India and China create empires

Farmers under the rule of the Guptas

Farmers worked their land, following the cycle of the seasons. Each family was led by the father, and all members of the family worked on the farm. Part of each crop had to be paid to the king each year. Farmers also had to set aside part of each month to work on community resources such as wells or dams. Craft workers and those who worked in trade lived in special sections of each village, town, or city.

What pattern of government developed in Japan?

Feudalism

Africa's deserts

About a third of Africa's land is desert. This harsh land holds few people. It also forms a barrier to people who want to move from one area to another. The Sahara Desert in the north of Africa is about one-third the size of the United States. Dense rain- forests cover much of the central part of Africa. This area receives heavy rainfall. Trees grow to towering heights and block sunlight from the forest floor. As a result, few small plants grow underneath the tall trees.

Muslims, Christians and Jews are...

Abrahamic besties were these religions!

Umayyad Caliphate

A family known as the Umayyads took power over the vast empire. They did not follow the sim- ple life of earlier caliphs and surrounded them- selves with wealth. This created a division within the Muslim community.

African Agriculture

About 10,000 B.C., some people in Africa began to farm—growing their own food instead of gather- ing wild food. Later the climate changed, bringing more rainfall to the Sahara. People farmed there until the climate changed once again around 4000 B.C. and the desert returned. The people then left the desert and headed for many different areas. They went to farm in the Nile Valley and West Africa or on the grasslands. Some moved to the rain forest.

Abu's Battles

Abu-Bakr reacted quickly when a group of Arabs abandoned Islam. He defeated them in bat- tle over a two-year period. Abu-Bakr died soon thereafter. However, his army became an effective fighting force that began to conquer new lands. The Arabs took Syria and lower Egypt from the Byzantine Empire. By 750, the Muslim Empire stretched from the Indus River in India west to the Atlantic Ocean.

Muslim Women's Rights

According to Muslim law, women should obey men. However, Muslim women still enjoyed more rights than did those living in European society of the time. They had some economic and property rights. In the early Muslim society, women could also have an education and take part in public life. Later they lost those rights.

Africa's climate

Africa has many different environments. The Equator crosses Africa and much of the continent lies in the tropics, where the weather is hot all year round. Even in this area, though, the environments are widely different. There are hot, dry deserts; steamy, wet rain forests; and high, cool mountains.

Africa's Geography

Africa is the second largest continent in the world. It reaches 4,600 miles from east to west and 5,000 miles from north to south. It has about one-fifth of the earth's land. Much of the land is a high plateau, with lower land near the coasts. The rivers that flow along this high land often form waterfalls or rapids. As a result, boats cannot use these rivers to travel either to or from the coast. Also, the coast is not good for boats. It has relatively few harbors for so large a landmass.

African Technology

African peoples still use this method for obtaining food. Men hunt animals with spears or bows and arrows. Women and children gather roots and berries. Over time, these people learned to tame animals and raise them for food. These ancient herders kept cattle, goats, or sheep. Like the hunters and gatherers, these herders were nomadic people. As they moved, they looked for plentiful grass and for water for their animals. When food or water was used up in one area, they moved to another.

The Muslim caliphate divisons

After 750, Muslim caliphates existed on three continents. The Abbasids (750-1258) conquered the Umayyads and took over the east. They held the lands of modern Iraq, Iran, and central Asia. They built the city of Baghdad in central Iraq as their capital. They were powerful, using their loca- tion to control the rich trade between China and Europe. They formed a complex government to run their empire.

Power struggle with Muslim Groups

After the murder of a ruling caliph in 656, dif- ferent Muslim groups began to struggle for control of the empire. Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was chosen caliph. After a few years, he, too, was killed. The system of electing caliphs died with him.

Aksum's lingual advances

Aksum had other advances as well. Outside of Egypt and Meroë, it was the only culture of ancient Africa to have a written language. The language of Aksum had been brought to the land by Arab traders many hundreds of years before.

Aksums geography

Aksum may have begun when Arabian traders mixed with the people of Kush about 1000 B.C. Its first mention in written records is in a Greek book from A.D. 100 that talks about the king of Aksum. About that time, the kingdom of Aksum began to grow, taking other lands. Some were in Africa, and some were on the Arabian peninsula.

The fall of Aksum

Aksum remained an important power in East Africa for 800 years. It was first challenged in the 600s, though, after the new religion of Islam came to Arabia. The followers of Islam captured the lands that Aksum held in the Arabian peninsula. Within a few decades, they had taken much of North Africa, and Aksum remained an island of Christianity in a sea of Islam. At first, these conquerors left Aksum alone. By 710, however, they had destroyed its chief port on the Red Sea. The Aksum kings moved their capital over the mountains to a hard-to-reach area. Cut off from other Christian lands and from the sea trade, though, Aksum went into decline.

Russian sancritism

Although it was based on the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire had developed a culture all its own. Few people in the Byzantine Empire spoke the Latin of the old Roman Empire. They spoke Greek and belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church, not the Catholic Church that was centered in Rome. The Eastern Church was led by an official named the patriarch, the leading bishop. However, even he had to obey the emperor. Slowly the Eastern and Roman churches grew fur- ther apart. In 1054, the split became permanent. Services in the Eastern Church were conducted in Greek, not in Latin as in the Roman Church. The Eastern Church also allowed priests to marry and let its members have divorces. Some missionaries traveled from the Byzantine Empire to the north. They met a people known as the Slavs and converted them to the eastern form of Christianity. In this way, the influence of the Byzantine Empire entered Russia as that nation began to form.

Farming and the sahara

Another reason they moved was that their farm- ing was so successful. Farming helped them produce more food than they could by hunting and gather- ing. With more to eat, groups became larger—and the land more crowded. They could not move north, where the Sahara Desert made a barrier. So they had to move farther and farther south. As they reached new areas, the Bantu peoples met other peoples. Sometimes these meetings were violent. The Bantus, who knew how to make iron, had better weapons than those they met, who only had stone tools. Some of the peoples that they met are still found in Africa, but they live in small areas with very harsh environments. The Bantus took the better land.

Muhammad's early life

Around the year A.D. 570, Muhammad was born into this Arab society. Though a member of a pow- erful family of Mecca, his early life was difficult. He was orphaned at age six and received little school- ing. However, he became a successful merchant. Muhammad was always interested in religion. At around age 40, he took religion as his life's mission. One night, the angel Gabriel visited him and told him to proclaim the word of God to his people.

Seljuk Turks

As these changes took place, larger and larger numbers of Turks settled in the empire. They were called Seljuk Turks after the name of the family that led them. In 1055, the Seljuks captured Baghdad and took control of the government. In the next few decades, the Seljuks used their force to take land away from another empire—the Byzantine Empire. They won almost all of Anatolia, the peninsula where modern Turkey now sits. In this position, they stood almost at the gates of Constantinople. In ruling their empire, the Seljuks relied on the government experience of Persians. They placed their capital in Persian lands and gave Persians important positions in the government. In return, Persians became loyal supporters of Turkish rule.

Chinese trade

At the same time, several industries became important. The government took control of mining salt and making iron, coins, and alcohol. For a while the government went to work making silk. This expensive cloth was in great demand in India, Rome, and other lands. Only the Chinese knew how to make silk from the cocoons of the silkworm, and they kept their secret closely guarded. They wanted to be sure to control the trade. China now included many different peoples, and the Han rulers tried to make sure that they learned Chinese ways. They urged their people to marry with people from these other groups. New books told the story of the history of China.

Ka'abaian worship

At this time, the Arab people believed in many gods. Religious pilgrims came to Mecca to worship at an ancient shrine called the Ka'aba. Over the years, Arabs had introduced the worship of many gods and spirits to the Ka'aba. It contained more than 360 idols brought there by several tribes.

Aksum's languages

Because it was a trading center, Aksum was home to peoples from many different cultures. At the time of King Ezana, these different peoples all spoke to one another in Greek in order to be understood. The mixing of these different peoples did more than bring a new language to Aksum.

What did the Turks do in Baghdad?

Beginning in the 900s, they moved into the lands of that empire and began converting to Islam. These fierce nomads were highly skilled fighters. The rulers of the empire began to buy them as chil- dren to train them for their armies. Turks became an important political factor in the empire. Turkish soldiers many times removed caliphs from the throne in Baghdad and put new rulers in place.

The oldest west African city

By looking for signs of the past, archaeologists found an ancient city in West Africa. Djenné-Djeno is the oldest known African city south of the Sahara. The city rested on the banks of the Niger River. Researchers have found thousands of objects such as pottery, toys, jewelry, and knives. The oldest pieces are from 250 B.C.

Arabian Trade

By the early 600s, trade had become an impor- tant activity in the Arabian Peninsula. Merchants from the Byzantine and Sassanid empires to the north brought goods to Arabia. They traded in the cities for spices and other goods. They also brought new ideas.

Was Chandragupta a nice dude?

Chandragupta was a harsh ruler. He charged a heavy tax on all the farmers who raised food—one- half of the crop they grew each year. He used the wealth he gained to build a huge army. He created a government that he controlled by carefully choos- ing officials and keeping a watchful eye on them. He split his empire into four provinces, each ruled by a prince. These areas, in turn, were divided into smaller pieces that were run by members of the government. We know a great deal about life in Chandragupta's court because Seleucus sent a Greek there as an ambassador. He described the richness of the palace and the beauty of the capital city.

Sunnah

Even today, for Muslims, their private and reli- gious lives are the same. So, many religious laws tell Muslims how they must live. Some rules forbid them from eating pork or drinking alcohol. Every Friday afternoon they meet as a community for prayer. The central ideas of the Muslim religion are found in the Qur'an, which Muslims believe to be the will of Allah as revealed to Muhammad. The Qur'an is written in Arabic, and that language spread as the faith of Islam spread. Muslims are also guided by the example of Muhammad's life, called the Sunna, and by a set of laws and rules.

Chandra Gupta

For the next 500 years, India was a land of troubles. In the center of India, a new kingdom arose to dominate the scene. In the northwest, many Greeks, Persians, and Central Asians entered the land, fleeing the invasions of others. They added new ideas and languages to India's rich mix of culture. In the south, three different kingdoms fought each other off and on. Around A.D. 320, a new power arose in the north. It was Chandra Gupta (not related to the first emperor), and he came to power by marrying the daughter of an important royal family. With this alliance, he took the title of king and began to con- quer other areas.

Emporer Wudi

From 141 to 87 B.C., the emperor Wudi ruled Han China. He made the area of his empire much larger, pushing it almost to the size of modern China. He began by defeating some nomads who lived in the north and bothered the people with constant attacks. He moved troops and settlers to the west. He sent soldiers to the north into modern Korea and to the south to modern Vietnam.

What factors helped create Mongol success in war?

Good fighters, an organized army, and wit contributed to the Mongol's success regarding their conquests.

How did Hinduism spread?

Hinduism changed too. By the time of the Mauryan Empire, only priests were involved in many rituals of the faith. For centuries, Hinduism had been a religion of many gods. Now other reli- gions based on only one god were becoming more important. Many Hindus began to emphasize three gods in particular. By devoting themselves to these gods, people began to feel the religion more directly in their lives.

Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II

His son, Samudra Gupta, followed the same pol- icy and for 40 years fought to win new lands for the Gupta Empire. His son, Chandra Gupta II, brought the empire to its largest size. He managed to take parts of western India, including important ports on the Indian Ocean. With these, the Guptas were able to engage in the rich trade that con- nected India, Southwest Asia, and the world of the Mediterranean Sea. The Gupta Empire, like the Mauryan Empire before it, now stretched all across northern India.

Justinian's accomplishments pt. 1

In 527, Justinian became the Byzantine emperor. He sent an army to try to regain control of Italy and restore the Roman Empire once again. His army managed to win almost all of Italy and much of Spain from the Germans. By around 550, Justinian ruled over almost all of the old Roman Empire's territory. Under the direction of Justinian, legal experts created a complete code of laws based on the laws of ancient Rome. This body of civil law—the Justinian Code—served the empire for 900 years.

Identify two changes in technology or society that took place in Tang and Song China

In Tang and Song China, In Song China, the Grand Canal was built to better China's agriculture. In Tang China, gunpowder and portable typing was invented which bettered war technology and literature.

Muslim Literature

In philosophy, the Muslim scholar Ibn Rushd tried to join together the thinking of ancient Greeks with Muslim ideas. Muslim literature developed a strong tradition. The Qur'an is the standard for all Arabic literature and poetry. The collection The Thousand and One Nights included many entertaining stories, fairy tales, and legends. It was read and narrated through- out the Muslim world.

Muslim scientific achievements

In science, Muslims studied the work of ancient Greek scientists but took a new approach. The Greeks had tried to learn about nature by using logic to reach conclusions. In contrast, Muslims used experiments to test ideas. Another field of advance was astronomy. One Muslim scientist made new discoveries about how people see. His findings helped lead later to the invention of the telescope and microscope.

Vladimir's rule

In the 980s, the ruler of Russia—Vladimir— converted to Byzantine Christianity. He also ordered all of his subjects to adopt this religion. Now more than trade linked Russia to the Byzantine Empire. Russia also looked to Constantinople for religious leadership. Teachers from the empire gave the Russian people instructions in the new religion. The king liked the idea that the ruler of the empire was also the head of the church. Under the influence of Byzantine culture, Kiev grew to be a large, wealthy, and cultured city. The state grew, as Vladimir took land to the west and to the north. His son, Yaroslav the Wise, proved an able ruler as well. Under him, Kiev grew even more wealthy through trade and alliances made with western nations.

Constantine's accomplishments

In the A.D. 300s, the Roman emperor Constantine was worried about the growing power of German tribes. He moved the Roman Empire's capital to the east, where he could better meet that threat. The location also put him closer to the eastern provinces of the empire, which were richer than those in the west. He built a great new capital city, Constantinople, on the site of the old port city of Byzantium. Constantinople became the center of an empire in the eastern area of the Mediterranean Sea that lasted for hundreds of years. It was called the Byzantine Empire.

What two cultures influenced the people of Southeast Asia? How does geography help explain why?

India and China influenced Southeast Asian culture, since they are closely connected by the sea which enhanced their trade.

Trade in the Indian Ocean

India was also a center of trade. It traded cotton cloth and animals to China for silk. Traders brought spices from Southeast Asia to India along caravan routes called the Silk Roads. Then they sold them to Rome and to other western peoples. This trade was so busy that large numbers of Roman coins have been found in India. The Indians also traded their own cotton cloth in Africa for ivory and gold. They sent rice and wheat to Arabia for dates and horses. They carried out this trade by land and sea. Along with goods, Indians spread their culture. The art and architecture of many lands in Southeast Asia shows the influence of Indian art. Some adopted Hinduism, and many began to follow Buddhism.

Artistic advances of the Gupta Empire

Indian art enjoyed a period of great vigor during these centuries. Poets and playwrights wrote beau- tiful works of literature, while other artists laid the foundations for the classical form of dance in India.

What religion did Eithiopia adopt

It also brought a new religion. During his rule, King Ezana decided to become a Christian. Slowly, the religion spread throughout the land. Even today, about 22 million people in modern Ethiopia are Christian.

Justinian's Accomplishments Pt. 2

Justinian also worked at making Constantinople a strong and beautiful capital. He built high, strong walls to protect the city from attack by either land or sea. He built a huge palace, public baths, courts, schools, hospitals, and many churches. The main street of the city was lined with shops and open-air markets, where people bought and sold goods from Asia, Africa, and Europe. Another huge building was used to stage chariot races and circus acts.

How did Liu Bang rule?

Liu Bang made his government strong so that no one else could rival him for power. Local officials led the government throughout the land. They reported to the emperor in the capital. The rule of the previous emperor had been very harsh. Liu Bang took a different approach. He lowered taxes and had lighter penalties for crimes. Life became easier for the Chinese people.

Liu Bang

Liu Bang, turned on the other and defeated him in battle. In 202 B.C., he named him- self the first emperor of the Han Dynasty. The Han would rule parts of China for the next 400 years and set many patterns for Chinese culture for cen- turies to come.

Bantu-speaking peoples

Many languages spoken in Africa today developed from the same parent language called Proto-Bantu. The people who spoke Bantu first lived in a part of modern Nigeria. In the first few centuries A.D., they began to move south and east. Over time, they spread throughout Africa south of the Sahara Desert, reaching the southern tip around 500 years ago. They brought their language and their culture with them.

How were people persuaded to join Islam?

Many of these people accepted Islam. Some found the message of Islam appealing. Some liked the fact that by becoming Muslims they avoided paying a tax put only on non-Muslims. The Qur'an prevented Muslims from forcing others to accept the religion, however. Muslim rulers allowed peo- ple to follow whatever beliefs they chose.

Umayyad debate and division

Most Muslims accepted Umayyad rule. However, some did resist, and a different view of the office of caliph developed. The Shi'a group—the "party" of the deceased Ali—felt that caliphs needed to be relatives of Muhammad. Those who did not out- wardly resist Umayyad rule became known as the Sunni. Another group, the Sufi, reacted to the Umayyads' life of luxury. The Sufis emphasized a more spiritual way of life.

What did Muhammad preach?

Muhammad began to teach that there was only god, one God—Allah. His religion was called Islam, and its followers took the name of Muslims. He con- verted a few friends and family members and then began to preach in public. At first, many people in Mecca violently opposed Muhammad's views. They feared Meccans would neglect traditional Arab gods. Muhammad and his followers were forced to leave Mecca for Yathrib (later called Medina) in 622. Muhammad became a leader of that city.

Caliphates and Connections

One Umayyad prince had escaped to Spain in 750. There Muslims known as Berbers already existed. The prince set up a Muslim state called al- Andalus. The Umayyads of al-Andalus (756-976) controlled parts of Spain and North Africa. Another Muslim state—the Fatimid caliphate (909-1171)—sprang up in North Africa. It eventu- ally spread to western Arabia and Syria. The Muslims were divided politically. However, the Abbasids, Umayyads of al-Andalus, and Fatimids were linked by religion, language, culture, and trade.

Muslim Society

Muslim society was divided into four groups. At the top were people who were Muslims from birth. Next came those who converted to Islam. The third group included Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians—protected because Muslims shared some of their beliefs. The fourth group was slaves, none of whom were Muslims.

The 5 pillars of Islam

Muslims have five duties to perform. The duties show a person's accepting of the will of God: • A person must state a belief that there is no God but Allah and that Muhammad is his prophet. • A person must pray to Allah, facing Mecca, five times every day. • A person must give aid to poor people through a tax. • A person must eat only one meal a day, after sunset, every day during the holy month of Ramadan. • A person should perform the hajj—a trip to the holy city of Mecca—at least once in his or her life.

Muslim learning

Muslims placed a high value on learning. Muslim scholars added much to humans' store of knowledge. Europe was in chaos, and much that had been known in ancient Greece and Rome was lost. During this time, Muslim scholars kept much of this knowledge alive. They collected ancient Greek, Indian, and Persian works of science and philosophy and translated them into Arabic. One center of this study was the House of Wisdom built in Baghdad. Later, this ancient learning returned to Europe when the works of Muslim scholars were translated.

Muslim culture affecting our world

Muslims put to use the traditions in art that they found among the other peoples they met. Muslims had their own special practices in art, however. For instance, artists could not draw pictures of people. Only Allah, the religion said, could create life. Unable to draw these images, Muslims developed a new art form. They practiced calligraphy, or the art of beautiful handwriting. Some of this writing was used to decorate the beautiful buildings that Muslims built. These buildings often showed the blending of cultures that was a major part of the Muslim world.

Who created algebra?

One area in which Muslim scholars made great advances was medicine. The physician al-Razi wrote an encyclopedia that collected all that was known about medicine from Greece to India. Another area of advance was mathematics. A brilliant mathematician named al-Khwarizmi wrote a textbook that introduced a new branch of math. By developing algebra, he was able to use known quantities to find unknown quantities.

Women in China

One group that did not do well in Han China was women. According to the teachings of Confucius, women were supposed to meet the needs of their husband and children and not become involved in other areas of life. Although some women in the emperor's family might wield power, this was rare. The empire began to have problems as the rich people who owned large amounts of land grew more and more rich. The poor, at the same time, were being forced to pay heavy taxes.

Farming in the Bantu migration

One reason that these people moved had to do with how they farmed. Their method was to clear forest land by burning down trees. This left a plot of rich soil that was suitable for growing food—for a few years. After that, however, the soil no longer could produce good crops. The people then needed to move to a new area to clear a new patch of ground.

Ivan I

That city had a good location near three major rivers: the Dnieper, Don, and Volga. By the 1320s, under Prince Ivan I of Moscow, this position could be used to expand the power of Moscow. Ivan served the Mongols by crushing a local rebellion. In return, the Mongol ruler gave him the right to collect the tribute in all of European Russia. Now the most powerful Russian prince, Ivan I became known as "Ivan Moneybags." He increased the influence of Moscow by per- suading the leader of the Russian church in Kiev to move to Moscow. Over time, Ivan and his succes- sors added to the land that Moscow controlled. In the late 1400s, under Ivan III, Russia grew to be a mighty empire. In 1453, the Byzantine Empire had fallen, defeated by the Turks. In 1472, Ivan married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, linking himself to that historic throne. From then on, he called himself czar, which was the Russian version of Caesar. In 1480, Ivan finally broke with the Mongols. He refused to pay that year's tribute. Because the Mongols did not respond militarily, Russia had in effect won its independence from Mongol rule.

Bedouin values

The Bedouins developed a society based on family groups called clans. Courage and loyalty to the family, as well as warrior skills, were important values.

How did Buddhism become popular

The Buddha had taught that a tough course of spiritual life was the way to escape from the suffer- ing of the world. Self-denial was difficult for many people to follow, however. Many people came to worship the Buddha himself as a god, even though he had forbidden it. Then they came to believe that other people could become Buddhas themselves through good works and sacrifice. These ideas created a new kind of Buddhism, and the religion broke into two ways of belief. Some took the new doctrine, and others held on to the stricter beliefs. However, with this new approach, Buddhism became a popular religion. All believers had the chance to be saved.

What did the Gupta kings champion?

The Gupta kings were patrons of the arts, and artists flourished during their rule. The people were happy, too, according to a Chinese traveler who spent many years in India. However, this period of calm ended soon after the death of Chandra Gupta II.

What kind of relations did the Mongols have with the Chinese?

The Mongols and the Chinese had adopted each others' cultures.

What did Muslims invent?

The Muslims were divided politically. However, the Abbasids, Umayyads of al-Andalus, and Fatimids were linked by religion, language, culture, and trade. Muslim traders brought goods from China to Spain. They formed banks along the route. They also accepted a form of substitute money later known as checks.

Allah's support

The Muslims' faith helped them achieve this rapid expansion. They saw each victory as a sign of Allah's support of Islam. Other factors were the fighting skill of the armies and the strong leader- ship of their generals. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires to the north were also weak at this time, and the Arabs took advantage of that. Finally, many people who lived in those empires did not support the official religions. They often supported the Arabs, who they thought would liberate them from the harsh rule of these empires.

Nok Culture

The Nok culture, of West Africa, existed from about 500 B.C. to A.D. 200. The Nok people are known for their interesting pottery figures and for being the first people in Africa who knew how to make iron. Some styles of Nok pottery are still found in Africa today.

Rome's Division

The Roman Empire was officially divided in 395. The western area was overrun by German tribes. It ceased to exist after 476. However, the Byzantine eastern part remained strong.

Viking and Slavic Culture

The Slavs lived in the forest areas, working as farmers and traders. In the 800s, some Vikings called the Rus came from the north. They built forts along the rivers and blended with the Slavs. They founded the cities of Novgorod and Kiev and became the rulers of the land. They began to trade in Constan- tinople, bringing furs, timber, and the Slavs who were their subjects. They sold these people as slaves—in fact, the word slave comes from Slav. Over time, the Vikings adopted the Slavs' culture. While divisions between Vikings and Slavs disap- peared, the society was sharply split between the great mass of peasants and the few nobles.

Slavic Geography

The Slavs lived in what is today eastern Russia. The area stretched from the Ural Mountains to the Black Sea on the south and the Baltic Sea in the north. The southern regions are hilly grasslands. The northern area is flat and covered with trees or swamps. Slow-moving rivers in the region have moved people and goods for centuries.

What culture did Turkey adopt?

The Turks also adopted Persian culture. They looked to Persian scholars to teach them the proper way to follow Islam. They began to use the Persian language for art and education. The Turkish rulers even took the Persian word for "king"—shah—as their title. One of the greatest Seljuk rulers, Malik Shah, became a patron of the arts. He made the capital city more beautiful by building many mosques, or Muslim houses of worship. Persian became so important that Arabic—the language of the Qur'an—almost died out in Seljuk lands. The Seljuk Empire collapsed quickly, as a series of weak rulers were unable to maintain it. One reason was the growing pressure from western Europe, whose rulers sent armies on the Crusades in the effort to capture the lands of ancient Palestine, which were sacred to Christians. The First Crusade began in 1095, and the Christian armies captured Jerusalem. Not quite 100 years later, the Turks retook the city.

Who were the Turks?

The Turks were a nomadic people from the vast grasslands of central Asia. They lived by herding sheep and goats and engaging in raids and trade with the settled peoples of the Abbasid Empire.

Djenné-Djeno's population

The city held about 50,000 people at its largest. At first, they lived in round huts made of reeds and covered with mud. Later they lived in houses of mud bricks. They grew rice, raised cattle, and made iron. They traded these goods for gold and copper.

The fall of the Byzantine Empire

The empire faced further dangers. A terrible plague broke out in 542. It killed thousands of peo- ple and returned every 8 to 12 years until about 700. The many deaths that this illness caused weak- ened the Byzantine Empire. Many enemies attacked the empire time and time again over the centuries. German tribes, the Sassanid Persians, and later Muslim armies all tried to gain control of Byzantine land. Constantinople remained safe at this time despite many attacks. Eventually, though, the empire itself shrank. By 1350, the empire included only the capital city and lands in the Balkans—a part of southeastern Europe.

Medina V. Mecca

The forces of Mecca and Medina fought several times over the next few years. Finally, in 630, the leaders of Mecca surrendered to Muhammad. He went to the building that held the Ka'aba and destroyed the idols to other gods. Many of the peo- ple of Mecca adopted Islam. They began to wor- ship Allah as the only God. Though Muhammad died shortly thereafter, in 632, much of the Arabian Peninsula was already united under Islam.

African Grassland/Savanna

The grasslands had good soil, and the people could grow extra food. As in other areas, farming led to changes in African society. With more food, people lived longer and the population grew. Some people were able to specialize in tasks beyond rais- ing food, such as making jewelry or pottery. Others became leaders. They organized the group's efforts to grow food, defend against invaders, or plan for the future.

How harsh was North Africa's geography?

The harsh environment of the Arabian Peninsula left its mark on the society of the Arab peoples. Located at about where Africa, Asia, and Europe meet, the region felt the influence of cultures from all three continents. With the land almost completely covered by desert, making a living was difficult.

The fall of the Han dynasty

The members of the court were caught up in plots to try to gain power. Meanwhile, the peasants rebelled against their high taxes and poor lives. A government official named Wang Mang took the throne and tried to help the poor by taking land from the large landholders. In the middle of these changes, though, a terrible flood struck China and destroyed millions of homes. The peasants rebelled again, and Wang Mang was killed. At that time, a member of the old imperial Han family was put back on the throne. A new Han rule—called the Later Han Dynasty—was created. For the next few decades, China enjoyed peace and wealth. Later, though, the same problems arose again—the gap between rich and poor was too great. By A.D. 220, the Han Dynasty had fallen for good.

North and South Africa

The northern and southern regions of Africa have large numbers of people. They have good soil for farming and plenty of grass for animals to eat. They have pleasant climates. Most Africans live on the grasslands that cover almost half of the conti- nent. They grow grains, including rice and wheat, and tend to cattle. Each year, though, the Sahara Desert expands and takes away a bit more of this grassland.

Aksum's farming Advances

The people of Aksum also developed a new way of farming. They cut wide steps called terraces into the steep mountainsides in their country. The ter- races helped the land hold water instead of letting it run down the mountain in a heavy rain. They also used dams and stone tanks to store water and used ditches to channel it to their fields.

Aksum's architecture

The people of Aksum developed a special way of building. They made structures out of stone, not mud baked into bricks by the hot sun. Their kings built tall pillars of stone that reached as high as 60 feet. They were among the tallest structures in the ancient world.

Bedouin People

The people who lived on the desert followed a nomadic way of life. They herded animals, which they led from one fertile spot—oasis—to another in search of precious water. Over time, many of these people, called Bedouins, began to live in towns and cities. People who lived in the towns engaged in local and long-distance trade.

Where was the kingdom of Aksum located?

The peoples in East Africa had far more contact with people from other areas. The Kushite kingdom of Nubia had close relations with Egypt, and its kings even ruled Egypt for a while. That kingdom continued for many centuries as a trading power. It was then replaced by the kingdom of Aksum in modern Ethiopia.

Scientific Advances of The Gupta empire

The scientists of India had many achievements. They proved that the earth was indeed round many hundred years before Europeans realized it. They made great advances in mathematics, too. They invented the idea of zero and of decimal numbers.

Muslim cultural blending

The vast Muslim Empire included people of many different lands and cultures. Muslims blended Arabic culture with these other traditions to create a new culture of great achievement. This new cul- ture arose in the major cities of the Muslim world. Damascus, in modern Syria, was the leading city and cultural center of Islamic learning. The cities of Córdoba and Cairo were centers of Muslim rule in Spain and North Africa. The Abbasid capital, Baghdad, was especially impressive. Its inner area was circular and had three sets of protective walls, each inside the other. In the center of the circle was the palace of the caliph, made of marble and stone. Nearly a million people lived in Baghdad.

Mongolians v. Russians

Then the state centered in Kiev began to have problems. The sons of Yaroslav fought one another for control of the land after his death in 1054. Trade declined, cutting the wealth of Kiev. Then deeper troubles appeared. Nomadic fighters from central Asia, the Mongols, began to conquer many differ- ent areas. In the middle 1200s, they reached Kiev. They quickly overran the Russian state, killing many people. The Mongols held control of the area for more than 200 years. As long as the Russian people did not rebel, the Mongols allowed them to keep their customs. The Mongols allowed the Russians to continue follow- ing their Eastern Christian religion. The Church helped settle any differences between the Mongol rulers and the Russian people. The Mongols made the Russians pay tribute, a sum of money that was owed every year. They used Russian nobles to col- lect the tribute. One of those nobles, Alexander Nevsky, grew to power. His heirs became princes of the city of Moscow.

Africa was...

This civilization was nomadic

How did Wudi rule?

To run his government, he had a large num- ber of officials who reached down to the smallest village. To find people to fill these posts, he intro- duced a new system. Those who wanted to work for the government had to earn the right by passing an exam. The exam tested them on their knowledge of the writings of Confucius, the Chinese philosopher who had lived 400 years earlier. He also built schools around the country that taught this knowl- edge. This system continued to work into the 20th century.

How did Wudi support his goverment?

To support this large government, Wudi col- lected taxes. Farmers paid part of the crops they gathered each year. Merchants paid taxes on the goods they traded. Peasants also gave one month's worth of labor each year to the government to work on large public building projects such as dams and roads.

Chinese inventions

Under Han rule, the Chinese had many new inventions. One of the most important was paper. Before that invention, books were printed on silk. Because paper was much cheaper, using it meant that there were more books—and more learning in the country. The Chinese also improved farming by inventing a new two-bladed plow.

Abu-Bakr

When Muhammad died, his followers elected a new leader, Abu-Bakr. He had been loyal to Muhammad. He was given the title caliph, which means "successor" or "deputy."

Persia V. Turkey

While this Turkish influence was growing, the empire itself was shrinking. Local leaders in several areas split off to establish their own states. In 945, a Persian army seized control of the empire. Members of the Abbasid family continued to hold the position of caliph and act as religious leaders. The new rulers of the government were from outside the dynasty. They were called sultans.

King Ezana and Aksum's trade

With this growth, Aksum became an important part of world trade. Salt, emeralds, brass, copper, gold, cloth, olive oil, and wine all moved through Aksum. Its trade routes helped link Rome to India. In the early 300s, Aksum had a strong new king named Ezana. He captured more land on the Arabian peninsula. Then he conquered Kush and destroyed the ancient city of Meroë in 350. The action removed an old rival in trade.

Asoka

grandson Asoka took the throne in 269 B.C. and brought the Mauryan Empire to its greatest height. At first he was a warlike king and fought many fierce battles with an enemy to the south. Then he decided to accept the teachings of the Buddha. Asoka promised to rule in a fair and just way. He issued laws that urged his subjects to avoid vio- lence. He made great roads so that people could travel easily—and then placed wells and rest stops all along these roads for travelers to refresh them- selves. Soon after Asoka died, however, his empire collapsed

Reasons for Bantu migration

overpopulation and desertification

Empress Lu (Han Dynasty)

the Empress Lü took over. In this time, as in other parts of Han rule, court politics was a major part of life around the ruler. Each group tried to find a way of making sure that it could get and hold power.

Who convinced Justinian to stay?

the empress Theodora, convinced him to use the army to fight back. The troops regained control of the city, killing thousands of rioters. A church called Hagia Sophia ("Holy Wisdom" in Greek) had been destroyed by the mobs. Justinian rebuilt it to become the most beautiful church in the Christian world.

Chandragupta Maurya

used his army to defeat the king of eastern India. He took the throne and started a dynasty named after him. Chandragupta, not stopping with eastern India, moved west. In 305 B.C., he began to challenge Seleucus, one of Alexander the Great's generals. The two armies clashed for several years, and even- tually Chandragupta won. For the first time, north- ern India, from west to east, was joined under the rule of one person.

African Commonalities

• The family was the most important unit of soci- ety. In some groups, family was considered all people who come from common ancestors. This is called a clan. • They believed that one god created the world. Also, they felt that plants, animals, and other natural forces all have spirits that play an impor- tant role in life. • They relied on oral storytelling, rather than writ- ing, to pass on the traditions of their people.