless __________________________, the implementation of a Bill of Rights, and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, all of which seemed proof that reason could triumph over political and religious intolerance.

"Glorious Revolution"

The logic of the deists position led to the philosophes to a simple proposition, stated plainly by the philosophe Denis Diderot:

"Men will not be free until the last king is strangled with the entrails of the last priest."

Philosophes

"Philosophers" who frequented the salons and dominated the intellectual life of the French Enlightenment, a movement that emphasized reason and rationality and sought to develop a systematic understanding of divine and natural law. Not philosophers in the strictest sense of the word because they did not concentrate on matters metaphysical, but turned their attention to secular and social concerns, the philosophes were almost uniformly alienated from the Church, despising its hierarchy and ritual. They were also if not totally committed to the abolishment of the monarchy, which they saw as intolerant, unjust, and decadent, then at least deeply committed to its reform.

The greatest obstacle to introducing the world to the empirical method was _____________________.

"Superstition", and the blind and immoderate zeal of religion.

Louis's love of dance promoted another musical form at his court, the suite. A series of dances or dance-inspired movements, usually all in the same key, though varying between major and minor modes. Most suites consist of four to six dances of different tempos and meters. These might include the following:

1) Allemande, a dance of continuous motion in double meter (marked by two or a multiple of two beats per measure) and moderate tempo. 2) Bourree, a dance of short, distinct phrasing, in double meter and moderate to fast in tempo. 3) Courante, a dance often in running scales, in triple meter, and moderate to fast in tempo. 4) Gavotte, a "bouncy" dance, fast in tempo, and usually employing a 6/8 meter. 5) Sarabande, a slow and stately dance, with accent on the second beat, in triple meter.

Bacon believed, if we eliminate the errors in reasoning developed through our unwitting adherence to the false notions that every age has worshiped. He identified four major categories of false notion, which he termed Idols.

1) Idols of the Tribe. The common fallacies of all human nature, derived from the fact that we trust, wrongly, in our senses. 2) Idols of the Cave. Derive from our particular education, upbringing, and environment. An individuals religious faith, or sense of his or her ethnic or gender superiority would be examples. 3) Idols of the Marketplace. Errors that occur as a result of miscommunication, words that cause confusion by containing, as it were, hidden assumptions. For instance, the contemporary use of "man" or "mankind" to refer to people in general (common well into the twentieth century) connotes a world view in which hierarchical structures of gender are already assumed. 4) Idols of the Theater. The false dogmas of philosophy. Not only those of the ancients but those that "may yet be composed."

Parliament, mostly dominated now by Puritans, raised an army to oppose Prince Charles and his absolutist beliefs. A civil war erupted, lasting from __________________. The key political question was who should rule the country, the king or the parliament?

1642-1648

In _________, the Puritans defeated the king, and, while peace talks dragged on for three years, Charles made a secret pact with the Scots. Cromwell retaliated by suppressing the Scots, along with other royalist brigades in 1648. Charles was executed for treason on January 30, 1649, a severe blow to the divine right of kings, which was hardly lost on young Louis XIV across the Channel in France.

1645

The rationalist approach owed much to scientist Isaac Newton, who in ______ demonstrated to the satisfaction of just about everyone that the universe was an intelligible system, well ordered in its operations and guided principles.

1687

John Locke, however, disagreed with Hobbes. In his ______________________________, Locke repudiated Hobbes, arguing that people are perfectly capable of governing themselves. The human mind at birth, Lock claimed, is a tabula rasa, a "blank slate" and our environment (what we learn and how we learn it) fills this slate. Given this sense that we understand the world through experience, if we live in a reasonable society, it should follow, according to Locke's notion of the tabula rosa, that we will grow into reasonable people.

1690 Essay on Human Understanding

Across Europe, tea consumption rose from 40,000 pounds in 1699 to an annual average of _____________ pounds by 1708.

240,000

The Whigs gained favor with George, and so when he assumed the throne, George was predisposed to the Whigs and to their leading the government. For the next ________ the Whigs had access to public office and enjoyed royal patronage, and the Tories were effectively eliminated from public life. The end result was that Whig leadership, chiefly that of Robert Walpole, who can be regarded as the first English Prime Minister and who dominated the English political scene from 1721 to 1742, was consistent and predictable. Nothing could have fostered the Enlightenment more. Above all else, England's transformation from a state in near chaos to one in comparative harmony demonstrated what is probably the fundamental principle of Enlightenment thought: that social change and political reform are not only desirable but possible.

40 years

Poussinistes vs. Rubenistes

A debate that took place in the French Academy in the later 17th century over which modern painter provided the best model for artists to emulate.

Fugue

A genre that carries a single thematic idea for the entire length of the work.

Group portrait

A large canvas commissioned by a civic institution to document or commemorate its membership at a particular time.

Symphonic orchestra

A large ensemble that organized the orchestra into separate sections according to type of instrument: strings woodwinds, brass, and percussion.

Scientific Revolution

A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs.

Marie-Louise-Élisabeth Vigée-Le Brun

A major talent of the Rococo era. When she was only 20 years old, her paintings were commanding the highest prices in Paris. Vigée-Le Brun painted virtually all of the famous members of the French aristocracy, including on many occasions Marie-Antoinette, Louis XVI's queen, for whom she served as official portraitist. Vigée-Le Brun was an ardent royalist deeply committed to the monarchy. When she submitted "Marie-Antionette en chemise" to the Salon of 1783, she was asked to withdraw it, because many on the committee thought the very expensive gown the queen wore in the painting was lingerie -chemise, in French usage, refers to undergarments. The queen herself adored the painting, however, with its soft curves and petal-like textures. It presents her as the ideal Rococo female, the fete galante's very object of desire.

Deductive reasoning

A method that emerged from French-born Rene Descartes. Reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)

Balthasar Neumann

A military engineer turned designer, Balthasar was a Rococo artist whose two masterpieces were the pilgramage church of the Vierzehnheiligen (The Fourteen Saints) and the Bishop's Palace.

Cantata

A multi-movement musical commentary on the chosen text of the day, sung by soloists and chorus accompanied by one or more instruments, usually the organ. The first half of the cantata was performed after the scriptural lesson and the second half after the sermon, concluding with a chorale, a hymn sung in the vernacular by the entire congregation.

Binary form

A musical form consisting of two units (A and B) constructed to balance and complement each other.

Classical unities

A notion derived from Aristotle's Poetics that requires a play to have only one action that occurs in one place and within one day.

Geocentric Theory

A now archaic belief that the planets rotated around the earth and not the sun.

Rational Humanism

A philosophical belief system that through logical, careful thought, progress is inevitable. In other words, the more people know, the more likely they will invent new ways of doing things. Thus, the Encyclopedia illustrated manufacturing processes in the most careful detail, imagining that astute readers might recognize better, more efficient methods of manufacturing even as the processes were demystified.

Tories

A political faction opposed to the Whigs and tended to support the Anglican Church and English gentry. Naturally, they preferred a strong monarchy, while the Whigs favored Parliament retaining final sovereignty.

Whigs

A political faction that tended to support constitutionals monarchy as opposed to absolutism, and non-Anglican Protestants, such as Presbyterians.

Caricature

A portrait that exaggerates a person's peculiarities or defects.

East End

A semicircle of districts surrounding the area that extended from Saint Paul's in the west to the Tower of London in the East. Here, in all the neighborhoods of Saint Giles, Clerkenwell, Spitalfields, Whitechapel, Bethnal Green, and Wapping, the streets were narrow and badly paved, the houses old and constantly falling down, and drunkenness, prostitution, pickpocketing, assault, and robbery were the norm. On the outer edges, pig keepers and dairymen labored in a landscape of gravel pits, garbage dumps, heaps of ashes, and piles of horse manure.

Industrial Revolution

A series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods. The term itself was invented in the 19th century to describe the radical changes in production and consumption that had transformed the world.

Lunar Society

A society that met in and around Birmingham each month on the night of the full moon (providing both light to travel home by and the name of the society). Its members included prominent manufacturers, inventors, and naturalists. Among them were Matthew Boulton, whose world-famous Soho Manufactury provided a variety of metal objects, from buttons and buckles to silverware; James Watt, inventor of the steam engine, who would team with Boulton to produce it; Erasmus Darwin, whose writings on botany and evolution anticipate by nearly a century his grandson Charles Darwin's famous conclusions; William Murdock, inventor of gas lighting; Benjamin Franklin, who was a corresponding member; Josiah Wedgwood, Charles Darwin's other grandfather and the inventor of mass manufacturing at his Wedgwood ceramics factories. From 1765 to 1815, the group discussed chemistry, medicine, electricity, gases, and any and every topic that might prove fruitful for industry. It is fair to say that the Lunar Society's members inaugurated what we think of today as the Industrial Revolution.

French garden

A style of formal garden that is characterized by a methodical, geometrical design.

Absolutism

A term applied to strong, centralized monarchies that exert royal power over their dominions, usually on the grounds of divine right. The principle had its roots in the Middle Ages, when the pope crowned Europe's kings and went back even further to the man/god-kings of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. But by the 17th century, the divine right of kings was assumed to exist even without papal acknowledgment. The most famous description of the nature of absolutism is by Bishop Jacques-Benigne Bossuet, King Louis's court preacher and tutor to his son.

Vanitas paintings

A type of painting that reminds the viewer that pleasurable things in life inevitably fade, that the material world is not as long-lived as the spiritual, and that the spiritual should command our attention. They are, in short, examples of the memento mori - reminders that we all die.

Cartesian

After French philosopher Rene Descartes, philosophical analysis based on pure reason without empirical reference. An absolute distinction between mind and matter, and hence between the metaphysical soul and the physical body, a system of oppositions that has come to be known as Cartesian dualism.

Alexander Pope

An English poet, Pope shared Swift's assessment of the English nobility. For 12 years, from 1715 until 1727, Pope sent the majority of his time translating Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey", and producing a six-volume edition of Shakespeare, projects of such that he became a wealthy man. But in 1727 his literacy career changed directions and, as he wrote, he "stooped to truth, and moralized his song". He turned, in short, to satire. His first effort was the mock epic "Dunciad", published in 1728 and dedicated to Jonathan Swift. The poem opens with a direct attack on the king, George II, who had recently succeeded his father, George I, to the throne. For Pope, this suggested the goddess Dullness reigned over an England where "Dunce the second rules like Dunce the first". Pope's dunces are the very nobility that Swift attacks in the fourth book of Gulliver, men of "dullness, ignorance, caprice, sensuality, and pride" and the writers of the day whom Pope perceived to be supporting the policies of Walpole and the king. In the end, for Pope, humankind must strive for good, even if in its frailty it is doomed to fail.

Symphony

An elaborate musical composition for full orchestra, typically in four movements, at least one of which is traditionally in sonata form.

Minuet

An elegant triple-time dance of moderate tempo. It quickly became the most popular dance form in the age.

Don Giovanni

An opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, recounting the dissolute life of Don Juan. At the end, a statue of a man Don Giovanni has killed comes to life and drags the unscrupulous seducer into the burning pit of hell.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Another contributor to the Encyclopedia was Jean-Jacques Rousseau, an accomplished composer originally hired by Diderot to contribute sections on music. He believed that human beings are naturally good & free & can rely on their instincts. Government should exist to protect common good, and be a democracy.

Baroque Art

Art that originated in Rome and is associated with the Catholic Reformation, characterized by emotional intensity, strong self-confidence, spirit. Art that applies naturalistic, REALIST styles and contrast with light and dark. Religious and secular themes. Involved with ABSOLUTISM.

The rationalist approach

Assumes that the truth can best be discovered by reasoned contemplation.

Joseph Haydn

Austrian composer (18th century). Classic era. Established symphony as a musical form, having composed over 100. Also composed string quartets.

Concerto Grosso

Baroque concerto type based on the opposition between a small group of solo instruments (the concertino) and orchestra (the ripieno).

Parliament also passed a ____________________, guaranteeing that no Catholic could ever rule England and no British king could ever marry a Catholic. Additionally, it required monarchs to obey the law like other British citizens, and banned them from raising taxes without the consent of Parliament.

Bill of Rights

Jean Honoré Fragonard

Boucher's student, he carried on his master's tradition into the next generation. Fragonard's most important commission was a series of four paintings for Marie-Jeanne Bécu, comtesse du Barry, the last mistress of Louis XV. Entitled the Progress of Love, it was intended to portray the relationship between Madame du Barry and the king, but in the guise of young people whose romance occurs in the garden park of the countess's chateau at Louveciennes, itself a gift from Louis. The most famous painting in the series, entitles the Swing, suggests an erotic intrigue between two lovers.

Brandenburg Concertos

Concerts put on by Johann Sebastian Bach after king Frederick I of Prussia disbanded the prestigious Berlin court orchestra.

Dramma Giocoso

Combination of opera seria and opera buffa. Shows the character of society in Mozart's operas. Mozart's Don Giovanni

Masques

Dramatic entertainment similar to opera, in which masked performers represented mythological or allegorical characters.

One of Louis's favorite composes of dance suites was _______________________, who performed for him beginning at age 5.

Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de la Guerre

Isaac Newton

English mathematician and scientist who invented differential calculus and formulated the theory of universal gravitation, a theory about the nature of light, and three laws of motion. His treatise on gravitation, presented in Principia Mathematica (1687), was supposedly inspired by the sight of a falling apple.

Deism

Established by Descartes as one of the most important founders of deism, the brand of faith that argues that the basis of belief in god is reason and logic rather than revelation and tradition. Descartes did not believe that god was all that interested in interfering in human affairs. Nor was god endowed, particularly, with human character. He was, in Descartes's words "the mathematical order of nature."

Sonata form

Exposition, development, recapitulation, coda.

Cavalier

Famous for their style of dress: long, flowing hair, elaborate clothing, and large, sometimes feathered hats.

The leading advocate of the empirical method in the seventeenth century was the English scientist _______________.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

The first Prussian ruler to assert himself in European affairs was ______________________________, known as the Great Elector (an elector was one of the princes who elected the Holy Roman Emperor). It was the Great Elector who first began to build a sizable Prussian army. His son, Frederick, put this army at the disposal of the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor in 1701, and in return was permitted to call himself "King Frederick I in Prussia". That is, king of Prussia, but not beyond its bounds, and not to be confused with the Emperor.

Frederick William

In 1730, when the 18-year-old crown prince Frederick attempted to flee his father's tyrannical rule wit ha friend, Frederick William ordered the friend executed in from of the prince as a lesson in obedience. This same crown prince would himself become Frederick II, more commonly known as _____________________.

Frederick the Great

Moliere

French classicist playwright who produced popular comedies that exposed the hypocrisies and follies of society, sparing no one his ridicule. He attacked religious hypocrisy, misers, hypochondriacs, pretentious doctors, aging men who marry younger women, the gullible, and all social parasites. (Ironically, he himself was capable of the most audacious flattery).

Corneille

French tragic dramatist whose plays treat grand moral themes in elegant verse (1606-1684)

Bousset wrote a book dedicated to describing the source and proper exercise of political power. In it, he says the following:

God is infinite. God is all. The prince, as prince, is not regarded as a private person: he is a public personage, all the state is in him; the will of all the people is included in his. As all perfection and all strength are united in God, so all the power of individuals in united in the person of the prince. What grandeur that is a single man should embody so much? ... Behold an immense people united in a single person; behold the holy power, paternal and absolute; behold the secret cause which governs the whole body of the state, contained in a single head: you see the image of God in the king, and you have the idea of royal majesty. God is holiness itself, goodness itself, and power itself. In these things lies the majesty of God. In the image of these things lies the majesty of the prince.

After the _____________________, architect Christopher Wren proposed a grand redesign scheme that would have replaced the old city with boulevards and great squares. The need to rebuild the city's commercial infrastructure quickly made his plan impractical, and each property owner was essentially left to his own devices.

Great Fire of London

Under the rule of William and Mary, the turmoil that had marked British political life for at least a century was replaced by a period of relative stability. The new king and queen moved quickly to reaffirm the __________________, passed during the reign of Charles II in 1679. The act required a warrant for the arrest of anyone, detailing the reasons for the arrest, and the right to a speedy trial. It was a revolutionary abridgement of royal power. At least since the time of Henry VIII, English kings had imprisond their enemeies (or suspected enemies) for as long as they liked without trial.

Habeas Corpus Act

Style galant

In Rococo music, a style of music developed by French composers and characterized by graceful and simple melodies.

Score

Indicates what music is to played by each instrument.

Salon

Informal social gatherings at which writers, artists, philosophes, and others exchanged ideas. Among the most popular salons were those of Jeanne-Julie-Eleonore de Lespinasse.

The object of the empirical method is the destruction of these four Idols through ________________________

Intellectual objectivity.

Pianoforte

Invented around 1720, the piano was increasingly refined in design until it replaced the clavichord and the harpischord. The original name for a piano was pianoforte because it could play both soft (piano) and loud (forte), which the harpischord could not.

John Milton's Paradise Lost

Is an epic poem. An epic poem is a long narrative poem that chronicles events that have an important place in a society's cultural history. In 12 books, Milton composed a densely plotted poem with complex character development, rich theological reasoning, and long, wavelike sentences of blank verse. The subject of this epic is the Judeo-Christian story of the loss of Paradise by Adam and Eve and their descendants. As described in the Bible, the couple, enticed by Satan, disobeyed God's injuction that they not eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. Satan had revolted against God and then sought to destroy humanity. While occasionally virulently anti-Catholic, the poem is, among other things, a fair-minded essay on the possibilities of liberty and justice.

Passion

Is similar to an oratorio in form but tells the story from the gospels of the death and resurrection of Jesus.

Throughout the 18th century, the scientific findings of Newton and his predacessors, _______________________, were widely popularized and applied to the problems of everyday life. Experiments demonstrating the laws of physics became a popular form of entertainment.

Kepler and Galileo

Fantasias

Keyboard works that lack a conventional structure but follow, or at least give the impression of following, the composer's free flight of fantasy.

Francois Boucher

Madame de Pompadour's favorite painter. He began his career in the mid-1720s, copying the paintings of Watteau owned by Jean de Julienne, the principal collector of Watteau's works in France. Julienne, a manufacturer of dyes and fine fabrics had conceived the idea of engraving Watteau's work so that a wider public could enjoy it, and Boucher was easily the best of Julienne's copyists.

Tulipomania

Known as the "great tulip madness" of 1634 to 1637. During those three years, frenzied speculation in tulip bulbs nearly ruined the entire Dutch economy.

Natural law

Law derived from nature and binding upon human society. In Newtonian terms, god had created a great clock, and it ran like clockwork, except for the interference of inept humanity. So humans had to take control of their own destinies. Deists viewed the Bible as a work of mythology and superstition, not the revealed truth of God. They scoffed at the idea of the divine right of kings.

Oratorios

Lengthy choral works, either sacred or secular, but without action or scenery, performed by a narrator, soloists, chorus, and orchestra for Christmas and Easter.

Tensions were apparent across Europe, particularly in Prussia, where an absolute monarchy consciously emulated the courts of ________________________. In painting, the absolutist courts preferred a sensual style of painting indebted to Rubens, while the philosophes admired paintings that were representational and conveyed emotional truth.

Louis XIV and XV

Castrati

Men who were subjected to castration in their youth in order to preserve their high voices.

In the Americas, the European Baroque merged with ____________________________________ decorative tastes to produce what is possibly the era's most elaborate expression of the Baroque.

Native American

Still life

Paintings dedicated to the representation of common household objects and food.

Genre scenes

Paintings or sculptures of ordinary, everyday activities.

Comedie-ballet

Part ballet, part opera, a comedie-ballet is a dramatic performance that features interludes of song and dance.

Satires of Johnathon Swift

Perhaps the most biting satirist of English Enlightenment, Jonathon Swift wrote a letter to fellow satirist and friend Alexander Pope. He confided that he hated the human race for having misused its capacity for reason simply to further its own corrupt self-interest. After a modestly successful career as a satirist in the first decade of the 18th century, Swift was named Dean of Saint Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin in 1713, and it was there that he wrote his most famous works, "Gulliver's Travels" and the brief, almost fanatically savage "A Modest Proposal" in 1729. There, reacting to the families who could not afford to feed their children breed them to be butchered and served to the English.

Denis Diderot

Philosopher who edited a book called the Encyclopedia, which was banned by the French king and pope. Its editors were the teacher and translator Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, a mathemetician who was in charge of the articles on mathematics and science. Both were active participants in salon society, and d'Alembert in fact lived with the great hostess Julie de Lespinasse. Louis XV claimed that the Encyclopedia was doing "irreparable damage to morality and religion."

Voltaire published his feelings in his 1734 ________________________________.

Philosophical Letters

Cromwell then took over, dissolving the parliament and ruling on his own. When he died in September of 1658, his system of government died with him. A new parliament was convened, which issued an invitation to _____________ who was exiled in the Netherlands to return as king.

Prince Charles

Rubens

Prolific Flemish baroque painter.

Heroic couplets

Rhyming pairs of iambic pentameter lines (the meter of Shakespeare, consisting of five shot-long syllabic units) that reflect the balance and harmony of Classical art and thought.

An organization founded in 1660 and later known as "The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge" remains to this day as part of the _______________ and is one of the leading forces in international science, dedicated to the recognition of excellence in science and the support of leading-edge scientific research and its applications.

Royal Society.

King Louis collected many paintings created by the artist

Rubens.

Opera Seria and Opera Buffa

Serious opera and Comic opera.

__________________ provided for the peaceful succession of the English crown. The act named Anne, Mary's younger sister, as heir to the throne upon William's death (Mary had died of smallpox in 1694). Should none of Anne's children survive her (and, in fact, none did), the act called for the Protestant House of Hanover in Germany to succeed to England's throne. Anne succeeded William in 1702, and upon her death, in 1714, George I, who spoke only German at the time, became King of England.

Settlement Act of 1701

Frederick William I (king Frederick I of Prussia's son) followed in his fathers footsteps and created a centralized bureaucracy known as the General Directory. He imposed taxes on the nobility and enforced them by means of his army, which included his personal bodyguards. They were known as the _______________________ for their extraordinary stature; the tallest among them was an Irishman who at nearly 7 feet was one of the tallest men of the age.

Tall Fellows

________________________________could be considered the driving force of the Industrial Revolution.

Textile manufacturing

Prussia and the Rococo

The Kingdom of Prussia, with its two royal capitals of Berlin and Potsdam, exerted an almost uncanny power over Europe in the 18th century. As a state, Prussia demanded obedience to its rulers, the Hohenzollern family. They had controlled the German territory of Branden burg since 1417 and, over the next couple of centuries and through the good fortune of inheritance, had acquired additional scattered holdings in the west along the Rhine, and in the east, controlled New East Prussia as far as present-day Lithuania, including most of northern Poland. By 1740, it was a military giant, its army numbering almost 80,000 men, the third largest in Europe. Discipline was valued above all else. The Prussian social elite was the officer corps, which was composed largely of Junkers, the songs of the German nobility.

______________________________ provided Puritans with the freedom to worship as they chose, thought neither Puritans nor Roman Catholics were allowed to hold positions in government or attend universities.

The Toleration Act

Counterpoint

The addition of one or more independent melodies above or below the main melody.

Inductive reasoning

The proposition that, through the direct and careful observation of natural phenomena, one could draw general conclusions from particular examples, and with it, scientists believed they could predict the workings of nature as a whole.

Empirical method

The combination of inductive reasoning and scientific experimentation.

Racine

The first French playwright to live entirely on earnings from his plays.

the Spanish Fury

The greatest atrocity of the war between Spain and the Netherlands. Spanish mercenaries ran amok in a four-day battle in Antwerp, leaving 7,000 citizens dead.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

The greatest musical genius of the Classical era was Haydn's younger contemporary and colleague, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Mozart wrote his first original composition at age 6, in 1762, the year after Haydn assumed his pose with Prince Eserhazy. When Mozart was just 8, the prodigy penned his first symphony. Over the course of his 35 year life, Mozart would write 40 more, plus 70 string quartets, 20 operas, 60 sonatas, and 23 piano concertos.

Heliocentric Theory

The idea that the earth and the other planets revolve around the sun. Largely substantiated by Johannes Kepler, he challenged the traditional belief that the orbits of the planets were spherical, showing that the five known planets moved around the sun in elliptical paths determined by the magnetic force of the sun and their relative distance from it. His interest in optics was spurred on when he recognized that the apparent diameter of the moon differed when observed directly and when observed using a camera obscura, a device that temporarily reproduces an image on a screen or a wall.

Chinoiserie

The imitation or evocation of Chinese motifs and techniques in Western art, furniture, and architecture, especially in the 18th century.

Madame de Pompadour

The mistress of Louis XV who used her ability to take away her "services" to gain power and to give advice about and make important government decisions. She was a great defender of the philosophes and she blocked efforts to have the works of the philosophes suppressed by censors and was successful in keeping works attacking the philosophes out of circulation.

Voltaire

The third great figure among the Parisian philosophes was Francois-Marie Arouet, known by his pen name, Voltaire. So well schooled, so witty, and so distinguished was Voltaire that to many minds he embodies all the facets of a very complex age. He wrote voluminously -plays, novels, poems, and history. More that any other philosophe, he saw the value of other, non-Western cultures and traditions and encouraged his fellow philosophes to follow his lead. He was a man of science and an adviser to both Louis XV and Frederick the Great of Prussia. He believed in an enlightened monarchy, but even as he served the rulers, he satirized them. This earned his a year in the Bastille prison in 1717 to 1718, and later, in 1726, another year in exile in London. Voltaire's year in England convinced him that life under the British system of governance was far preferable to life under what he saw as a tyrannical French monarchy.

Age of Enlightenment

The time period in the 1700s during which many Europeans began to break away from tradition and rethink political and social norms. Across Europe, intellectuals began to advocate rational thinking as the means to acheiving a comprehensive system of ethics, aesthetics, and knowledge.

Jean-Antoine Watteau

This French Rococo artist was responsible for the creation of the fête galante genre. Gallant, and by extension amorous, celebrations or parties enjoyed by an elite group in a pastoral or garden setting.

Tragedie en Musique

Tragedy in music. Jean-Baptiste Lully's tragedies en musique generally consist of: 1) An overture, distinguished by a slow, homophonic melody (associated with the royal dignity) that built to a faster contrapuntal section a form today known as the French overture. 2) An allegorical prologue, which established the drama's connection to recent events in court, always flattering to the king. 3) Five acts of sung drama, subdivided into several scenes. 4) A multitude of intermezzi -called divertissments in France- short displays of dance, song, or instrumental music.

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke

Two seventeenth-century English thinkers, set forth ideas that were to become key to the Enlightenment.

String quartet

Two violins, a viola, and a cello.

Rococo

Very elaborate and ornate (in decorating or metaphorically, as in speech and writing); relating to a highly ornate style of art and architecture in 18th-century France. Along the way, the style became increasingly elaborate, with architectural interiors employing a vocabulary of S- and C- curves, shell, wing, scroll, and plant tendril forms, and rounded, convex, often asymmetrical surfaces surrounded by elaborate frames, called cartouches. In its decorative excess, the Rococo is related to the ornate retablos (altarpiece ensembles) of Mexican churches.

Gin Lane

William Hogarth's painting illustrating life in the gin shops.

By approaching what might the called the "dark side" of Enlightenment and exposing to it all, dissenting writers and artists like_____________________________________________________, believed they might, by means of irony and the often deadpan humor that marks their satire, return England to its proper path.

William Hogarth, Jonathan Swift, and Alexander Pope

When Pope Urban VIII was elected pope, Galileo appealed Paul's verdict, but Urban went even further. He demanded that Galileo _______________________________

admit his error in public and sentenced him to life in prison.

In the Americas, the Spanish monarch asserted his absolute authority by encouraging the creation of ___________________________ as symbols of his divine right to rule over the two continents.

art and achitecture

In England, the monarchy struggled to assert its divine right to rule as it fought for power against Puritan factions that denied absolutism. Royalist and Puritan factions each developed distinctive styles of _____________________

art and literature.

In 1615, Galileo was required to defend his ideas before Pope Paul V in Rome, and failed to convince the pontiff. He was banned from ___________________________________

both publishing and teaching his findings.

Most philosophes were ______________, who accepted the idea that god created the universe but did not believe that he had much, if anything to do with its day-to-day workings. Rather, the universe proceeded according to what they termed natural law.

deists

In 1600, when the astronomer Giordano Bruno had asserted that the universe was infinite and without center and that other solar systems might exist in space __________________

he was burned at the stake.

This form of ____________, literally, from the Latin liberare, "to free" sets the stage for the political revolutions that will dominate the Western world in the 18th and 19th centuries.

liberalism

The musical form that most clearly announces the death of the Rococo is the _____________

opera

In later works, Locke went even further to refute the divine rights of kings and argued that humans are "by nature free, equal, and independent". They agree to government in order to protect themselves, but the social contract to which they submit does not require them to surrender their ________________________. The ruler has only limited authority that must be held in check by a governmental system balanced by a separation of powers. Finally, they expect the ruler to protect their rights, and if the ruler fails, they have the right to revolr in order to recliam their natural freedom.

own sovereignty to their ruler

The tension in the 18th century between the ________________, who aspired to establish a new social order of superior moral and ethical quality, and the __________________________, whose taste favored a decorative and erotic excess that the philosophes abhorred.

philosophes; French courtiers

By the middle of the 1690s, the royal privilege of ___________________ was permanently abandoned.

press censorship

Hobbes believed that most humans recognize their own essential depravity and therefore willingly submit to governance. They accept the __________________________, which means giving up sovereignty over themselves and bestowing it on a ruler. They carry out the ruler's demands and the ruler, in return, agrees to keep the peace. Humankind's only hope, Hobbes argued, is to submit to a higher authority, the "Leviathan" the biblical sea monster who is the absolutist "king over all the sons of pride".

social contract

King Louis inherited 200 paintings from his father but increased the royal collection ____________ during his reign.

tenfold

The intellectuals of Enlightenment England thought of themselves as the guiding lights of a new era of progress that would leave behind, once and for all, the irrationality, superstition and tyranny that had defined Western culture, particularly before ____________________

the Renaissance.

King Louis also established his authority through his control of _______________

the arts.

In the semifictional work __________, published in 1762, Rousseau created a theory of education that has influenced teaching to the present day. He believed that the education of a child begins at birth. Émile's five books correspond to the five stages of its hero's social development. The first two books outline the youth's growth to age 12, what Rousseau calls the Age of Nature. The third and fourth books describe his adolescence, and the fifth, the Age of Wisdom, his growing maturity between age 20 to 25. The most important years, Rousseau believed, were early adolescence, from age 12 to 15. Entering the teenage years, the child, named Émile by Rousseau, begins formal education, turning his attention to only what he finds "useful" or "pleasuring". As a results, the child finds pleasure in education and exciting. An experience that naturally leads his imagination to the enjoyment and contemplation of beauty.

Émile