Intercultural Communication

U-Curve Model

Adler 1975. A theory of cultural adaptation positing that migrants go through fairly predictable psychological and social phases 1. HONEYMOON stage- characterized by intense excitement, for being somewhere different and unusual. The new things encountered feel euphoric. When on holiday, we only experience this stage. 2. DISINTEGRATION- CULTURE SHOCK, stress begin to set in owing to the differences and difficulties we encounter in the new environment. A lot of conscious energy is required, which was was not in the old environment. For instance, communication difficulties. Feelings of anger, sadness, impatience and incompetence are typical. 3. REORIENTATION or adjustment- the increased ability to function in the new culture (being able to solve things that were first difficult). A sense of psychological balance is experienced and the reevaluation of the old ways may happen, as well. 4. ADAPTATION- people become more comfortable as the environment becomes more familiar to them. They start to actively engage in the culture's activities. +1 stage: Biculturalism (not universal)- when someone is able to cope both within the home and host culture. It is accompanied by feelings of belonging or being a "double-citizen" Appendix slide 11

Perception

An active process of creating meaning by selecting, organizing, and interpreting people, objects, events, situations, and activities. What influences our perception: -Relational issues -Degree of involvement with the other person -Past experience -Expectations -Social roles -Knowledge -Self-concept 3 distinct stages: 1. Selection (selective exposure, selective attention, and selective retention 2. Categorization 3. Interpretation

Relationship Between Culture, Communication and Context

Culture and Communication are reciprocally connected Context (political, social, historical...) influences the way people communicate. Interpretive scholars use ethnography of communication to find symbolic meaning of verbal and nonverbal behaviors in order to ascertain patterns and rules of communication.

Culture Shock

Culture shock- feelings of disorientation and anxiety that one experiences when entering a new culture. When familiar cultural norms and values are questioned in the new cultural environment. Symptoms include depression, anxiety, homesickness, helplessness, confusion, defensiveness, isolation, intolerance, frustration, etc. All of these are indicators of psychological stress.

Intercultural Communication

aka Cross-Cultural Communication: "the wide range of communication issues that inevitably arise within an organization composed of individuals from a variety of religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds"

Culture

Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. - Set of learned group related perceptions (Hall) - Programming of the mind (Hofstede)

Hofstede's Onion

Four nested manifestations of culture, from most apparent/observable to most deeply-held: -SYMBOLS- words, gestures, pictures or objects that carry a particular meaning → not only recognized by those who share the culture -HEROES- persons, alive or dead, real or imaginary, who possess characteristics which are highly prized in a culture -RITUALS- collective activities, technically superfluous (unessential) in reaching desired ends Symbols, heroes, and rituals have been subsumed under the term 'practices.' -VALUES- broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others, deals with evil vs good, moral and immoral and so on. Appendix slide 8

High/Low Context Cultures

Hall 1977. Refers to the extent to which we gather information from the physical, social, and psychological context of an interaction as opposed to the verbal code and to the value cultures place on indirect and direct communication. -HIGH-context cultures- much meaning is either implicit in the physical setting or in shared beliefs, values, and norms. The context provides information about the culture's rules, practices, and expectations. Thus, information about background and procedures are not openly communicated. Example: China, England, France, Ghana, Japan, Korea -LOW-context cultures- employ an explicit code to send messages, which means that little meaning is provided by the context, most of the information is included in verbal codes. In these countries, procedures are explained, and expectations are discussed. Example: Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, the United States

Cultural Dimensions

Hofstede 1980. Based on survey of international IBM workplaces, often criticized as being outdated, non-exhaustive and limited to nation-state thinking and one company. The four (+2) dimensions by which cultures can be measured are: -Individualism v Collectivism -Power Distance -Uncertainty Avoidance -Masculinity v Femininity +Long-Term v Short-Term Orientation +Indulgence v Restraint (2010) Appendix slide 9

Identity and Culture

Identity is the concept of who we are. Minority identity: A sense of belonging to a non-dominant group. In general, minority identities tend to develop earlier than majority identities. When you have minority identity you behave like: -Looking up to the majority group -Despise your own group -Have a strong desire to assimilate into the dominant culture Majority identity: A sense of belonging to a dominant group. When you are member of a majority group, you may act like: -Do not think much about their own identity -The social hierarchy is experienced as "normal" for the dominant group -After recognizing majority identity → Avoid contact somewhat with minority group members; Blaming minority members for their condition Other types of identities: -Gender -Age -Ethnic -Religious -Class -National -Personal (sum of all our identities)

Value Orientations

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961). Orientations as the means through which a society tackles universal problems emerging from relationships with others, time, activities and nature. They are learned and shared through the socialization process, reflecting the personality type of a particular society. The dominant value orientations are shared by most of the group. They are 5 in number: 1. The relationship of people with nature- people should be subordinate to/in harmony with/dominant over nature 2. Activity- state of being/inner development/industriousness This refers to the use of time for self-expression and play, self-improvement and development, and work 3. Time- past/present/future oriented 4. Human nature- people are good/mixed/evil 5. Social relations-individualistic/collective/hierarchical

Cultural Imperatives

Martin and Nakamaya 2017. Understanding these imperatives of culture will help intercultural awareness and subsequent communication. 1. The SELF-AWARENESS imperative- raises awareness of our own cultural identity and background, increasing understanding of our own location in a larger social, political, and historical context. Intercultural learning is antidote to ethnocentrism 2. The DEMOGRAPHIC imperative- understanding the changes in domestic and international migration, increasing diversity all over the world (in terms of class, religion, etc) and the increasing global interaction of people as well as the effects of these phenomena 3. The ECONOMIC imperative- highlights issues of globalization and the challenges for increased cultural understanding needed to reach the global market. Globalization created a world market in goods, services, labor, capital and technology. Mostly refers to businesses. 4. The LINGUISTIC imperative- is language innately programmed or triggered by environmental stimuli? Nativists v Constructivists (Hoff, 2001) -Nativist, Noam Chomsky (1975)- all human languages share a universal grammar that is innate in the human species and culturally invariant (linguistic organ in brain). So that human minds are equipped with pre-programmed models that are triggered when being surrounded by language, only the details of a particular language must be learned. -Constructivists, grounded in the work of Piaget, oppose the idea that language acquisition involves detecting the patterns of language and thus requires interaction with a structured environment 5. The TECHNOLOGICAL imperative- increasing information and increased contact with people who are similar and different from us. Increased use of communication technology also raises questions about identity and access to these technologies. McLuhan's global village. The internet has democratized information as more people control and disseminate information than ever. Communication technology brings us in contact with people from different cultural backgrounds and allows to have contact with similar people (strengthen a sense of identity). 6. The PEACE imperative- working through issues of colonialism, economic disparities, and racial, ethnic, and religious differences. Contact among different cultural groups often led to disharmony. Some of these conflicts are tied to histories of colonialism, but also communism, some have roots in past foreign policies. It would be naive to think that understanding the issues of intercultural communication would end intercultural conflicts. 7. The ETHICAL imperative The ethical imperative calls for an understanding of the universalist and relativist approach to ethical issues. Living in an intercultural world presents ethical challenges. Ethical judgments focus on the degrees of rightness and wrongness in human behavior Relativity vs. Universality -Universalist- identify acts and conditions that most societies think of as wrong, like murder, theft, or treason -Relativist- cultural behavior can only be judged within the cultural context in which it occurs.

Reverse Culture Shock

Phenomenon experienced by people who return to their home country after a longer stay in a foreign culture. Gullahorn extended the U-curve hypothesis to the W-curve which includes re-entry: 1. HONEYMOON- initial excitement about the familiar 2. CRISIS- a sense of depression as old values, beliefs and ways of thinking and living have changed through the period of being abroad, the individual that left is not the same person who returns. 3. RECOVERY- person discovers how to navigate internal and external changes 4. RE-ADAPATION This type of culture shock may cause even greater anxiety, confusion and silent suffering as no one wants to admit that he/she is having difficulties re-adjusting to the home culture. The home culture is compared to the admired and accustomed aspects of the new culture. Appendix slide 12

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Philosophical debates about the extent to which our perception is shaped by the particular language we speak. Language and thought are inextricably tied together so that a person's language determines the categories of thought open to the person. For example: Numerous words for 'snow' in the arctic languages

8 Basic Emotions

Plutchick Wheel of universal emotions, combining these, we create other feelings -Fear -Surprise -Disgust -Anger -Sadness -Anticipation -Joy -Acceptance Appendix slide 13

Theory of Basic Human Values

Schwartz 1988-'92. National cultural dimensions that can serve as a basis of comparison, based upon the value priorities of individuals. 1. Self-direction- independent thought and action, being able to create and explore 2. Stimulation-living a varied, exciting life in order to maintain an optimal, positive rather than threatening level of activation 3. Hedonism- pleasure of satisfying organismic needs (enjoying life, drinking, sexuality, etc) 4. Achievement- personal success according to social standards (being ambitious, successful, influential, etc) 5. Power- social status and prestige, control over people and resources (wealth, social power, authority) 6. Security- safety, harmony and stability in the society, in relationships and in oneself, as well 7. Conformity- restraints of actions that violate social expectations and norms (for everyone living in the society) 8. Tradition- respect, commitment and acceptance towards one's own culture/religion 9. Benevolence- preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent personal contact (the 'in-group')- (being helpful, forgiving, loyal, etc) 10. Universalism- understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and for nature (survival needs) Appendix slide 10

Stereotypes

Stereotypes are "pictures in the head" or simplified mental images of what groups look like and what they do -A stereotype is a fixed idea that accompanies a certain group of people (Allport) -POSITIVE and NEGATIVE. Even positive stereotypes be harmful as they may set unreasonably high standards for the individual.