Intro to Geopgraphy

Formula for Population Density

"Population divided by square miles= population density per square mile. 1 million people divided by 100 square miles of land = 10,000 people per square miles"

primate city

A city where a disproportionate share of a country's population and economic power is concentrated.

polar

A cold air mass that forms north of 50 degrees north latitude or south of 50 degrees south latitude and has high air pressure.

thermal inversion

A condition that develops when warm, stable air overlies cool air, trapping the cool air and any pollutants that are released beneath it

state-led industrialization

A development philosophy found in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and other Asian countries in which the state either partially owns corporations that operate under commercial principles or directs the structure and orientation of the national economy.

Rocky Mountains

A great series of mountain ranges in the western United States and Canada.

zaibatsu

A large Japanese financial enterprise, similar to a conglomerate in the United States but generally more integrated horizontally and vertically.

sea

A large body of salt water nearly or partly surrounded by land. A sea is much smaller than an ocean.

Polynesia

A large grouping of islands in the Pacific stretching in a huge triangular area from Midway and Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, and eastward as far as Pitcairn Island. The name means "many islands." Polynesia is the largest in size of the three Pacific Island subregions.

Central place theory/historical importance

A model of the distribution of cities across an isotropic plain

Restitution of Land Rights Act

A policy instituted in South Africa in 1994 to permit the government to investigate land claims and restore ownership to those who unjustly lost land.

podzolization

A process in humid regions whereby soluble materials are leached from upper soil layers, leaving residual soils that are frequently infertile and acidic.

calcification

A process occurring in dry regions where limited precipitation results in less leaching of soluble materials and thus the accumulation of calcium carbonates in the soil.

laterization

A process of soil formation in the tropics; the leaching of soluble minerals from soils because of abundant rainfall, thereby leaving residual oxides of iron and aluminum.

Kara Kum desert

A prominent desert east of the Aral Sea in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.

altitudinal life zones

A sequence of climate zones in mountain areas that vary with elevation as temperature and precipitation change.

city-state

A sovereign country consisting of a dominant urban unit and surrounding tributary areas.

Explain how and where acid deposition occurs.*

Acid deposition occurs when sulfur and nitrogen oxides combine with water to form acidic precipitation or when these acids are formed in the soil from pollutants that settle from the atmosphere

Specialty Crop and Livestock region

An area from southern New England to Texas in which a variety of livestock and crop areas are based on local environmental characteristics and market opportunities.

growth triangle

An area of industrial growth in Southeast Asia centered on Singapore, the Malaysian state of Johor, and the Indonesian island of Batam.

culture realm

An area within which the population possesses similar traits and complexes; for example, the Chinese realm or Western society.

demographic transition

A theory of the relationship between birthrates and death rates, as well as urbanization and industrialization, based on Western European experience

neoliberal policies

An economic and social approach based on a reduced role for government in many areas of public life and an unrestrained free market economy.

pastoral economy

An economic system dependent on the raising of livestock—sheep, cattle, or dairy animals.

Latitude

Distance north or south of the equator,angular distance north or south of the equator

Why has Brazil emerged as an important global economy?

Due it's manufacturing cars and computers etc.

producer services

Businesses such as banking, insurance, communications, and consulting.

Place

Defined by it's unique physical and cultural characteristics

keiretsu

Large industrial/financial cliques that formed in Japan after the American occupation ended following World War II.

mullahs/mujtahids

Muslim clergy who have traditionally been responsible for interpreting religious law, providing basic education, serving as notaries for legal documents, and administering religious endowments.

Overall, climate is the strongest control on natural vegetation, but humans have had profound influences on ecosystems in most of the world's land areas.

Only a few thousand years ago, Earth was regulated by nonhuman processes, and people were merely negligible players. Today, however, humans are globally significant and locally dominant players in Earth's biogeochemical cycles. Environments in which human impacts are minor are increasingly scarce.

What is the geographic importance of the Ferghana Valley?

Only independent entity in Central Asia that Russian annexed before Bolshevik Revelution to secure area for cotton production

mujahideen

Opposition movements in Afghanistan and elsewhere in the Middle East and North Africa, inspired by Islamic fundamentalism.

fossil fuels

Organic energy sources formed in past geologic times, such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The occurrence of fossil fuels is finite and not renewable within a time frame meaningful to humankind.

megalopolis

Originally the continuous urban zone between Boston and Washington, D.C.; now used to describe any region where urban areas have coalesced to form a single massive urban zone.

Joseph Stalin

Overcame all rivals after Lenin died in 1924 to take over rule of the Soviet Union. He initiated collectivization of farms, the "Gulag" labor camp system, and the Five Year Plan for industrialization; millions died in the Soviet Union during his rule due to famine, war, and repressive policies.

Great Lakes of East Africa

Part of the East African Rift Valley, containing crater lakes and the elongated lakes of Africa's deep trenches.

internally displaced people

People who are forced to flee their homes, but who stay in their own country, creating a domestic refugee population

Muslims

People who surrender to the will of God (Allah) as revealed by the prophet Mohammed; followers of Islam.

Endemic Species

Plants or animals that are found only in one area and nowhere else.

Human migrations have redistributed populations throughout history, and significant migrations continue.

Push factors drive people away from wherever they are, and pull factors attract them to new destinations, but some migrations have been forced. Migration may be voluntary or involuntary, and cross long or short distances. Some migration is temporary.

alpine

Refers to features found at high altitudes.

Kremlin

Seat of the Russian government in Moscow.

Hinduism and Buddhism both originated from this region

South Asia

trade blocs

Trade agreements between groups of countries.

pastoralism

System in which a group depends solely on pastures for their livestock herds; the best-known African pastoralists are the Fulani nomads of northern Nigeria, the Masai of Kenya, and the nomadic Tswanas of Botswana.

Caucasus Mountains

Two ranges (Greater Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus) that stretch from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea.

To what extent is the Ukraine's agricultural potential realized?

Ukraine has tremendous agricultural potential because 60% of land is arable.

aquifers

Underground, water-bearing rock strata.

Volga River

With its tributaries, this river forms Russia's major water route, allowing for the development of industrial activities.

clanocracy

The dominant place of clan families in defining the political and legal status of people in Africa.

jati

The four major caste groups to which all Hindus belong, with Brahmins at the top of the socioeconomic hierarchy and untouchables at the bottom.

Outback

The interior and isolated backlands of Australia, particularly those areas beyond intense settlement.

Sunnis

The largest branch of Islam; predominant throughout most Middle Eastern countries, with the exception of Iran.

Geographic System

The part of a society pertaining to a its location, surroundings, and natural resources

mercantile colonialism

The period before A.D. 1800 when European powers exerted control indirectly by supporting private trading companies who established commercial and political relationships with local elites to obtain the goods they wanted.

Confucianism

The philosophy based on the writings and teachings of Confucius, which emphasized the importance of living a virtuous life characterized by obligations to others.

collectivization of agriculture

The process of forming collective or communal farms, especially in communist countries; nationalization of private landholdings.

Cartography

The science of map making

Large amounts of carbon are exchanged between the atmosphere and the oceans,

and the oceans are major sinks for carbon dioxide that is added to the atmosphere by fossil fuel combustion.

Internal migration is usually characterized

by pull factors like moving to find work or live near family.

Composite Cone Volcano

composed of a mixture of lava and ash; these are the type that cause most death and destruction from eruptions - 1883 eruption on Krakatau (Indonesia) killed approximately 36000 people; ash blocked sunlight and caused a noticeable cooling of Earth's climate for a couple of years.

Solar power offers

considerable potential for future electric generation.

fault

fractures along cracks in rock (normal, reverse or thrust faults)

Acid deposition results

from emissions of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides. Coal-fired power plants are major sources of these pollutants, as are gas-fired electric plants and automobiles.

GPS

global positioning systems - using satellites orbiting the Earth

human environmental interaction

how humans affect their environment and how the environment affects humans, people changing or living within an environment, adapt and modify the environment around them. Damming a river, transporting goods on ships on a river, construction houses along a river. this has both positive and negative

Distance can be expressed

in absolute terms, or in terms of travel time or cost.

Geographers

look for new ways to help us understand our place in the world by studying the Earth's physical features: the study of all the physical features of the Earth's surface, including its climate and the distribution of plant, animal, and human life,

magma

molten rock generated by the movement within Earth and between the plates.

Today, geography is

one of the most diverse fields of academic study, bridging the social and natural sciences and the humanities.

Suburb

residential or mixed use area either existing as part of a city or urban area or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of a city

Han dynasty

(206 B.C.-A.D. 220) A militarily powerful dynasty that organized the first large-scale empire in East Asia.

Song dynasty

(a.d. 960-1279) A period of Chinese history during which advancements occurred that made the Chinese agricultural economy one of the most sophisticated in the world.

NORTH AMERICA HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS About 2 million Indians were first in the US. Europeans(Spaniards, English and Dutch, The French in Quebec & Montreal) were first to immigrate to US and Canada mostly in the east coast. Most Indians died due to communicable diseases brought by the Europeans or by war from the settlers trying to establish land. Then started westward, An early negotiation for land involved the French-controlled Louisiana Territory, just west of the Mississippi River and extending to the Rocky Mountains as well as - East and West Florida from the Spanish, partly in response to military action and offers of money (East Florida cost the United States $5 million). • Texas from Mexico, mainly through military action that initially involved only an American insurgency within Texas but ultimately led to war between the United States and Mexico in 1846 • California and the U.S. Southwest, from Mexico. The war with Mexico resulted in a treaty in 1848 that not only formalized U.S. acquisition of Texas, but ultimately led to a transfer of what is now California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of neighboring states for $15 million. The final piece was a purchase from Mexico of a strip of territory in southern Arizona in 1853 (Gadsden Purchase) for a railroad route. • Oregon and the Pacific Northwest, from Britain. While the United States originally claimed territory well into the modern Canadian province of British Columbia, negotiation with Britain eventually gave the United States only the territory south of the 49th parallel of latitude (the modern boundary). -The last major territorial acquisitions were the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 and annexation of Hawaii in 1898. -Large numbers of Africans were brought involuntarily to the United States as slaves, until the slave trade was prohibited in 1808—prohibited as a matter of law, but not always as a matter of fact. The national era can be divided into three smaller segments, each with its own characteristics:

- (1) the northwestern European wave (1820-1870) was still heavily British, Irish, German, and Dutch, but included some of the first migrants from Asia and Latin America; -(2) the "Great Deluge" (1870-1920) witnessed the migration of more than 26 million people to the United States, many from traditional northwestern European sources, but many more from Scandinavia, eastern and southern Europe, China, Japan, and Latin America; -(3) the miscellaneous influx from 1920 to the present has been made up of a wide variety of origins, especially Asian and Latin American. Loyalists not welcome in the 13 colonies immigrated to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Great Lakes region, creating an English-speaking counterweight to French-speaking Quebec and contributing to an Anglicization process that eventually put French speakers in the minority. Canada officially became a self-governing country with the implementation of the British North America Act on July 1, 1867. The new country embraced parts of modern Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The new government combined an American type of federalism—a confederation of provinces—with a British parliamentary form of government—a House of Commons and a Senate. Prior to Confederation, Canada was populated mainly by people from the British Isles, by Americans (Loyalists and others who came looking for cheap land), and by the French in Quebec. Between 1896 and 1911, about 2.5 million immigrants—from the Ukraine, Hungary, Iceland, Sweden, Germany, Italy, Finland, and China, as well as Great Britain and the United States—arrived in Canada, many on the way to the Prairies -After World War I immigration continued, particularly to urban areas, and included large numbers of people not only from traditional European and U.S. sources but also from Commonwealth Asia and Africa. -Today, the people of Canada embrace a cultural spectrum of such breadth that Ukrainian, Sri Lankan, and Portuguese surnames (among many others) are almost as common as British and French. Canada, like its neighbor to the south, has become a cultural mosaic.

List three analytical methods used by geographers to *analyze geographic information.

- Area analysis, which integrates the geographic features of an area or a place -Spatial analysis or locational analysis, which emphasizes interactions among places -Geographic systems analysis, which emphasizes the understanding of physical and human systems and the interactions among them

tectonic plates

a large, continent-sized piece of Earth's crust that moves in relation to other pieces

Arctic circle

a line of latitude near but south of the north pole 66.5 degrees North

Hierarchical Diffusion

moves downward or upward in a hierarchy of organization; shows as a network of spots rather than as an inkblot spreading across map

Minerals

natural substances that comprise rocks; denser rocks are called sima dominated by silicon, magnesium and iron - comprise most of the oceanic crust; less dense rocks are called sial dominated by silicon and aluminum - comprise most of the continental crust.

Kiwis

nickname for the inhabitants of New Zealand

Diffusion is the spread

of a phenomenon from one place to another. Hierarchies of organization can affect information diffusion. The process of an item or a feature spreading through time

lithosphere

solid Earth composed of rocks and overlying sediments

Population Distribution

the arrangement or spread of people living in a given area; also, how the population of an area is arranged according to variables such as age, race, or sex. Settlement of populations in a geographic location over a given period of time. Clusters; Arrangements spatially over the environments.

Distance affects

the likelihood of interaction between places.

globalization

the organization of any activity treating the entire globe as one place; improvements in transportation and communication have "shrunk" Earth to allow

mantle

the portion of Earth above the core and below the crust

oceanic

the portion of Earth's crust that is usually below the oceans and not associated with continental areas, thinner and higher in density that continental crust and basaltic rather than granitic in composition

Distance Decay

the presence or impact of any phenomenon may diminish away from its origin (ex: the further away you are from a city the less interested you are in what happens there and/or the less likely you are to go there)

ecology

the scientific study of ecosystems

Among the important uses of forests are

timber products such as lumber and paper, recreation, biodiversity preservation, and carbon storage. These different uses may conflict with each other. Common ownership of many forest areas sometimes increases conflict.

Geographers have learned

to identify areas that are subject to rapid or sudden change and to understand better how natural processes occur and how they affect human settlements. In general, we have learned that in dynamic environments it is better to live with nature and avoid hazards than to attempt to control them.

Seafloor Spreading

two plates are diverging on seafloor, lava continually erupts and is rapidly chilled by the seawater which causes it to solidify and form a new seafloor crust

Spatial thinking

using a paradigm of "What is there? Why is it there? Why do we care?" to observe and analyze the human experience on Earth; contrast to historical perspectives centered on "linear or temporal thinking"

doi moi

"Economic renovation"; a program adopted by Vietnam's leaders in the 1980s to attract foreign investment.

Perceptual & Vernacular Regions

"regions in our mind"; areas that we think of as having a distinct identity that sets it apart from neighboring regions and people (ex: The Rust Belt; American South)

Four main processes transfer energy between the atmosphere and Earth's surface:

(1) Longwave radiation sends heat from the warm surface to the cooler atmosphere. This radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere mainly by water vapor and carbon dioxide, and reradiated both downward to the surface and upward to space; (2) conduction of heat into soil, rock, and water store heat temporarily near Earth's surface; (3) convection carries surface warmth to the atmosphere; and (4) when clouds and precipitation form, latent heat exchange carries energy from the surface to the atmosphere.

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLAND CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES -Steadily expanding carbon exports place Australia squarely in opposition to the best interests of its regional neighbors. -Threatened by rising temperatures and sea levels, many island nations are vocal about the need to curb the excesses that feed global warming. -Similar conflicts in values and objectives occur in managing land impacted by the mining industry, whose activities require large amounts of water during active operations and, if not forced to pay for long-term, meaningful remediation, can leave behind a blighted and battered landscape. -These issues are a particular source of concern in Western Australia, and are certain to emerge in the future in New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea, where mining of resources clashes with the environmental values and land ethics that are a prominent part of indigenous culture. -For low islands, global warming is closely linked to higher sea levels and greater hazards of storm damage and erosion.

- Higher global temperatures contribute to warmer seas as well. -The coral reefs on which low islands depend for storm protection are everywhere threatened by water temperature changes that promote species that attack corals or reduce their ability to process sunlight into food -In countries with substantial tropical and temperate forests, such as Papua New Guinea (PNG) and New Zealand, deforestation is a significant issue. - The temptation to realize substantial profits immediately, rather than manage for sustainable yields over the long term, is considerable. -With a rainforest that is the third largest in the world, PNG is also seeing this resource decrease by 1.5 percent each year. -Rising sea temperatures have resulted in mass coral bleaching and ocean acidification (due to absorption of excess CO2), which destroy the coral itself. -Under temperature stress, algae harbored by coral tissue die, food production ceases, and coral bones turn white. -Displaced fish stocks have sought new habitats elsewhere, and this has resulted in more chick mortality among the seabirds that rely on the fish.

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA LANGUAGES

- Indo-European -Persian -Farsi and related Persian dialects -Berbers

How do trade relationships play into immigration?

- The country is more tolerant of Asian immigration than it has been in the past. Money talks: more than 60 percent of the country's exports now go to Asia; o

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN RESOURCES Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

- natural gas and oil (from Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan), - gold and uranium (from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan), - agricultural products, most importantly cotton. -High-quality coal in the Kazakh Karaganda deposits, combined with significant iron deposits, -as well as a scattering of precious metals throughout Central Asia, provide the basis for an active mining and industrial sector. -Two decades of war and civil conflict have inhibited Afghanistan's mineral deposit development. -WHEAT -TOBACCO -HYDROPOWER

Metamorphic Rocks

formed when exposed to great pressure and heat ex: marble (from limestone) and slate (from shale)

Spatial patterns are characterized by key attributes

including distribution (position, placement or arrangement on Earth's surface), density (frequency of occurrence in relation to geographic area), concentration (the degree to which features are found near to each other in certain places as opposed to broadly dispersed), and pattern (the geometric arrangement of objects within an area).

Rocks are first broken down

into smaller pieces through chemical and mechanical weathering. Then they are carried by gravity down the slopes of hills or by wind from one place to another.

Artic Circle

is one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth. In 2012, it is the parallel of latitude that runs 66° 33′ 44″ north of the Equator.

Describe the processes of weathering.*

is the process of breaking rocks into pieces ranging in size from boulders to pebbles, sand grains, and silt down to microscopic clay particles and dissolved solids. Rocks begin to break down the moment they are exposed to the weather at Earth's surface. They are attacked by water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and temperature fluctuations. Weathering is the first step in the formation of soil, Weathering takes place in two ways: as chemical weathering and as mechanical weathering.

socio-cultural factors

language and symbols, holidays and religious observances, and social and business etiquette

Ecosystems consist of

living organisms and the physical environments with which they interact

Spatial Analysis

looking for patterns in the distribution of human actions, environmental processes and interactions among and between places or regions

Contiguous (or Contagious) Diffusion

occurs from one place to a neighboring place through direct contact

Climate is a major regulator

of soil development, through its control on water movement

Geography is the study

of the interaction of all physical and human phenomena at individual places, and spatial patterns of these phenomena and interactions.

Physical geography studies the characteristics

of the physical environment, while human geography studies human groups and their activities.

List the major environmental hazards associated with geologic activity, and describe their spatial distributions.*

olcanic eruption, earthquakes, landslides, tornadoes, and hurricanes— Adaptation and modifications

weathering

process of breaking rocks into pieces - chemical (exposed to air and water) or mechanical (physical force; temperature causes them to expand and contract)

Plant and animal activity in the soil

produces organic matter and mixes the upper soil layers.

Physical Geography

studies the characteristics of the physical environment. When geography concentrates on topics such as climate, soil and vegetation it is a natural science. concerned with the locations of such earth features as land, water, and climate; their relationship to one another and to human activities; and the forces that create and change them

Sustainable development promotes change that leads to improved well-being in people's lives,

takes into account the needs of future generations, is based on principles of stewardship, and is compatible with local cultural and environmental contexts. Sustainable use of the planet in support of peoples' lives—environmental stewardship—requires knowledge of the physical and cultural setting of development.

In arid regions,

these substances are not so easily removed. Soil characteristics reflect these processes, and there is close correspondence between the world climate map and the world soil map.

Continental (warm summer)

35-45 Lat. Short warm to hot summers, cold winters

Hamas

A Palestinian political party founded in 1987, Hamas is an Islamic resistance movement opposed to the state of Israel. In addition to carrying out military activities and suicide bombings, Hamas is active in providing a network of social services and programs to Palestinians.

Bolshevik

A Russian word meaning "majority," now taken to mean a Communist, or adherent of communism.

Ural Mountains

A chain of ancient, greatly eroded, low mountains in Russia that mark the traditional boundary between Asia and Europe.

lingua franca

A common auxiliary language used by peoples of different languages and dialects; commonly used for trading and political purposes.

Ecosystem

A community and its nonliving surroundings. Nonliving parts - air, water, and rocks. a group of organisms and the nonliving physical and chemical environment with which they interact

transnational corporation (TNC)

A corporation with offices, production facilities, and other activities in multiple countries. It is geographically mobile and can take advantage of lower labor costs in one country or a more lenient regulatory environment in another country to minimize production costs and/or maximize revenues.

opium

A dangerously addictive drug from which heroin is derived.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

A diverse group of largely voluntary organizations that work at the grassroots level to provide technical advice and economic, social, and humanitarian assistance.

mediterranean climate

A dry summer subtropical climate common to the Mediterranean Basin, southern California, central Chile, and portions of Australia.

shifting cultivation

A farming system of land rotation, based on periodic change of cultivated area; allows soils with declining productivity to recover; an effective adaptation to tropical environments when population density remains low.

collective farms

A form of government-organized and supervised large-scale agricultural organization in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe; a collective leased land from the government, and workers received a share of net returns to the organization.

Tabqah Dam

A large dam on the Euphrates River in Syria, intended to significantly increase irrigated agriculture and hydroelectric power generation.

Interior Plateaus

A large part of the western United States situated between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountains on the west, including the Columbia and Colorado plateaus.

Tokaido Megalopolis

A large, multinuclear urbanized region in Japan extending from Tokyo to Osaka.

Nonrenewable Resource

A natural resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable extraction. Coal Oil, Natural gas.

Berbers

A pre-Arabic culture group of Morocco and Algeria, many of whom now speak Arabic and are Muslims.

development

A process of change that leads to improved well-being in people's lives, takes into account the needs of future generations, and is compatible with local cultural and environmental contexts.

culture trait

A single element or characteristic of a group's culture—for example, dress style.

crony capitalism

A system of government in which networks of friends and allies maintain themselves in power by using their official position to extract "rent" from businesses and property owners in return for protection.

run-on farming

A technique that collects water from a larger area and concentrates it in valley bottoms and on terraced slopes; it permits agriculture in regions that are otherwise too dry for crop cultivation.

village banking

A type of local-scale microfinancing that helps families defray the costs associated with unforeseen emergencies, such as illness, natural disasters, and funerals, as well as improvements like home improvement, solar energy systems, and mobile phones.

Developed nations

A wealthy country with many corporations, advanced technology, and a comfortable way of life. a country with a lot of industrial activity and where people generally have high incomes.

Turkic ethnic groups .

A wide variety of ethnic communities (Azerbaijanis, Kazakhs, Uyghurs, Yakuts) living in southwest, central, and northern Asia and speaking related Turkic languages

East Asian Model

Adaptation of Western methods to indigenous culture and values.

dry farming

Agriculture wherein farmers rely exclusively on rainfall to produce their crops

How human activity may affect natural resource supply

Altering the world's natural vegetation. Modifying soil.

Sharia

An Arabic legal code based on the Quran.

Sikhism

An Indian religion that includes elements of the Hindu and Islamic faiths.

creative destruction

An active transformation in which people alter their habitat to produce a new, human-dominated system that meets human needs. Something must be destroyed in order to create the conditions that promote benefits for humankind.

Region

An area of the Earth's surface with similar characteristics that could be either physical or human.

World Heritage Site

An area with cultural and natural properties deemed to be of outstanding universal value.

Middle Atlantic Core

An early settlement area centered on Pennsylvania and New York that was settled by substantial numbers of German, Scots-Irish, Dutch, and Swedish in addition to the dominant English.

neoliberal policies and neoliberalism

An economic and social approach based on a reduced role for government in many areas of public life and an unrestrained free market economy.

rainshadow

An effect produced by descending, drying air masses, causing the leeward or interior sides of mountains to be much drier than the windward sides.

Zapatista movement

An indigenous movement in Mexico in defense of the rights of indigenous peoples to land, jobs, and political freedom.

Biogeochemical Cycles

• The hydrologic cycle moves water among the oceans, land, and atmosphere via evaporation, evapotranspiration, and precipitation. Knowledge of the water budget is essential to understanding both physical and biological processes because the water budget is a critical regulator of ecosystem activity. This influence extends to human use of the landscape, through such issues as determining the natural vegetation cover or agricultural potential.

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)

An umbrella organization created by the Arab states in 1964 to control and coordinate Palestinian opposition to Israel; originally subservient to the wishes of the Arab states, now dominated by the independent, nationalist ideology of El-Fatah, the largest and most moderate of the Palestinian resistance group

5 Oceans

Antarctic, Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific

renewable resource

Any natural resource (as wood or solar energy) that can be replenished naturally with the passage of time. Include air, water, soil, plants and animals

climate change

Any shift in temperature, precipitation, and other climatic characteristics that alter prevailing conditions and move the climate system toward a different state.

How does altitude influence temperature, precipitation, and agricultural options in the Andes?

As elevation increases temperature decreases 3.5 Fahrenheit per 1000 feet.

Eastern Europe

Balkanization along national lines has charactized this region

Why is the Nord Stream Pipeline significant?

Because it reduces leverage of Ukraine and other countries through which Russia's piplines run into Europe

syncretism

Belief systems that result from the combination of introduced and local beliefs.

Falashas .

Black Jews of Ethiopia, who were converted to Judaism by Semitic Jews between the first and seventh centuries A.D

How do the natural resources endowments of Canada and the United States differ?

Canada is well endowed in natural resources important to economic development. The United States has many important resources but is deficient in many others and must rely on global markets for supplies

NORTH AMERICA MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS

DEMOCRACY IN THE US PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM IN CANADA STRICTER GUN LAWS IN CANADA UNIVERSAL HEALTH CARE IN CANADA

Southern Core

Developing first on the coastal plain southward from Virginia, the region developed a plantation economy featuring export crops (indigo; tobacco; cotton).

semiarid

Dry, with very little rainfall; also climate or climate zone with hot, dry summers and cool dry winters.

NORTHERN EURASIA MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine

EASTERN ORTHODOX ISLAM GEORGIAN ORTHODOX ARMENIAN ORTHODOX 160 different nationalities

EUROPE LANGUAGES Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia

ENGLISH FRENCH GERMAN ITALIAN SPANISH PORTUGUESE GREEK FINISH SWEDISH -the major language regions of Europe: Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages, three subdivisions of the Indo-European language family -Celtic languages (Welsh, Gaelic), and Latvian, Lithuanian, Albanian, and Greek are Indo-European in origin but do not fall into the three big groupings.

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLAND LANGUAGES

ENGLISH Papuan

Describe biomes and list five types of biomes

Earth's ecosystems are grouped into biomes characterized by particular plant and animal types, usually named for a region's climate or dominant vegetation type. forest, savanna, scrubland, woodland, grassland, desert, and tundra

The world vegetation map closely mirrors the world climate map.

Ecologically diverse and complex forests occupy humid environments, storing most nutrients in their biomass. In arid and semiarid regions, sparse vegetation is adapted to moisture stress. Forests adapted to winter cold are in humid midlatitude climates, developing as broadleaf forests in warmer areas and coniferous forests in subarctic latitudes. In high-latitude climates, cold-tolerant short vegetation occupies areas that have a mild summer season. Vegetation is absent in ice-bound polar climates.

What are the obstacles to economic development in the Yakutsk region?

Economies not fully reformed, governments are vunerable, flawed democracies

Population redistribution

Effects of Migration as a Whole

Mao Zedong

Emerged as leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1935; died in 1976.

NORTH AMERICA LANGUAGES

English SPANISH FRENCH MIXING POT French in Canada

tropics

Equatorial region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. It is characterized by generally warm or hot temperatures year-round, though much variation exists due to altitude and other factors. Temperate zones north and south of the tropics generally have a winter season. Tropic of Cancer 23.5 degrees north of the equator. Tropic of Capricorn 23.5 degrees south of the equator.

primary level of economic activity

Focuses on extractive activities, such as agriculture, mining, forestry, and fishing.

population growth rate

For a country or region, this rate involves calculation of the birthrate and death rate, modified by subtracting people who emigrate from the area and adding people who immigrate into the area.

serfdom

For centuries in Russia, peasants were bound to the land and required to serve the landowners. Over time this condition of serfdom turned into slavery.

greenhouse gases

Gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and others, that trap heat and cause a greenhouse-like effect as they increase in magnitude in the atmosphere.

Rose Revolution

Georgia's 2003 Rose Revolution, so-named because demonstrators carried roses to emphasize nonviolence, ousted Eduard Shevardnadze, the former Gorbachev ally whose corrupt regime failed to revive the economy or keep the country intact.

transnational capitalist class

Globe-trotting executives and professionals, who view their work as part of a globally competitive process, share upscale lifestyles, and see themselves as citizens of the world as well as citizens of their own countries.

Suburban

Growth of lower-density housing, industry, and commercial zones outside the central business district. Moderately Populated.`

New Russians

Have emerged as the first class of wealthy Russians since 1917. Their conspicuous consumption and uncultured ways make them the target of scorn.

Most international labor migration is between neighboring countries.

High unemployment and low pay often pushes skilled workers out of poorer countries, pulled toward wealthier countries with active economies.

Ecological Perspective

How life forms interact with the physical environment. People who regularly inquire about connections and relationships among life possess this.

humid continental climate

Humid climate type that possesses warm-to-cool summers and bitterly cold winters.

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

In 2001 the United Nations launched a program that targeted for eradication the most intractable development challenges, including extreme hunger and poverty, gender inequality, child mortality, and HIV/AIDS.

The US and Canada may be experiencing a new oil and gas boom. Where do we evidence of this boom?

In Pennsylvania and New York State.

assimilation

In Piaget's theory, process of responding (either physically or mentally) to a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme.

Where is the historic manufacturing core of the United States and Canada?

In a large area of Northwestern United States and southern Canada.

Hazaras

In a predominantly Sunni Muslim country, the Hazara are a Shi'a Muslim, Persian-speaking ethnic community living in central Afghanistan.

In which other parts of the country do we find large Hispanic concentrations?

In several large Metropolitan Areas like New York

The physical Structure of the United States and Canada is characterized by several mountain backbones separated by lowlands. Where are these mountain and lowland features located.

In the Appalachian Highlands

Communist Party

In the former Soviet Union, the Communist Party's original purpose was to advance the social revolution; in practice, the party also took control over the soviets—the governing councils.

sea level rise

Increases in ocean level caused by global warming that put low-lying coastal areas and atolls at risk of flooding, storm surges, and outright submersion.

First world

Industrial rich countries

Describe the features of a meandering stream channel.*

Instead of a stream channel being about the right size for the water it carries, it may become too small or too large. Humans will see this as an increase in stream bank erosion, or a change in the meandering behavior of a stream.

nomadic herding

Involves herding of sheep, goats, and camels in dryland areas in an annual migration cycle often covering hundreds of miles, to bring animals to grass and water only available on a seasonal basis, particularly in the Middle East and North Africa.

North Africa Cultural characteristic

Islamization- which leads to the arab culture and Home of the Berger culture

Where did slave labor used to produce sugar and other agricultural products come from and how have society and the economy adjusted to the end of slavery in the 19th century?

It came from imported African slaves. The Dutch, English, and French were able to hold on to their territories and this is what made the Caribbean a cultural and economic region.

Carbon is the basis of life on Earth. Photosynthesis transfers carbon from the atmosphere to the biosphere, and respiration returns it to the atmosphere.

It cycles through the atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, and soil.

Why did the manufacturing core form in the United States and Canada?

It formed because of developments in technology, economy, and society

Gulf-Atlantic Coastal Plain

Land surface region, composed of sedimentary materials, that extends in the United States from New Jersey to Texas, and then southward into Mexico.

Natural resource

Land, forests, minerals, water, and other things that are not made by people. Direct use: building a house using lumber, planting crops, using wind power.

Biogeochemical cycles are recycling processes that supply essential substances such as carbon, nitrogen, and other nutrients to the biosphere.

Like the movement of water, biogeochemical cycles connect Earth's subsystems.

How did the economy of Central Asia change during the decade after independence and how did it differ thereafter?

Little has changed the leaders of post-Soviet republics approach cities. New construction expresses both in increases in economic activities and religiosity in the region.

Relative location

Location in relation to other places. (Miles, distance, direction) (Florida is south of Georgia)

5 Themes of Geography

Location, Place, Human-Environment Interaction, Movement, Region

EAST ASIA LANGUAGES Japan, China, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

MANDARIN CANTONESE JAPANESE VIETNAMESE CAMBODIA

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS

MOST ARE INDEPENDENT, CUBA IS COMMUNIST,

List and define the physical features maps represent?

MOUNTAINS, OCEANS, DESERTS, PLATEAUS, PLAINS AND BASINS

Rural

Mainly agricultural. Communities of low or sparse population.

Define tectonic plates, and list the different kinds of plate boundaries with examples.

Major landforms of the world are created by a combination of endogenic (internal) and exogenic (external) landforming processes. • Endogenic mechanisms are forces that cause movement beneath Earth's surface, raising some portions and lowering others. The most significant of these are movements associated with plate tectonics. This motion can create earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains, depending on whether the boundaries between plates are convergent, divergent, or transform. • Exogenic processes are forces of erosion that wear down Earth's crust and reshape it into new landforms.

Hindu Kush Mountains

Major mountain chain in Afghanistan.

New Economic Policy (NEP)

Malaysia's master plan, the goal of which was to increase the economic contributions of the majority ethnic Malays, at the expense of both Chinese and Western economic interests.

The median age of humankind as a whole is rising. In rich countries, questions arise about the possibility of sustaining economic growth and about the equitable distribution of wealth among different generations.

Many poor countries must quickly build up their national incomes and devise national welfare or social security programs.

Describe how maps communicate geographic *information.

Map scale, the ratio of size on a map to size on Earth's surface, affects the amount of detail that can be shown on a map. Small-scale maps reduce the size of features and show less detail; large-scale maps make features larger and contain more detail. Creating a flat map of Earth's curved surface via a set of rules called a projection requires distorting either shape or distance. Specialized thematic maps show particular features of Earth's surface.

Meiji Restoration

Marked the end of Tokugawa rule in 1868 and the beginning of the period when Japanese society and its economy were transformed from feudal to modern; Meiji means "enlightened rule," which in this case meant adopting selected Western traits, particularly education and technology.

3 Landform Divisions of Latin America

Middle America, the Caribbean, and South America

What are the three landform divisions of Latin America?

Middle America, the Caribbean, and South America

The single most important physical variable unifying this region is aridity

Middle East

transnational migration

Migrant use of modern transport and communication technologies to stay in touch with their home community, remit money and goods, and return periodically for visits.

Human Development Index (HDI)

Most widely used indicator of human development levels of countries and regions of the world; derived from life expectancy at birth, educational attainment, and income.

Developing nations

Nations with primarily agricultural economies. Increasing level of industrialization, low per capita rae. A nation where the average income is much lower than in industrial nations, where the economy relies on a few export crops, and where farming is conducted by primitive methods. In many developing nations, rapid population growth threatens the supply of food. Also they economically and technologically less developed than industrilized nations

Use of mineral resources changes as technology and economics change.

New technologies can simultaneously increase demand for one mineral and decrease that for another. Variations in price, which can be caused by variations in supply of a resource, can also influence demand. For most mineral resources, most of global supply is produced by a relatively small number of countries.

Explain the difference between a renewable resource and a nonrenewable resource.*

Nonrenewable resources form so slowly that for practical purposes, they cannot be replaced when used. Examples include coal, oil, gas, and ores of uranium, aluminum, lead, copper, and iron. • Renewable resources are replaced continually, at least within a human lifespan. Examples include solar energy, air, wind, water, trees, grain, livestock, and medicines made from plants.

This region is the original home of Berber Culture

North Africa

The cultural concept Manifest Destiny influenced the development of this region

North America

Population density

Number of individuals per unit area. Average number of people living in a square mile. is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume; it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and particularly to humans. It is a key geographic term. Divide the number of people by the area to calculate to determine the population density.

Inca

One of the four high civilizations of pre-Colombian Latin America, centered on the city of Cuzco, Peru, in the Andes and extending from southern Colombia to central Chile.

Maya

One of the four high civilizations of pre-Colombian Latin America, situated in southern Mexico and northern Central America.

Hindi

One of the national languages of India; one of India's several languages of Indo-European origin.

Shi'ites

One of two main branches in Islam, predominant in Iran and in parts of Iraq and Yemen.

insurgent states

Ones marked by revolt, insurrection, and guerrilla activity from national liberation movements that oppose the established authority.

Nagorno-Karabakh region

Part of Azerbaijan with an Armenian majority, whose desire for independence resulted in war between Azerbaijan and Armenia. Fighting ceased in 1994, but the fundamental issues are as yet unresolved.

Overseas Chinese

Persons of Chinese ancestry now living in other countries. Many maintain family and economic ties with relatives and associates still living in China.

Loyalists

Persons who remained loyal to Great Britain during and after the Revolutionary War. After the revolution, many of these loyalists no longer felt welcome in the lower 13 colonies and so fled to British North America (modern Canada).

banana republic

Phrase coined to describe countries with a single export crop whose economy and political system is controlled by foreign companies and a domestic elite.

types of maps

Physical maps, political maps, climate maps, population maps, economic maps, mental maps, and combination.

Movement

Places do not exist in isolation. Changes in the way places loos. People, goods, and ideas move from place to place.

Sub-Saharan Africa characteristics

Political: Slash-and-burn agriculture which lead to the loss of rain forest. Region: Contains tropical rain forests and extensive freshwater basins. The Zulu culture can be found here. Plagued by civil wars over their rich natural resources. Divided along religious lines as a result of decolonization.

physiologic density

Population density expressed as the number of people per unit of arable land.

renewable energy

Power derived from sources, such as water, wind, and solar radiation, that can be infinitely used, as opposed to fossil fuels, which are mined as finite resources.

Dmitrii Medvedev

Prime Minister of Russia since 2012. Previously served as the third President of Russia.

NORTHERN EURASIA LANGUAGES Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine

RUSSIAN UKRAINIAN MOLDIVIAN BELARUSIAN ARMENIAN GERMANY TURKISH GEORGIAN CHECHEAN FINNISH KARELIAN MORDIVIAN SOME SPANISH PALEO-SIBERIAN ESKIMO

neo-Malthusians

Referring to contemporary modifications of the notions of Thomas Malthus regarding population growth and production capacity.

Shintoism

Religion in Japan based on the worship of natural and ancestral spirits.

neocolonialism

Retention of the trade relationships and patterns of pre-World War II colonialism. Often cited to explain continuing uneven distribution of wealth.

After centuries of European emigration, natural decrease in recent decades means that immigrants play an important role in sustaining economic vitality.

Rising proportions of immigrants, especially from outside Europe, have been met with intolerance in many countries.

oligarchs .

Russian privatization of industry has resulted in a struggle for survival between the new "entrepreneurs" and emergence of the oligarchs, a few individuals who control vast economic empires

NORTHERN EURASIA HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS-Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine

SERFS

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN RESOURCES

SILVER BISMUTH OIL FISHING AGRICULTURE GAS MINERALS COPPER GOLD SOY TIN LITHIUM COFFEE BIOFUELS -The major minerals in this region include petroleum and silver in Mexico and bauxite in Jamaica, Guyana, and Suriname. Mexico also contains sufficient coal and iron ore to sustain a steel industry.

List three technologies that have contributed to the field of geography.*

Satellites enable rapid collection of large amounts of information that is stored, managed, analyzed, and displayed using geographic information systems. Raster-based information is stored by grid cells; vector-based information uses lines and points that are located by X-Y coordinates. Global positioning systems allow rapid determination of location and area used in millions of everyday devices. - Cartography (mapmaking) - Remote sensing (mapping Earth from satellites and aircraft) - Geographic information systems (GIS) for storing, displaying, and analyzing geographic data

Who were the major European Immigrant groups that came to the United States during the 19th and early 20th centuries, and did they become concentrated?

Scandinavians in upper Midwest, Dutch Farmers in southwestern Michigan, Portugese Fishermen in Massachusetts, and Basque Shepherds in arid West. They tended to avoid the south.

Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA)

Signed in 2005, the agreement has attempted to stimulate increased trade by eliminating some of the tariff barriers between the two countries.

Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA)

Signed into law by President Clinton in 2000, this act promotes trade between African states and the United States by giving countries greater access to American markets, credit, and technology.

The difference between densely and sparsely populated

Sparsely has few people living in it due to environmental and economic reasons. Densely is crowded with people.

Cultural Characteristics

Specific to a place, not generic. Peoples activities change the way a place looks or is represented. Man-made or invented: language, unique buildings, religious practices, etc.

Physical characteristics

Specific to a place, not generic. The way a place looks. Mountains, climates, vegetation, rivers, etc. are created by nature.

Describe the major features of glaciated landscapes.*

Stream-eroded terrain prior to glaciation. (b) The glaciers dramatically alter these valleys by, gouging, scraping, scouring, bulldozing, and plucking rock and soil. (c) After the climate warms and the glacier melts, distinctive landforms remain: U-shaped glacial valleys, new lakes and streams, and sharp-edged mountain ridges.

Describe the effects of changing sediment inputs on stream channels.*

Streams shape their channels by alternately eroding and depositing material on their beds and banks.

The countries in this region have been plagued by civil wars over their rich natural resources

Sub Saharan Africa

Trans-Siberian Railway

System that crosses Siberia, beginning at the Ural Mountains and ending at the Pacific Ocean terminus of Vladivostok.

Berlin Conference

The 1884 conference of European powers that marked the beginning of the formal era of colonialism in Africa by dividing Africa among these powers.

Appalachian Highlands

The Appalachian Mountains region of the eastern United States, constituted in part by the Blue Ridge/Great Smokies and Ridge and Valley physiographic provinces.

Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI)

The Japanese government agency responsible for guiding and directing the development of the Japanese economy.

Aotearoa

The Land of the Long White Cloud was the name given by the indigenous Maori people to the North Island of New Zealand.

How do mountains influence the climate in the western United States?

The North-South mountain ranges in the West modify their air masses as they move eastward, often drying them out.

What were the gains and losses produced by NAFTA (Northern American Free Trade Agreement) in Mexico's economy?

The US and Canada receive over 85% of Mexico's exports. Roughly 1/3 of Mexico's population are poor.

sustainability

The ability of a resource use system to function well for a long time by taking into account the long-term environmental consequences of change.

salinization

The accumulation of salts in the upper part of the soil, often rendering the land agriculturally useless; commonly occurs in moisture-deficient areas where irrigated agriculture is practiced.

federalism

The administrative framework that provides states or territories a measure of economic and political autonomy.

French Canada Core

The area in eastern Canada, primarily along the St. Lawrence River, where settlers of French origin established a long-term presence.

milkshed

The area serviced by a given milk-producing region.

demographic dividend

The benefit that results when reduced child mortality, declining fertility, greater economic growth, and improved health care and education produce a larger working-age population, fewer dependents, and greater economic returns.

balkanization

The breakup or fragmentation of a large political unit into several smaller units, such as that which occurred in the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

voluntourism

The combination of tourism and volunteer work for a good cause

evapotranspiration rate

The combined loss of water from direct evaporation and transpiration by plants.

landscape modification

The constant change that landscapes undergo in response to natural and human-induced processes.

manifest destiny

The conviction of many nineteenth-century Americans that God willed the United States to extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans; a similar belief claims a special U.S. mission to promote democracy throughout the world.

acculturation

The cultural modification of a group because of contact with other cultures. This is the initial stage of the assimilation process in which a group learns enough about local customs to operate successfully in the larger community, and may go no further.

Levant

The eastern Mediterranean region from western Greece to western Egypt.

Chinese diaspora

The migration of large numbers of Chinese from China to other countries.

Indian diaspora

The migration of large numbers of South Asian Indians to other, largely English-speaking countries.

New South

The more urbanized and industrialized South, which emerged in the United States in the twentieth century.

Tropic of cancer

The parallel of 23.5°N latitude; On June 21st, most of the sunlight is hitting here

frost-free period

The period during each year when frost is not expected to occur, based on average conditions.

Cold War

The period of hostility, just short of open warfare, between the Soviet Union and the United States and its allies, essentially from 1945 to the mid-1960s, although its end is often dated as 1989 with the fall of the Berlin Wall.

privatization of industry

The process of transferring partially or completely state-owned industries and farms to private control.

agroforestry

The sustainable harvesting of food and other forest products.

Five Pillars of Islam

The tenets that govern the behavior and belief of faithful Muslims: the creed, prayer, charitable giving, fasting, and pilgrimage (specifically to Mecca).

rent-seeking

The use of the resources of the state for the benefit of private interests. In Russia and some other Eurasian countries, public officials "privatize" their government functions, by seeking "rent" in exchange for allowing development to proceed.

irrigated agriculture:

The use of water derived from either surface streams or groundwater sources to grow crops; often found in arid areas where rainfall is insufficient to produce a reliable crop. Centerpivot irrigation tapping groundwater in the North American Great Plains or the use of Nile River water stored behind Egypt's Aswan Dam are examples.

Oceania

The vast realm of Pacific Islands extending over several million square miles, including the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.

stations

The very large sheep or cattle ranches associated with Australia.

El Niño

The warm, irregularly occurring, equatorial surface current whose southward movement along the western coast of South America blocks the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water and disrupts typical regional weather patterns. Its name in Spanish (the little boy or the child) derives from its folk association in late December with Christmas.

How did the Soviets change agriculture in Central Asia and what effect did that have on rural farmers?

They expanded agriculture on the steppes of Kazakhstan. The steppe is prone to drought and this major erosion of soils in the region and instense dust storms in Kazakhstan.

North Africa

This region is the original home of Berber Culture

madrasahs

Traditional Islamic schools, often attached to a mosque, where students study the Quran, learn basic reading and writing skills, and are introduced to the spiritual, philosophical, and legal scholarship of the Islamic community.

Orange Revolution

Ukraine's 2004 Orange Revolution, a public rebellion against government practices that took its name from the opposition party's color, and led to the election of Viktor Yushchenko, who promised to root out corruption and restructure both state and economy.

microstates

Very small independent countries whose potential for agricultural and industrial development is limited.

Ob River

West Siberian lowland river. When its tributaries thaw in the spring, ice in the lower Ob acts like a giant plug, sometimes until late summer, causing extensive flooding.

industrial colonialism

Western political control of colonial territory and economic interests.

Nonrenewable resource

a resource that cannot be replaced. Mined products and fossil fuels. Materials used by humans that are not made by humans. ex gems, iron, copper, fossil fuels

Wind energy produces

a small but rapidly growing amount of energy.

Knowledge of the water budget is essential to understanding

both physical and biological processes because the water budget is a critical regulator of ecosystem activity. This influence extends to human use of the landscape, through such issues as determining the natural vegetation cover or agricultural potential.

geospatial data

data that describe both the locations and characteristics of spatial features on the Earth's surface

The greatest problems in urban air pollution

derive from carbon monoxide, and from photochemical smog.

A human-environment tradition

emerged in the 1800s.

export processing zones (EPZ)

Enclaves in countries where materials are imported, processed, and reexported as finished products.

.jews

Members of an ethnic group who claim as their belief system Judaism, a monotheistic religion formed by one of several Semitic peoples who resided in Southwest Asia more than 3,000 years ago. Subjected to repeated episodes of persecution throughout their history, the majority of the Jewish population became scattered throughout the world but eventually established their homeland of Israel in 1948. Today Jews make up a small but regionally prominent ethnic minority in the Middle East by constituting more than two-thirds of Israel's population

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN MAJOR CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS

-MOSTLY TROPICAL (Tropical wet climate has warm, wet conditions in all months) -ARGENTINA AND CHILI ARE MID LATITITUDE -SAVANA CLIMATE (hot and rainy summer season and a cool, mostly dry winter season.) -SUBTROPICAL(hot, humid summers and cool and mild winters) -ARID/SEMIDARID (marked by low precipitation)

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN LANGUAGES

-Portuguese speaking -Spanish speaking- -Guarani -MULTICULTURAL

EAST ASIA MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS Japan, China, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. -China, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea together comprise the world's most powerful and dynamic economic region. -Beijing has accepted capitalism as the primary engine of economic growth, but within the context of strong government control. -The implications of China's increasingly globalized economy include growing internal regional economic disparities, the transformation of agriculture and food habits, and massive population movements. -As with agriculture, the primary objective of China's industrial policy has been to promote regional self-sufficiency, and the government was relatively successful in meeting that goal until the transformative policy reforms of the late 1970s. -Since then, the influence of the global economy and the parallel rise of both domestic and foreign investment in manufacturing have made China a much richer nation. -The Chinese government designated many coastal areas for accelerated industrial and economic development during the postreform era. -hese "city-regions" of the Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta, and the Bo Hai Rim have become territorial platforms for FDI and thus most engaged with the process of globalization. Together the three regions in 2010 accounted for 65 percent of national GDP and 70 percent of FDI. -Despite economic prosperity at the national level, China's interior provinces lag seriously behind the coastal provinces. -In 1997, the British Crown Colony of Hong Kong, often referred to as a "borrowed place on borrowed time," was returned to China. -The nearby Portuguese colony of Macau was returned in 1999. Hong Kong's economic functions have changed over time. - Before 1949 Hong Kong served as an important entrepôt, or transshipment point, for much of south China's external trade with the rest of the world. -After the Communists gained power, Hong Kong lost most of its commercial links to mainland China, and the colony was forced to shift its economic energies to the manufacturing and export of cheap "Made in Hong Kong" consumer goods such as textiles, clothing, footwear, and electronics. - It soon became a global manufacturing center fortuitously based on the post-1949 migration of mainland Chinese capitalists and refugees who provided an endless source of cheap labor. -With much of its manufacturing base relocated to mainland China in the 1980s, Hong Kong's economy has become well-grounded in the higher-value service sector—banking, insurance, real estate, and shipping—which in 2011 represented 93 percent of GDP. Tourism, especially from the mainland, is the second most important income generator. -With the older core of Shanghai in the foreground, the "new" Shanghai is located across the Huangpu River in Pudong where high-tech manufacturing and the growing financial service sectors are concentrated. Pudong symbolizes the globalized landscapes of urban China. -Pearl River Delta PRD(Hong Kong), Yangtze River Delta YRD (Shanghai), The Bohai Rim Region BRR (Beijing) are the 3 top urban economic regions in China. -Shenzhen (PRD) also is a major finance and transport logistics center, and supports one of China's two stock exchanges (the other is in Shanghai). -Much of this investment is in the electronic products sector that includes telecom products, computer manufacturing, integrated circuits, auto electronics, and cell phones. Critical to the rise of the high-value electronics industry, particularly software and integrated circuit design, is the BRR's educated workforce or what might be called human capital. Beijing is home to three world-class universities and research institutes. -In Shanghai (YRD) a substantial amount of FDI in the YRD region focuses on computers, mechanical and electrical products, and chemical products.

-The PRD, YRD, and BRR urban-economic regions are characterized by an efficient transport infrastructure of limited-access expressways and high-speed trains, but interior China is not. - The national government has embarked on an aggressive program of national highway and high-speed rail construction to link interior regions with the coast so that economic opportunities associated with globalization spread inland and promote national economic integration - By 2020, the length of China's trunk highway network will reach 85,000 kilometers (53,000 miles). Plans call for all provincial capitals and cities of 200,000 or more people to be connected -China is also investing in high-speed rail transport; tracks will more than double to almost 10,000 miles from 2012 to 2020. -Trains with speeds up to 220 miles per hour will run on dedicated tracks while regular high-speed trains traveling up to 155 miles an hour will share tracks with regional, commuter, and freight trains. -This ambitious high-speed rail program has short-term liabilities and long-term benefits. The pace of investment has meant substantial government debt. The benefits include cutting travel time in half between cities less than 600 miles apart because of long transit times associated with air travel. -The result is greater economic productivity as urban places become more geographically connected, which is especially important for providing interior provinces with increased economic opportunities. -Taiwan's economy is more diversified, with a strong presence of competitive small and medium-sized firms. - In addition to the basic heavy industries of shipbuilding, iron and steel, textiles, and chemicals, the country exports precision instruments, telecommunications equipment, electronic parts, and higher-value computer-related products. - Japan Model, a unique adaptation of Western methods to indigenous Japanese culture and values. This model included government guidance, not control; competent bureaucracy; proper sequencing of the development process; focus on comparative advantage and regional specialization; wise investment of surplus capital; development of infrastructure; emphasis on education and upgrading of the labor force; population planning; and a long-range perspective. -Another feature of Japan's economic system has long been its tiered structure, consisting of a pyramid with a relatively small number of modern, giant companies at the top; a greater number of medium-sized firms in the middle; and thousands of tiny workshops and family establishments at the bottom. -he majority of Japan's urban-industrial development is concentrated along the southern coast of Honshu, particularly in the three regions of Tokyo-Yokohama, Nagoya, and Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto. -The Keihin region (37 million) centered on Tokyo (8.9 million) is the most populated urban region in the world, and is overwhelmingly dominant at a number of geographical scales. The region contains about 29 percent of Japan's population. Tokyo is the imperial capital, the seat of the Japanese government, the center of media and advertising, and also the country's dominant financial and corporate center -Along with New York and London, Tokyo is one of three command centers of global finance, commerce, and production -The Hanshin or Kansai region (17 million) centered on Osaka (2.6 million), Kobe, and Kyoto is the country's second largest urban-industrial region. Unlike the Keihin region, which supports a diverse economic base, Hanshin's regional economy rests on more traditional industry and commerce -The Chukyo region (10 million), centered on the city of Nagoya (2.2 million and fourth largest), is Japan's third most important urban-industrial region. Located between Tokyo and Osaka, Nagoya is an important heavy industrial city much like Osaka, but with a noticeable difference: it is the home to Toyota Motor Corporation with its Toyota City and adjacent parts plants.

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

-The strongest economies in Latin America are Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina, in that order -The weakest economy (excluding small Caribbean Islands) and the poorest population in the region is Haiti, followed by the Central American republics excluding Costa Rica and Panama, and Bolivia in South America. -SEVENTH LARGEST ECONOMY (Brazil), next is Mexico -30% of population live in poverty -ECOTOURISM -EXPORT (COFFEE -ILLEGAL DRUGS -MANUFACTURING(pharmaceuticals, aircraft, automobiles, computers, and communication devices) -TOURISM

The forces that integrate Europe can be divided into three categories:

-geoeconomic Geoeconomically, a trading area with 200 million and eventually 500 million people was better fit to compete globally than a United Kingdom or a Spain with 50 million citizens.) -geopolitical (The shared Judeo-Christian heritage provided a common frame of reference for those in all quarters of the region.) - cultural (The shared Judeo-Christian heritage provided a common frame of reference for those in all quarters of the region.)

How geography might directly affect relations among population subroups

Create food shortages that result in warfare or conflict.

initial advantage

Early factors that propel the development and expansion of particular activities.

Location

Exact Location (long/lat) adress Relative: a places location related to anothers

Absolute location

Exact location of a place on the earth described by global coordinates. actual location, fixed

Gazprom

Government-controlled Russian natural gas company.

steppe

Grasslands in the mid-latitudes and the subtropics.

hukou registration system

In China, household residency permits were required by law until the late 1970s. Without such permits, it was difficult for rural residents to move to cities because their access to food, jobs, housing, and health care was limited to their home district.

remittances

Money or goods sent back to their home country by migrants.

settlement frontiers .

New territories that are occupied and culturally imprinted by settlers, usually by the process of diffusion

Region of the Panguna Copper Mine

Oceania

hydrosphere

Oceans, lakes, streams, rivers, groundwater, water vapor, ice. Oceans cover about 71% of Earth's surface.

Where is the Hispanic American borderland located?

Southwestern United States

Why did Latin America experience major population decline after the European conquest?

Spanish Soldiers, African slaves, and others carried diseases that they were not immune too.

Two primary geographic perspectives

Spatial and ecological

Describe the processes that cause vertical movements of Earth's crust.*

Tetonic plates

Japan Model

The Japanese approach to development, characterized by efficient government and bureaucracy, a sound currency and banking system, growth of education, and effective harnessing of the abilities of the Japanese people.

lost decade

The decade of the 1980s when Latin America suffered from a serious economic crisis.

African American migration

The movement of blacks in the United States from rural to urban areas.

Subtropic Climate

is a geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropic circle of latitude (the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn) and the 38th parallel in each hemisphere. 20-35 degrees latitude.

lava

magma that has reached the surface of Earth

Pattern

refers tot he geometric arrangement of objects within an area (ex: streets arranged in rectangular grid pattern)

landlocked states

Countries without a marine coast; their trade with the outside world must pass through neighboring, sometimes hostile, countries. Almost 40 percent of the world's landlocked states are in Africa.

Zarafshon River

Flows from Tajikistan into Uzbekistan and disappears into the Kyzyl Kum desert.

economic factors

The general health and well being of a country or world region. Interest rates, inflation and economic growth.

White Australia Policy

The policy formerly used by Australia in an attempt to exclude nonwhites from migrating permanently to Australia and to encourage whites, especially the British, to settle in Australia; officially termed the restricted immigration policy.

business process outsourcing (BPO)

The practice in which large companies employ specialized companies, often located in distant countries, to provide services such as call centers in order to reduce labor costs.

diffusion process

The process whereby cultural groups and their goods and innovations move across and settle the landscape (for example settlers moving into new territories).

The world population is increasing, but the rate of growth is slowing.

The rate of increase in each country represents a balance among the crude birth rate, the crude death rate, and migration. Concern over population size focuses on the total fertility rate (TFR), which has been dropping in most countries. Most of the population increase is occurring in poor, not rich, countries.

vegetation succession

The replacement of one plant community by others over time.

Green Revolution

The use of new, high-yielding hybrid plants— mainly rice, corn, and wheat—to increase food supplies; includes the development of the infrastructure necessary for greater production and better distribution to the consumer.

Convection causes air to cool, leading to cloud formation and precipitation.

This releases latent heat into the atmosphere, further stimulating convective circulation. This circulation can be localized, or can become organized into large-scale storm systems such as tropical and midlatitude cyclones.

precautionary principle

This rule mandates that whenever significant change is likely to occur as a result of a proposed development or whenever the long-term implications of a proposed change are obscure, implementation of the anticipated project must proceed slowly, with proper examination of likely impacts and available remedial actions.

exotic rivers

Those foreign to the area to which they supply water; they gain moisture from outside the region and cross dry areas on their journey to the sea, collecting little (if any) runoff along their lower channels.

The Hydrologic Cycle

Water is central to every part of the biosphere. Water cycles through the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere by means of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Evaporation converts liquid water in lakes and oceans into vapor, returning it into the atmosphere. Water falls from the atmosphere to the ground and ocean through condensation and precipitation. Runoff carries water from the land to the sea. This flow is the hydrologic cycle.

Richter Scale

developed in 30s to definie magnitude of seismic activity; ; 0 to 10 magnitude scale -- would not feel anything below a 2; 3 to 4 are minor, 5 to 6 breaks windows and topples weak buildings, 7 to 8 are devastating killers if they affect populated areas - largest recorded was in Chile 1960 at a magnitude of 9.5

Discharges of organic matter and fertilizers to streams cause

eutrophication—excessive growth of algae—which depletes dissolved oxygen when the algae die and decay.

Continental Climate

is a climate characterized by important annual variation in temperature due to the lack of significant bodies of water nearby. Often winter temperature is cold enough to support a fixed period of snow each year, and relatively moderate precipitation. These climates occur between about 35° and 60° latitude in the interior and eastern portions of Northern Hemisphere continents.

Distribution

position, placement or arrangement throughout space

Amenity migration is driven mostly by pull factors

such as affordability, natural or cultural features, and comfortable or luxury lifestyles.

Concentration

the distribution within a given area; if all are in close proximity that will be concentrated; if they are scattered far from each other that will be dispersed.

Pollution

the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change.

Climate types

tropical, arid, humid subtropical, mediterranen, marine west coast, highland/alpine, polar/tundra

Sun Yat-sen

(1866-1925) Chinese revolutionary and political leader known as the "father of the republic." His goals focused on the "Three Principles of the People": nationalism, democracy, and livelihood.

City Prosperity Index (CPI)

A composite index that measures the productivity, infrastructure, quality of life, equity, and environmental sustainability of urban areas.

internal colonialism

A condition found in many less-developed countries where local elites, often living in urban cores, exploit the masses, many of whom live in outlying peripheral rural regions.

microfinancing

A development strategy that targets economically marginal people with good business ideas to receive small loans, insurance, and money transfers so they can launch and operate a small business.

Hinduism

A formalized set of religious beliefs with social and political ramifications; the dominant religion of Indian society.

Taliban movement

A fundamentalist Islamic student-based movement that originated in the Afghan refugee camps in Pakistan.

Southern African Development Community (SADC)

A group founded in 1980 to reduce dependency on South Africa for rail, air, and port links; imports of manufactured goods; and the supply of electrical power.

BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) countries

A group of countries that are regarded as emerging economies with increasing global economic power.

land concentration

A situation in which a small number of people control most of the productive land.

Gaza Strip

A small territory on the southeast coast of the Mediterranean Sea; inhabited by Palestinians and administered since 2007 by Hamas who seized control from the Palestinian Authority.

Extended Metropolitan Region (EMR) .

A space economy of regionally based urbanization in which the proliferation of manufacturing facilities in rural locations along urban-centered transportation corridors has caused the social and economic traits of rural spaces and their residents to become urban in character. For example, megacities such as Jakarta, Manila, and Bangkok, whose populations exceed 10 million inhabitants and which include villages and paddy fields from which industries draw labor, are considered extended metropolitan regions

Five Year Plan

A strategy in the former Soviet Union for achieving rapid industrialization through centralized management and the forced achievement of production goals.

Bolivian gas wars

A struggle between Bolivia's highland and lowland regions for control of the natural gas resources that provide income for Bolivia's social welfare programs.

Pacific Coastlands

A system of mountains and valleys that extends along the western edge of North America.

Stages of Economic Growth

A theory developed by Walt Rostow in which five stages of economic organization are recognized: traditional society, preconditions for takeoff, takeoff, drive to maturity, and high mass consumption.

Plate tectonics

A theory stating that the earth's surface is broken into plates that move. a theory describing and explaining the movement of large, continent-sized slabs of Earth's crust relative to one another. Theory states that 200mil years ago all continents were joined as one supercontinent known as Pangaea and separated.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A treaty negotiated between Spain and Portugal in 1494 that divided the New World between those two countries at roughly the 50th meridian, giving Portugal the rights to areas to the east and Spain to areas to the west; this treaty followed a papal bull from the previous year, which had declared the New World as belonging to Spain, and Africa and India to Portugal.

Interior Lowlands

A vast sedimentary accumulation zone between the Appalachian Plateau and the Great Plains, essentially comprising the drainage basins of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers in the United States, and extending northward west of the Canadian Shield as far as the Arctic.

Gross National Income in Purchasing Power Parity (GNI PPP)

A widely used statistical measure of economic output which factors in differences in cost of living from one country to another, so that the resultant figures are more comparable.

Pacific Ring of Fire

A zone that encircles the Pacific Ocean, which includes Japan, the Philippines, and parts of Indonesia, as well as the Andes Mountains of South America and many of the coastal ranges of Canada, Alaska, and eastern Siberia.

Stolen Generation

Aboriginal children that were forcibly taken from their mothers to be brought up by whites, a practice that only ended in Australia in 1969.

Difference between absolute and relative location

Absolute is when a location can be found on a map and relative is not mapped since it is more like a nickname for a location.

Examples of Developing Countries

Afghanistan,Belarus, Bangladesh, Belize, India, Honduras, Iran, Jamaica, Jordan, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Argentina, Algeria, Kenya, Kazakhstan,Brazil, South Africa, Sudan, China, Tajikistan, Thailand, Costa Rica, Colombia, Cambodia, Mexico, Cuba, Turkey, Tonga, Ukraine, Vietnam, Ecuador, Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Yemen, Ethiopia, Fiji, Egypt, Pakistan, Georgia

communalism .

An uncompromising allegiance to a particular ethnic or religious group

Qanat

An underground tunnel, sometimes several miles long, tapping a water source; natural water flow accomplished by gravity; common in several Middle Eastern countries, where they are used to tap groundwater found in alluvial fans.

Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

Areas in China that function as modern-day treaty ports, receiving a substantial amount of foreign investment.

deserts

Areas of extreme dryness where human settlement and economic development is severely constrained by lack of water.

humid subtropical climate

Areas of warm, moist climate, seasonally exposed to intense cyclonic storms (hurricanes; cyclones), typically located on the southeastern sides of continents.

Asian countries have sent many emigrants abroad, especially to the Americas.

Chinese emigrant communities have disproportionately more wealth in some Asian countries.

Describe the concepts of distance decay and diffusion and how they apply to the study of geography.*

Distance can be expressed in absolute terms, or in terms of travel time or cost. Distance affects the likelihood of interaction between places. Diffusion is the spread of a phenomenon from one place to another. Hierarchies of organization can affect information diffusion.

Why does the most of Canada's population live within 200 miles (320 kilometers) of the United States border?

Due to harsh environments of the Canadian North

kitchen gardens

During the Soviet period, families were allowed to have a small amount of land adjacent to their homes for growing whatever they wanted for their own consumption or for trade.

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES

ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES -deforestation(Much of the recent deforestation has been caused by expansion of cattle ranching, and in the Amazon, expansion of soybean cultivation) -environmental degradation - water problems (massive minings, cities' inability to procure and deliver clean water) - air quality problems (Excessive automobile traffic (high-emission vehicles) and industrial pollution, combined with poor regulations and policy enforcement, ) - natural hazards (volcanoes erupting, earthquakes, hurricanes) - and the uncertainties caused by global climate change. (It is projected that average temperatures may rise 4°C (more than 7°F) during the twenty-first century. )

What makes an area more prone to earthquakes?

Earth's crust consists of several moving pieces, known as tectonic plates. The movement of these pieces causes earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the formation of mountain ranges at plate boundaries.

Balkanization along natural lines has charActerized this region

Eastern Europe

British East India Company

English company established in 1600 to trade with India. In pursuit of its commercial interests, the company eventually exercised political and military control over large parts of India until it was replaced by direct British rule in 1858.

In respiration, carbohydrates are broken down when they combine with atmospheric oxygen to carbon dioxide and water.

Energy is released in the process. Some of this energy is lost as heat and some is stored in chemical compounds for later use in other life processes. The lithosphere is a major storehouse of carbon. Through geologic time, carbon enters the lithosphere slowly through rock formation, principally from oceanic sediments such as limestone but also through creation of fossil fuels such as coal.

Climate Change

Climate changes result from changes in the geometry of Earth's orbit around the Sun; geologic factors such as volcanic eruptions; and changes in the composition of the atmosphere, some human caused. Human-induced global warming, caused primarily by burning fossil fuels that release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, is under way, demonstrating the key role humans play in Earth's physical processes.

marine west coast climate

Climatic region of northern Europe, northwestern North America, southern Chile, and portions of Australia and New Zealand; characterized by year-round cool and wet atmospheric conditions.

The physical processes that shape the patterns of Earth's surface

Climatic: Produce precipitation Hydrologic: Determines what happens to rain when it reaches Earth's surface, and the characteristics of the river valleys that receive the water runoff.

town and village enterprises (TVEs)

Collectives owned by towns and villages, but often including private capital investment, that produce products for both domestic consumption and export.

Carbon is taken from the atmosphere and stored in biomass through photosynthesis. It is returned to the atmosphere through respiration.

Combustion of fossil fuels and manufacture of cement release vast quantities of carbon to the atmosphere from long-term storage in rocks. Large quantities are also exchanged between the biosphere and atmosphere via photosynthesis and respiration, and between the atmosphere and oceans via gas exchange.

Shatt al-Arab

Common channel located in southern Iraq through which the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flow into the Persian Gulf.

Human environment interaction with a river

Damming the river for hydroelectric power. Transporting goods on ships on the river.

Desertification

Degradation of once-fertile rangeland, agricultural land, or tropical dry forest into nonproductive desert, The process by which desert conditions are expanded; occurs in response to naturally changing environments and the destruction of soils and vegetation brought on by human overuse; takes place on the margins of desert regions.

Yamato period

The rise of the Yamato period some 1,700 years ago led to the emergence of the first Japanese state, centered on a military aristocracy and anchored by successive kings.

Sahel

The semiarid grassland along the southern margin of the Sahara Desert in Western, Central, and Eastern Africa.

kinship relations

The ties and relations of the extended family unit, often used in association with traditional societies.

ecotourism

The travel to natural areas to understand the physical and cultural qualities of the region, while producing economic opportunities and conserving the natural environment.

virtual water

Water that is not physically present, but is represented in a commodity because water was needed to grow or produce it; for example, the water invested in a wet place to grow rice that is then exported to a dry place that lacks sufficient water to grow its own rice.

Globalization plays an increasingly significant role in the development process, although the blending, culturally transforming effects of globalization should not be overstated.

We also examined how long-term development requires a commitment by people to understand the environments of which they are a part, and to act creatively in directing the impulses that determine whether human habitats will be carelessly degraded in the interest of short-term gain or planned in favor of long-term benefit. The combination of landforms, climate, vegetation, soils, and resource endowments create positive places that favor development. Humans tend to concentrate in these places, and over time these places reflect millennia of cultural diffusion and inheritance from initial culture hearths. They also reflect a continuing accumulation of technological innovations and cultural practices that shape the development settings of countries and regions.

warlords

They use opium profits to finance and arm the militias that keep the countryside of Afghanistan unstable and out of the reach of the elected government.

new middle class

This group has appeared recently in Russia, at least in the larger urban areas. Unlike the New Russians, new middle-class people are professionals who draw salaries in fields valued by the global economy.

Migration has changed the character and composition of many populations through history and in the current era.

Three areas that are undergoing significant changes due to migration include Europe, Asia, and North America.

sacrifice zones

To create sustainable livelihoods in the present, people often create sacrifice zones—sacrificing the future use of potentially sustainable resources or the present productivity of distant areas.

Migration • Human migrations have redistributed populations throughout history, and significant migrations continue. Push factors drive people away from wherever they are, and pull factors attract them to new destinations, but some migrations have been forced. Migration may be voluntary or involuntary, and cross long or short distances. Some migration is temporary. • Internal migration is usually characterized by pull factors like moving to find work or live near family.

• Most international labor migration is between neighboring countries. High unemployment and low pay often pushes skilled workers out of poorer countries, pulled toward wealthier countries with active economies. • Forced migration is typified by push factors such as force or the threat of violence. Pull factors are less important but can include humanitarian policies or cultural affinities in other neighboring countries. • Amenity migration is driven mostly by pull factors such as affordability, natural or cultural features, and comfortable or luxury lifestyles.

Along coastlines, waves caused by wind blowing across the ocean surface

cause intensive erosion and rapidly change landforms.

Human-induced global warming,

caused primarily by burning fossil fuels that release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, is under way, demonstrating the key role humans play in Earth's physical processes.

third world nations

countries that are underdeveloped, have few manufacturing firms, and a large number of poor people who possess few goods.

Ocean surface circulation generally follows the prevailing winds,

creating large gyres that are clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. In the midlatitudes of the southern hemisphere, strong currents blow around the globe from west to east. Vertical circulation is controlled by differences in water density.

Streams collect water from

groundwater and overland flow and transport the water down to the sea.

Satellites enable rapid collection

of large amounts of information that is stored, managed, analyzed, and displayed using geographic information systems. Raster-based information is stored by grid cells; vector-based information uses lines and points that are located by X-Y coordinates.

List the different types of mass movements and describe how they operate.*

soil creep, creep is a very slow, gradual movement of material down the slope of a hill rock slides and mudflows, can occur on steep slopes, especially during wet conditions.

Ecosystems

• Ecosystems consist of living organisms and the physical environments with which they interact. Photosynthesis is the basis of food chains and ecological systems. Plants compete for water, sunlight, and nutrients, and plants that are best adapted to compete for limiting factors will dominate a given environment. Such adaptations help explain the world distribution of major vegetation types. • Very large portions of the world's land surface have been modified by human activity, and humans are major players in most of the world's ecosystems.

The Dynamic Earth

• Most change on Earth's surface is slow in human terms, usually taking thousands of years to significantly reshape the land. But in some areas, change may be dramatic. Geographers have learned to identify areas that are subject to rapid or sudden change and to understand better how natural processes occur and how they affect human settlements. In general, we have learned that in dynamic environments it is better to live with nature and avoid hazards than to attempt to control them.

NORTH AMERICA RESOURCES

From the Canadien Shield, the shield is an important source of metallic raw materials and timber -LAND TO GROW CROPS -LIVESTOCK (COWS AND PIGS, CHICKENS) -COAL -PETROLEUM (OIL) -NATURAL GAS -NICKEL -HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY -IRON-ORE -NICKEL IN CANADA -COPPER IN CANADA -FISHING -FORESTS

Sub Tropical climate

Hot season is longer and the cold season is milder and rainy. High rainfall.Hot and humid summers, cooler and drier winters. 20-35 degrees latitude

human geography

How people make places, how we organize space and society, how we interact with each other in places and across space, and how we make sense of others and ousrselves in our locallities and other regions, and the world. It is a social science.

The natural ratio between females and males in a human population should be one to one, but, worldwide, men outnumber women.

However, the sex ratio varies greatly among different countries. This may be due to a combination of economic and cultural factors.

bureaucratic capitalism

In China, supportive government policy and private capital are combined to achieve high levels of economic growth.

Information Revolution

In contrast to the prehistoric cave dweller and his wall, our ability to produce, store, access, and apply information is massive and nearly instantaneous—truly revolutionary. It is how the information is produced, stored, and accessed that creates a revolution; in the Information Age it comes down to a single transforming technology: the microprocessor.

private-plot production

In the Soviet Union, Stalin tried unsuccessfully to abolish farm families' home gardens, their private plots, but Soviet agriculture depended heavily on private-plot production, especially for fruits and vegetables.

secondary level of economic activity

Includes activities that transform raw materials into usable goods.

sunset industries

Industries in Japan that the government considers no longer competitive and therefore appropriate to be phased out.

steppe climate

Intermediate between drier and wetter conditions, these semiarid climate zones are typically characterized by grasslands and high precipitation variability.

alluvium

Material, often very fertile, that has been transported and deposited by water.

Tamil

Language spoken by Sri Lankans of Dravidian descent, who are known as Tamils, and who are also a minority in Sri Lanka. The Tamils feel they have been systematically discriminated against by the majority group, the Sinhalese Buddhists.

state farms

Large agricultural systems controlled and managed by the government in the old Soviet Union; workers were paid wages.

Great Lakes

Large inland lakes shared by the United States and Canada and drained by the St. Lawrence River/Seaway. The regions surrounding the lakes are characterized by high levels of agricultural and industrial output.

open economic regions

Larger economic regions around Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and open coastal cities.

Characteristics of underdeveloped countries

Low Level Living Lower Level of productivity High rates of population growth and dependency High and rising level of unemployment and underemployment Significant dependence on agricultural production and primary product exports

Pamir Mountains

Major mountain range in Tajikistan and Afghanistan.

Factors that explain population distribution include the historical importance of places with climactic and topographic conditions that could support agriculture.

Most of the population is concentrated in areas of mild midlatitude or seasonal humid tropical climates, but people can settle in harsh areas, especially with adaptive technologies. In some places, local population densities may be high, but trade and circulation free members of societies from the constraints of their local environments.

Fracking

Releasing natural gas from rock formations by fracturing the rocks with a combination of hydraulic pressure and chemicals.

Gold Coast

The coast of Queensland in Australia, which is attracting great numbers of international tourists.

Indo-Gangetic Plain

The combined lowland alluvial plains of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers. The fertile soils of this well-watered region support half of South Asia's human population.

Countries generally transition through four stages of demographic change.

The demographic transition describes changes occurring in a society that begins with high birth rates and high death rates but stable population size. Declining death rates cause populations to grow, slowing only once birth rates start to decline later on. Population sizes stabilize as birth rates and death rates reach historic lows. Many rich countries' populations are now experiencing birth rates that are lower than death rates, causing population size to shrink and signaling a new phase of population decline.

Agricultural Revolution

A period characterized by the domestication of plants and animals and the development of farming.

deindustrialization

Refers to the severe decline of primary and secondary mass-production industries in industrialized countries after 1950.

pollution

Release of harmful materials into the environment

Prime meridian(Greenwich Meridian)

0 degrees longitude An imaginary line that divides the earth into Western and Eastern hemispheres. Establishes the point of measure for longitude. Runs north to south through London at the Royal Observatory.

Population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) .

A policy of the South African government that stresses developing enhanced employment opportunities and better business ownership conditions for blacks

informal economy

Jobs not covered by national labor and employment laws, such as street vending, small business operation, and domestic work.

Angkor Wat

Area of Cambodia where monumental ruins stand as testimony to the agricultural productivity and trade capabilities of this once-powerful empire.

golden horseshoe

An industrial district in Canada extending from Toronto to Hamilton, on the western end of Lake Ontario.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

An internationally recognized right of control exerted by nation-states over marine resources for 200 nautical miles from their coastline.

Oasis

An island of life in the desert, where surface erosion and relatively high groundwater levels result in water being found close to the surface.

World Cities

Centers of global finance, corporate decision making, and creativity that have worldwide reach, such as New York City, Hong Kong, and London.

command economy

Centrally controlled and planned livelihood system; the best example is the communist form of economic organization.

polar climate

Characterized by freezing conditions much of the year, this climate experiences long, dark winters and short summers.

South Asia cultural characteristic

Hinduism and Budism originated in this culture. Very geologically active region with many earthquakes and volcanoes.

Where in Russia are non-Russian groups most discontended and why?

In lesser order territorital units and automonous republics. Due to ethnic critria.

tertiary level of economic activity

Includes activities that focus on the provision of goods and services.

Second World

Industrialized with high levels of poverty

Persians

Natives of Iran; one of two of the largest non-Arabgroups in the Middle East (the other is the Turks).

Aztec

One of the four high civilizations of pre-Columbian Latin America, centered on the area around present-day Mexico City.

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

One third of the total Great Barrier Reef system off Australia's eastern coast is controlled by this authority, whose goal is to limit pollution and control tourism so one of nature's most impressive habitats can be conserved.

Principal geography subdivisions of study

Physical, human, systematic, and regional

Difference between a place and a region

Place is where you live or interact with people and adapting to the environment. Regions are how people divide and organize the world by where items are on a map, nicknames for places, and how we know of an area for it's purpose.

Palestinians

The Arabs who claim Palestine as their rightful homeland; some 5 million Palestinian Arabs residing in various Middle Eastern states, and another 6 million living in Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank.

Khmer Rouge

The Communist Party of Cambodia, overthrown by the Vietnamese but of continuing importance for many years as an insurgent group and a political force.

New England Core

The most northern of the American coastal culture cores developed in southern New England where numerous bays and harbors became the focus of maritime trade and fishing.

cash cropping system

The result of Western colonial powers forcing peasant farmers to dedicate a portion of their farmland to the cultivation of export crops.

Wheat Belts

West of the Corn Belt, in the Great Plains, lie the wheat belts (winter wheat and spring wheat), where farmers have converted prairie to cropland.

Major landforms of the world are created by a

combination of endogenic (internal) and exogenic (external) landforming processes.

Has the rural landscape changed of Canada and the US dramatically over the last 100 years and why?

Yes, it changed due to evolution of settlement focusing on the spread of European populations and the gradual elimination of frontiers, as well as establishing the context that lead to the formation of 2 countries with increasingly diverse populations

Tropical

0-20 Lat. warm temp, change less than 5 degrees, no cold season, A warm air mass that forms in the tropics and has low air pressure

Wakhan Corridor

A narrow strip of land created between the Russian-controlled Pamir Mountains and British India still connects Afghanistan to China today.

chaebol

A select few megacorporations in South Korea.

SOUTH EAST ASIA LANGUAGES

-Malay -English -Tagalag

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA POPULATION STATISTICS -While Arabs are the largest ethnic group of North Africa and the Middle East, the region contains numerous ethnic minorities. Most of these are found in the higher mountainous areas where physical isolation has protected them from cultural assimilation -In southeastern Turkey reside large numbers of Kurds (about 18%of the Turkish population), with smaller numbers of Arabs (mostly around Adana on the Turkish Mediterranean coast near Syria), Greeks and Jews (in and around Istanbul), Circassians and Georgians (in the northeast), and Armenians (in the southeast) also part of Turkey's ethnic mix. -Concentrated in Israel, Jews constitute 76 percent of that country's population. -The remainder of Israel's population is composed of largely Muslim Arabs (21%), and an immigrant population whose ethnic and religious origins are not known. -Armenians survivors are dispersed throughout the region and are prominent in urban areas, particularly in Lebanon and Syria. Circassians, -Muslim refugees from nineteenth-century Russian imperialism in the Caucasus Mountains, are found in Syria and Jordan.

-Many of the Gulf States, including Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, have transient populations of non-Arab foreign workers (Iranians, Pakistanis, Bengalis, Filipinos, and Indians), as well as Palestinians, Egyptians, and Yemenis, living among them. -In North Africa much of the indigenous population has, over many centuries, been assimilated through the adoption of the Arabic language and culture. Still, Berber speakers remain a significant minority, numbering more than 35 percent of Morocco's total population - The densely populated Nile River oasis meanders northward from Sudan to the Mediterranean coast, and a similar configuration outlines the courses of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers across southeastern Turkey, Syria, and Iraq to the Persian Gulf. Equally dense populations inhabit the southern coastlines and coastal plains of the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian seas as well as the foothills and valleys of coastal mountain ranges. Much more spatially limited concentrations occur in oases deep in the interior. Considerably sparser population densities appear on semiarid interior plateaus such as central Anatolia and the High Plateau in the interior Atlas Mountains of Algeria. Vast population voids typify expansive areas of sand and rock in the Sahara in North Africa, the Rub al-Khali (Empty Quarter) in Saudi Arabia, and the central desert zones of Iran.

SOUTH ASIA LANGUAGES India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

-The languages of the Indian subcontinent derive from two major language family groups: the Indo-European languages, which are dominant in the central and northern regions, and the Dravidian languages, dominant in the south. The diversity of languages and cultures on the subcontinent contributes to the difficulty in forging unified national identities in India and Pakistan. - Indo-European Hindi, the native tongue for 43 percent of Indians, is the principal official language. -The colonial language of English continues to function as an informal official language. Most middle- and upper-class adult Indians are multilingual, speaking their regional language plus some Hindi or English.

Soil is a complex medium, containing six principal components: 1. Rocks and rock particles, which constitute the greatest portion of the soil and may weather, releasing nutrients needed for plant growth. 2. Organic matter, which is composed of dead and decaying plant and animal remains that holds water, supports soil organisms, and supplies nutrients. 3. Dissolved substances, including phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and other nutrients needed for plant growth.

4. Organisms, including animals such as insects and worms and many microorganisms, including bacteria, and fungi. 5. Water from rainfall, which is necessary for plant growth and helps to distribute other substances through the soil. 6. Air, which shares soil pore spaces with water and is necessary for respiration by plant roots and soil organisms.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

A group of oil-producing countries that controls 85 percent of all the petroleum entering international trade; a valorization scheme to regulate oil production and prices.

Persian ethnic groups:

A group of people who speak an Indo- European language and live in Iran and Central Asia, where they are often called Tajiks.

Caspian Sea

A large, internally draining body of salty water in southern Russia, into which the Volga River empties, that lies approximately 90 feet (27 meters) below sea level.

barrage

A low structure placed across a stream to block the flow of water and divert the impounded water for irrigation purposes.

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

A low-pressure system created by high temperatures along the equator, which shifts its position following the seasonal movement of the sun north or south of the equator.

GAP Project

A massive development project that involves constructing two dozen dams on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to provide hydroelectric power and water to irrigate large tracts of dry land in southeastern Turkey.

continentality

A measure of distance from the oceans. Generally speaking, the more inland, or continental a location, the drier its climate and the greater its temperature range are likely to be.

dual economic system

A modern plantation or other commercial agricultural entity operating in the midst of traditional cropping systems.

carbon pricing

A policy that charges emitters of the waste products that cause climate change for the cost of their pollution, either by a monetary tax on the volume of emissions or the revocation of permits to operate.

Mauryan Empire

A political state; the first of a series of empires that ruled over parts of South Asia.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

A political-economic organization formed in 1967 to promote cooperation among and trade between member nations. Originally composed of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, the group was joined by Viet Nam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia by 1999.

shatterbelt

A politically unstable region where differing cultural elements come into contact and conflict.

land degradation

A product of human actions that lower a region's biological productivity or diminish its usefulness to humans.

Middle Kingdom

A reference to China, reflecting the traditional Chinese view of China as the center of the known universe.

Three Gorges

A region of China where the Chang Jiang ("Long River") flows through a narrow, 150-mile (240-kilometer) long, steep-walled valley no wider than 350 feet (107 meters).

Gulf Cooperation Council

A regional organization that deals with common problems in a unified manner; consists of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates—countries with large oil reserves, small populations, and a location along the Persian Gulf.

Ferghana Valley

A rich agricultural and industrial valley divided between Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan and drained by the Syr Darya river, which provides the water for cotton cultivation.

caste system

A rigid system of social stratification based on occupation, with a person's position passed on by inheritance; derived from the Hindu culture.

Syr Darya river

A river in Kazakhstan that flows into the Aral Sea.

Amu Darya river

A river in Uzbekistan that flows into the Aral Sea.

Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

Also known as the Communist Party of China (CPC), this nationalistic and socialist movement was founded in Shanghai in 1921 and came to power after World War II when it defeated its arch rival, the Kuomintang (KMT) Party, in the Chinese Civil War.

7 Continents

Asia, Australia, Antarctica, Africa, Europe, North America, South America

Physical Systems

Atmosphere (Air), Hydrosphere (Water), Lithosphere (solid rock) and Biosphere (all living organisms)

What major indigenous groups civilazations ruled Latin America before the arrival of Europeans and where were they located?

Aztec of Central Mexico, Maya of the Yucatan Peninsula and Guatamala, and the Inca from border of Colombia to Central Chile

Earthquakes

Continental Collision/Convergent, Subduction, Divergent, Transform sudden movements of Earth's crust; major earthquake zones are clustered around where two tectonic plates meet

Marsh Arabs

Cultural group residing in Iraq's southern marsh region. In order to maintain their culture, these people combined agriculture, cattle rearing, and fishing. Drainage efforts in the 1990s undermined the Marsh Arabs' livelihood and reversing the process has been largely unsuccessful.

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

Created in 1975, it is one of Africa's largest regional organizations. Among its objectives are the establishment of a common customs tariff, a common trade policy, and the free movement of capital and people.

Three Important Themes*

First, geography examines the interrelationships between humans and their natural environment; second, many basic principles of human geography can be studied and demonstrated both locally and globally; and third, geography is dynamic.

Are the current prospects of Belarus promising or flawed.

Flawed because country is closer to Soviet model than capitalism due to it's government

Sephardim

Jews originating from Southern Europe and the Middle East.

Ashkenazim

Jews originating from northern, western, and eastern Europe.

chinampas

Mexican term for highly productive raised agricultural beds in former wetland areas.

Soil is a storage site for water, carbon, and plant nutrients.

Soil properties are attributable to five major factors: 1. Climate regulates both water movements and biological activity. 2. Parent material is the mineral matter from which soil is formed. 3. Biological activity —plants and animals—moves minerals and adds organic matter to the soil. 4. Topography affects water movement and erosion rates. 5. All these factors work over time, typically requiring many thousands of years to create a mature soil.

Jammu and Kashmir

The northernmost Indian state with mixed Hindu and Muslim populations.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

The encouragement of investments by foreign capital, often in specially designated areas, in an effort to spur economic growth and development.

typhoons

The equivalent of hurricanes or tropical cyclones; occur in the Pacific, especially in the area of the China seas.

Tibetan Plateau

The largest environmental zone of western China, as well as the largest and most elevated plateau in the world, it occupies 25 percent of China's territory. It is a cold, inhospitable environment referred to as the "rooftop of the world" or the "third pole."

Explain the geographic grid system and its purpose.*

The latitude-longitude grid system helps determine location on the Earth's surface. Latitude refers to angular distance north or south of the equator; longitude refers to angular distance east or west of Greenwich, England.

Mughal Empire

The most powerful of all the Islamic empires of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in South Asia.

Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)

The name given to a region designated by the Malaysian government for development as an information technology research center

scheduled castes

The name given to the Hindu and Sikh untouchables by the Indian government.

Isthmus of Panama

The narrow strip of land that connects Central and South America.

Mikhail Gorbachev

The only elected President of the U.S.S.R., Gorbachev initiated reforms that ultimately resulted in the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Industrial Revolution

The period of rapid technological change and innovation that began in England in the mid-eighteenth century and subsequently spread worldwide; accompanied by the development of inexpensive, massive amounts of inanimate energy through the use of fossil fuels.

mercantilism

The philosophy by which most colonizing nations controlled the economic activities of their colonies; held that the colony existed for the benefit of the mother country.

payment for environmental services (PES)

The practice of charging people who benefit from environmental services such as clean water for the cost of such services.

chain migration .

The practice of initial migrants to a country to sponsor a stream of family members to their new location

Maori

The pre-European Polynesian inhabitants of New Zealand, who have been more successfully integrated into modern society than the Aborigines of Australia.

Damodar Valley

The principal heavy-industrial region of India, located west of Calcutta, with Jamshedpur serving as the region's focus.

environmental stewardship

The principle of managing environmental resources with a view to their long-term sustainability.

colonialism

The system by which some powers controlled foreign possessions, usually for economic exploitation; most prevalent from the sixteenth through the mid-twentieth centuries; essential to understanding contemporary development in many developing regions.

West Bank

The territory occupied by Israel since 1967 that lies immediately west of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea; claimed by Palestinians.

Creating a flat map of Earth's curved surface via a set of rules

called a projection requires distorting either shape or distance. Specialized thematic maps show particular features of Earth's surface.

Cultural Revolution

The upheaval in China during the 1960s when old cultural patterns were condemned and new Maoist patterns were strongly enforced

In today's poor countries, crude birth rates are dropping fast but for different reasons, it seems, than wealthier countries.

Theories of explanation focus on the growing role of family-planning programs, the status of women, new contraceptive technologies, and changing attitudes about fertility. Family-planning efforts face obstacles in traditional cultures, religions, and—in some cases—the cost of devices.

Explain the reasons for variability in demand for metals and mineral use.*

Use of mineral resources changes as technology and economics change. New technologies can simultaneously increase demand for one mineral and decrease that for another. Variations in price, which can be caused by variations in supply of a resource, can also influence demand. For most mineral resources, most of global supply is produced by a relatively small number of countries.

Fronts are boundaries between air masses of different densities. Cold air is typically more dense than warm air.

When cold air advances toward warm air, a cold front is formed. The cold air drives under the less dense warm air, driving it up, and often causing precipitation. When warm air advances toward cold air, a warm front is formed, and the warm air rises over the cold, sometimes causing precipitation.

Forced migration is typified

by push factors such as force or the threat of violence. Pull factors are less important but can include humanitarian policies or cultural affinities in other neighboring countries.

Photochemical smog is produced

by the effect of sunlight acting on nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. In the past, emissions from coal and other crude fuels were most important in urban air pollution; these are still significant in some poorer countries.

Divergent Plate Boundary

a boundary between tectonic plates in which the two plates move away from each other and new crust is created between them

An ecosystem includes all living organisms in an area and the physical environment with which they interact. An ecosystem can cover an area as small as a field or a pond. On any scale of analysis, large or small, certain fundamental elements exist:

• Producers—green plants and other organisms that produce food for themselves and for consumers that eat them. • Consumers—organisms that eat producers, other consumers, or both. • Decomposers—small organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, insects, and worms, that digest and recycle dead organisms. • Abiotic materials and energy necessary for production and consumption to occur—water, mineral nutrients, gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, and energy (light and heat).

Geological and Energy Resources

• Use of mineral resources changes as technology and economics change. New technologies can simultaneously increase demand for one mineral and decrease that for another. Variations in price, which can be caused by variations in supply of a resource, can also influence demand. For most mineral resources, most of global supply is produced by a relatively small number of countries. • Growing worldwide demand has caused increases in energy prices, although prices have sometimes fallen dramatically during economic recessions. Generally, high prices have stimulated exploration for new deposits and development of technologies for extracting more gas and oil from existing fields. This has caused available resources to expand along with global demand. • Renewable hydroelectric power is a major source of energy, and may expand significantly in South America and Asia. Wind energy produces a small but rapidly growing amount of energy. Solar power offers considerable potential for future electric generation.

Tropic of Capricorn

... 23 S latitude. It is the southernmost point where the sun shines directly overhead

Urban

1. Rapide growth of cities. High population density, industrial

International date line

180 degrees longitude; goes through the Pacific Ocean; the day changes here. Separates two consecutive calendar days. Passes between Russia and Alaska; 180° latitude; when crossed going east you move back one day; when crossed going west you move ahead one day

mediterranean

A large inland sea located between Southern Europe and Northern Africa. The mild climate of the lands surrounding the Medeterranean attracted settlers and early civilians formed on its eastern shores

Anarctic circle

A line of latidude 60 degrees South of the equator

Conformal Map

A map that distorts size but preserves shapes.

Mercator Projection

A map which accurately shows directions and shapes but distorts distance and size. A cylinder map.

What is longitude?

A measure of distance east and west of the prime meridian (up and down lines)

Functional Region

A region delineated by a process or processes occurring in. This region has a central node around which processes are organized, and into and out of which all processes flow, Region where a certain activity or cluster of activities take place.

List of Developing Countries

Afghanistan,Belarus, Bangladesh, Belize, India, Honduras, Iran, Jamaica, Jordan, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Argentina, Algeria, Kenya, Kazakhstan,Brazil, South Africa, Sudan, China, Tajikistan, Thailand, Costa Rica, Colombia, Cambodia, Mexico, Cuba, Turkey, Tonga, Ukraine, Vietnam, Ecuador, Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Yemen, Ethiopia, Fiji, Egypt, Pakistan, Georgia

major rivers

Africa: Nile (world's longest), Congo (5th longest), Niger (largest delta in Africa), Zambezi (famous for the Victoria Falls, one of the "Seven Natural Wonders of the World"); South America: Amazon (worlds 2nd longest river); United States: Missouri (longest in U.S.), Mississippi (2nd longest in US), Colorodo (famous for the grand canyon), Niagara (famous for its falls), Rio Grande (between US and Mexico), St. Lawrence (links Great Lakes and Atlantic ocean)

Vernacular Region

Also called perceptual region. Perceived by the widespread acceptance and use of special regional name. A place people think exists based on their identity. (Silicon Valley, The South)

Equator

An imaginary circle around the middle of the earth, halfway between the North Pole and the South Pole

Longitude

Angles east and west from the prime meridian. It measures distance in degrees. east and west of the equator, angular distance east or west of Greenwich, England. An imaginary line that runs between the North and South Poles

oceans

Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Southern

temperate

Areas of the earth with a climate that is not extreme

Areas prone to earthquakes.

Areas on 2 different plate boundaries. Being near or on an active tectonic plate. Being near or on active faults.

continents

Continents are large bodies of land. The continents are Europe, Asia, South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica.

Spatial Perspective

Dimension of human experience (space and place). Where something occurs. Understanding patterns and processes is essential to appreciating how people live on Earth. People who approach knowing and doing with a habit of inquiring about whereness possess this.

Jobs of a Geographer

Environmental Science, Geology, meteorology, geophysics, surveying, oceanography, hydrology, tourism, cartography, environmental health.

spatial integration

Linking consumption and production areas to achieve physical and economic integration through appropriate infrastructure systems

Tasks for Geographers

Make concise reports, handle data, ask questions and find answers, make decisions about an issue, analyze material, organize themselves, map creation, market research analysis

Climate Maps

Shows the current climatic conditions in different parts of the world,a map that shows the pattern of weather a place has over may years. Temperature and precipitation are two important parts of climate

Slash and Burn agriculture leading to loss of rain forest is a major political issue in this region

Sub-Saharan Africa

Five Themes of Geography

The core organizing principle for the Introduction to Geography course. -Location: Where is that? absolute: the global system of latitude and longitude. and relative: location of a feature in relation to other features. i.e., the post office is across the street from the pet store. -Place: Where daily life occurs as we interact with others and build our systems, traditions and adapt to the environment around us. -Human-Environment Interaction: The impact humans directly have with their physical environment (biophysical world) on a daily basis. -Movement: The core idea that humans and all animal life are always in motion. -Region: The multiple ways we divide and organize our world. Has characteristics that give it cohesiveness and distinctiveness and set it apart from other regions. --Formal regions: clearly defined boundaries. Characterized by a common human property (i.e., a shared language, nationality, culture) --Functional regions: Do not necessarily have clear defined boundaries. Defined by its purpose (i.e. Greater Los Angeles region). Organized by feelings and attitudes about an area. --Perceptual and Vernacular Regions: in our mind. (i.e.; Detroit is the "Motor City"

Former Soviet Union Cultural characteristic

The farming culture of this region was destroyed by collectivization beginning in the 1920s.

latitude and longitude of the Artic Circle

The invisible line that tells you if your going East to west or north to south

Deforestation

The process of stripping the land of its trees. Direct consequences are carbon dioxide buildup and topsoil loss. Loss of trees in an area, sometimes caused by physical factors such as fires, floods, pests, etc., but more often human-induced (caused by agriculture, logging, and fuelwood consumption).

What is population distribution?

The spread of people - a spatial arrangement of people

Define Human Environment interaction

The way people change their environment and how the environment changes them.

Population movement theory

Theory that humans reproduce at will and geometrically. The ability to produce food and fiber expand more slowly, that is arithmetically.

Central Place Theory

Theory that seeks to explain the number, size, and location of human settlements in an urban system.

Prone to Earthquakes

They are caused by the earth's plates grind and scrape together. Philippines, Ecuador, Kathmandu, Turkey, India,

human systems

This element describes the human populations of earth, including info. about ethnic groups, occupations, the use of natural resources, and beliefs and cultural practices

geographic techniques

Tools used by geographers to help obtain, display, and/or analyze data they have collected - Mapping and Cartography, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing, Statistics

Tundra climate

a cold frosty climate with very little vegetation other than mosses, small shrubs, and lichen. 60 degrees and higher latitude. Vegetation zone found on the margins of the Arctic, particularly in northern Russia and northern Canada. No trees grow because of the short growing season, infertile soil, and shallow layer of thawed ground; beneath lies permanently frozen earth or permafrost.

Tropical climate

an area that is usually very warm all year. 0-20 degrees latitude Very high rainfall, very hot and humid most of the year. Mostly war and can be dry and wet. Equatorial, rainy or savanna.

Continental climate (Cool Summer)

short, mild summers, severe winters 45-60 degrees latitude

Urban Geography

the study of areas which have a high concentration of buildings and infrastructure. Predominantly towns and cities, these are areas with a high population density and with the majority of economic activities in the secondary sector and tertiary sectors.

ozone depletion

thinning of Earth's ozone layer caused by CFC's leaking into the air and reacting chemically with the ozone, breaking the ozone molocules apart

SOUTH ASIA MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. -Because South Asia is primarily rural and the majority of the people are subsistence farmers, poverty is greatest in the countryside, despite the dramatic increases in agricultural output achieved through the Green Revolution -Another characteristic distinguishing South Asia from the rest of Asia is the sometimes divisive roles of ethnicity, religion, and politics in the economic development process. Cultural diversity is not necessarily a barrier to forging national unity, but when differences are exploited by competing political groups whose interests do not address the well-being of the larger community, development is slowed. -South Asia is also characterized by one of the world's oldest civilizations when Hinduism was first established, and through subsequent invasions Islam was introduced. Post-World War II independence brought the breakup of South Asia into five different states primarily based on the distribution of Hindu and Muslim faiths, plus two others that were not colonial possessions. -Hinduism, the world's oldest major religion, which now dominates India The caste system institutionalized both social status and economic roles within the larger society, and only through cyclical rebirth, or reincarnation, is mobility to a higher caste believed possible -To achieve this upward spiritual mobility, one's soul requires the accumulation of good karma, or good deeds, over many generations.

- At the apex of this highly stratified socioeconomic system is the religious Brahman caste. One group, known as the untouchables or dalit (meaning broken, depressed, or downtrodden), is relegated to performing economic activities deemed dirty or polluting and stands altogether outside the caste system. -South Asia is also the source region of Buddhism, another major world religion. -As with the Aryans earlier, Islam entered South Asia through the mountain passes of the Hindu Kush. Virtually all the population of the Indus River Valley converted to Islam which then spread into the Gangetic Plain, where some of the Hindu population converted. Islam was embraced more widely further east in the lower Ganges River Plain that today makes up much of Bangladesh. -Hinduism dominates in most of India, while Islam is the principal religion of Pakistan and Bangladesh. Buddhism prevails in most of Sri Lanka and in portions of the northern Himalayan regions. Sikhism, Christianity, and Jainism form scattered enclaves. -As one of seven Hindu holy cities in India, pilgrims come each year to bathe in the sacred waters of the Ganges. Originating in the Himalayas, the river's waters symbolically represent the purity of heaven and thus wash away the worldly sins of religious pilgrims. Varanasi is also a spiritual center for Buddhists because Buddha formulated his principles in this vicinity around 500 B.C.

SOUTH ASIA POPULATION STATISTICS India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. India (1.25 billion), Pakistan (180 million), and Bangladesh (152 million) are among the ten most populous countries with relatively high growth rates. -Population densities are very high in many agricultural regions and the region as a whole includes some of the largest and most crowded urban areas in the world. -Dense settlement generally coincides with well-watered regions, whether through natural precipitation or irrigation . - A large multistate region of high population density comprises the country's historical core in the Ganges River Valley, where one-third of India's people live.

- Both coasts are also densely populated. -In Pakistan, high population densities are found primarily in the eastern half of the country in the agriculture-rich Indus River Valley. - Bangladesh has the highest population densities of any South Asian country; virtually the entire country has more than 500 people per square kilometer. -In Nepal the majority of the population lives in the central foothills, - in Sri Lanka, the highest population densities are found in the southwestern quarter of the country where the capital, Colombo, is located.

SOUTH EAST ASIA MAJOR CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS -In Mainland Southeast Asia, the pattern of a wet season from June through September and a dry season from October through May resembles that of its two larger regional neighbors, but because of its tropical location, temperatures do not cool during the dry monsoon. -While there are distinct wet and dry seasons, the difference is not as stark because some rain does fall during the dry season as Bangkok illustrates. -Precipitation patterns in Insular Southeast Asia are more complex.

- During the wet southwest monsoon, much of this subregion receives copious rainfall. During the dry northeast monsoon, however, dry winds off the Asian landmass pick up moisture from the South China Sea and precipitate moisture over some locations of the region as well. -Only the eastern and western edges of Southeast Asia are affected by damaging tropical cyclones. - The Philippines and sometimes northern Vietnam are lashed by Pacific Ocean typhoons as these intense low-pressure systems make their way to East Asia. -Bay of Bengal cyclones occasionally make landfall in Myanmar, as evidenced by the devastating Cyclone Nargis in 2008.

EUROPE MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia

- Europe is one of the most highly developed regions in the world. It is home to some of the wealthiest economies, both in absolute and per capita terms. - According to the United Nations, the top four countries ranked by GDP per capita in 2011 were Liechtenstein, Monaco, Luxembourg, and Norway, all in Europe. -It is quite rare to see a homeless person in a European city, even in the poorest parts of Europe. In some respects, this is the great success story of Europe—the region's economic prosperity is not accompanied by widespread social distress or poverty -As a percentage of the national income, the top nine countries in development aid and charitable giving to poor countries in 2011 were European -by many measures, London is the largest financial center in the world, where 40 percent of all currency trading and a substantial proportion of the derivatives trading take place. -TOURISM AND ENTERTAINMENT -Another economic trend is the rise of technopoles, which are districts with a high concentration of technology-related manufacturing, research, and design. T

What are some of the specific challenges facing Australia, New Zealand, and The Pacific Islands? -The general expectation for the region is that global warming overall will produce drier and harsher conditions than those experienced over the last 100 years. - Droughts will last longer, if not be more numerous, and will impact both continental-scale Australia and the tiniest inhabited atoll. - Drier conditions would place severe constraints on available water for irrigated agriculture, particularly in Australia's Riverina "breadbasket" district in New South Wales, potentially affecting both domestic consumption and exports. -Drier conditions and higher temperatures increase the likelihood of wildfires. -Higher temperatures and strong winds can generate firestorms that turn drought-parched vegetation into a lethal inferno.

- Fire is a natural part of Australia's ecosystems, but can be expected to become increasingly damaging to humans and more frequent in the future. - City growth has created traffic congestion, and infrastructure is struggling to handle the influx. Urban water shortages are an ever-present threat in this very dry state; a controversial desalinization plant is in operation and a second one proposed. -the mining boom strains the industry's relations with the area's Aboriginal inhabitants. Aboriginal culture is deeply connected to the land and water that mining destroys. -Environmentalists fear the rapid mining expansion will have unforeseen and permanent impacts on already scarce water resources.

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLAND MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS -The continent's native flora and fauna are truly unique—especially marsupials (animals with a pouch to carry their young) like kangaroos, koalas, wombats, numbats, Tasmanian Devils, and possums -Approximately 80 percent of the 20,000 plant varieties are endemic species (not found elsewhere) and most common are drought-tolerant eucalypts (gum), banksia, and acacia (wattle) tree species. Australia shares important flora and fauna with New Guinea to its north, because until 14,000 years ago they were connected by a land bridge.

- The indigenous Maori people referred to the North(New Zealand) as Aotearoa (The Land of the Long White Cloud), -New Zealand has few land mammals, except bats and flightless birds, some species of which have been rendered extinct by waves of human settlement. -The Pacific Islands can be divided into three subregions: Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia.

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLAND MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS -The economic development of the region is becoming increasingly linked to the powerful countries that ring the Pacific and trade with it—notably China, Japan, and the United States. -Because of its small population and particular resource endowments, the region lacks the strategic importance of other world regions. -Despite this, Australian, Papua New Guinean, and New Caledonian mineral exports are vital to the world's manufacturing industries and for energy production.

- In 2012, GNI PPP was $42,400, compared to $49,800 in the United States (which has a lower cost of living and lower average salaries), and $36,700 in the United Kingdom, placing Australia in the world's top 20 nations based on this indicator. -Australia is one of the best-performing economies in the world and economic growth, averaging 3.4 percent a year, has been almost continuous for the last 20 years. The unemployment rate, at 5.2 percent, is low -New Zealand's per capita income is only about three-fourths that of Australia's.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS -Many aspects of Africa's native cultures were lost or destroyed during the colonial era, and numerous misconceptions about Africa arose in Western societies. It became habitual for colonialists to deny almost any degree of social or political achievement to Africans themselves. Some scholars at the time even questioned whether native technologies were really indigenous to Africa or whether they had been imported by external agents. -The earliest known civilizations of Africa emerged in the central part of the Nile River Valley One of the most notable was the black kingdom of Kush and its capital Meroe, which flourished from about 2000 B.C. to the fourth century A.D. Meroe was largely influenced by the Nubian Kingdom. -Other prominent cities in this region of East Africa were Axum, a metropolis of the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia, and the Red Sea port of Adulis. -Prominent civilizations that emerged between 700 and 1600 A.D. in the West African savanna were Kumbi (the political center) and Saleh (the commercial center) in Ghana, Timbuktu and Djenne in Mali, and Gao in Songhai. -Most cities in Africa today are colonial creations. -PORTUGUESE - After Portugal's initial contact in 1420, the Spanish, English, French, and Dutch followed. - Lacking sufficient laborers, the period of enslavement began as New World Europeans turned to African slaves to work the huge estates. Estimates of the number of Africans transported across the Atlantic Ocean range from 8 to 12 million people.

- Lacking sufficient laborers, the period of enslavement began as New World Europeans turned to African slaves to work the huge estates. Estimates of the number of Africans transported across the Atlantic Ocean range from 8 to 12 million people. - The impact of slavery on African societies included the disruption of cultural institutions; the reduction of industries, crafts, and other forms of manufacturing; and the increased incidence of tribal wars—prisoners were often sold as slaves. - The major sources of African slaves were the Senegambia coastal region between Guinea-Bissau and Liberia, and Congo and Angola. Other key source areas included the Dahomey and Yoruba kingdoms, the Gold Coast (Ghana), the Niger delta, and Mozambique. -The French dominated West Africa in the late colonial era, and the British ruled East Africa. Belgium controlled the Congo Basin, and Portugal governed portions of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts of Southern Africa. Liberia and Ethiopia remained independent. -While these economic indicators may seem gloomy, there are encouraging signs - Business climates are improving in such countries as Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, and Rwanda -the middle class is growing throughout the region; -trade and investment relationships are increasing with Brazil, China, and India -the number of democratic governments is growing; and expanding economies recently have recorded economic growth rates in excess of 6 percent per year

EAST ASIA MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS Japan, China, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. -Founded in Shanghai in 1921, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was also a nationalistic movement. Mao Zedong emerged as its leader in 1935 and received both financial and moral support from the Soviet Union. -The new Communist Party of China (CPC) chose socialism as its primary development philosophy and soon came to monopolize political power, reserving the right to make all decisions pertaining to economic and social policy. -In agriculture and industry, the government controlled all capital investment through state-owned industrial and financial institutions and restricted the influence of foreign capital and external economic forces in the socialist pursuit of economic self-reliance -. State control of social development was equally pervasive and political dissent was ruthlessly suppressed. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, -the government began to realize the limitations of these guiding economic principles in building a modern state and embarked on a road of economic reform that was as revolutionary as the events of 1949. -With the death of Mao in 1976 and the rise to power of the more pragmatic leader Deng Xiaoping, China began to emulate the capitalist economies of many of its East Asian neighbors. - Testing the waters of capitalism entailed decentralizing government economic power and promoting greater interdependence within the global economy.

- Like Japan and emerging Pacific Rim economies, both South Korea and Taiwan adhere to a development philosophy of state-led industrialization in which the central government directs the structure and orientation of the national economy through various economic policies. -Pacific Rim economies are classified as capitalist, but the role of the state is more pervasive than in the free-market capitalism of the West. -Two explanations for the emergence of this "managerial capitalism" exist. One suggests that because private capital was very scarce at the onset of industrialization, national governments largely raised and coordinated the allocation of investment capital. -The other maintains that strong state control was deemed necessary to survive in an intensely competitive global economy. -Mongolia adopted a modern democratic and parliamentary system of government in 1993, although many of those in power are former Communist Party notables. -North Korea gravitated toward the Soviet orbit, and South Korea became part of the United States-led anti-Communist alliance. -North Korea's economic and political systems resemble the closed world of China during the Mao years

EAST ASIA MAJOR CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS Japan, China, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. -cold, dry grasslands to warm, humid subtropical forests, are found in East Asia. -, East Asia has a monsoon climate, but is modified by its east coast location and its more northerly and continental position - The wet summer monsoon envelops southernmost China by April and lasts approximately six months, but it does not reach northeastern China until June. - Rainfall amounts are greatest in southern China where the annual average exceeds 50 inches - As a result, the lowlands of eastern China south of the Chang Jiang River experience warm and sultry summers similar to those of the southeastern United States. -Interior regions receive substantially less precipitation because of the shorter summer monsoon and their greater distance from the sea. -A comparison of summer monsoon precipitation totals for Hong Kong, Wuhan, and Beijing illustrates this phenomenon -Similarly, western China and Mongolia receive very little precipitation during their short wet season. - Like much of coastal East Asia, China is also subjected to hurricane-like typhoons.

- Originating in the Pacific Ocean and lashing the Philippines, typhoons most frequently make landfall between Shanghai and Hong Kong with high winds and heavy rain - Compared to Atlantic hurricanes, Pacific typhoons are more numerous and powerful because the Pacific Ocean is larger and warmer. -Because Japan assumes an elongated north-to-south orientation, has a mountainous landscape, and is surrounded by water, its climate is varied and complex. - Hokkaido experiences cool summers, and from northern Honshu to southern Kyushu, summers become increasingly warmer. - Winter temperatures vary more; the average January temperature in northern Hokkaido is 28°F (−2°C), in central Honshu 39°F (4°C), and in southern Kyushu 47°F (8°C). - The wet summer monsoon is characterized by Pacific air masses from the southwest flowing across the archipelago. - Summer is wetter than winter, and southern Japan is wetter than the north, but there is no distinct dry season - Much like the warm Gulf Stream off the east coast of the United States, the Kuroshio Current heightens humidity levels in southern and eastern Japan. - Japan averages three typhoons per year, far fewer than China.

SOUTH EAST ASIA MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS -The concentration of economic activity in the colonial cores also contributed to ever-increasing differences between the more Westernized urban centers and the indigenous rural hinterlands. -Modernization proceeded at a rapid pace in the larger cities, while the rural peripheries attracted little investment in industry, education, or health care. -This domestic core-periphery relationship remains much the same today. -These modernizer countries include Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines. -Since the 1980s, firms from Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong account for most of the FDI. -Singapore is the richest country in the region and ranks first in these development -Thailand and Malaysia are the second and third largest FDI recipients, and as upper middle-income countries, their Human Development Index scores are relatively high. -While classified as modernizer economies, Indonesia and the Philippines are still developing countries in the broadest sense of the term, as indicated by all three statistical indicators. -As transitional socialist countries, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia remain poor, although Vietnam has made great strides in attracting FDI. -Although still low, Vietnam's Human Development Index score is higher than that of Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar because of the greater wealth generated by FDI. -Timor-Leste has the highest per capita GNI PPP, but only because of large quantities of foreign assistance for this poor country after gaining independence from Indonesia. -Myanmar is characterized by the lowest socioeconomic indicators for this group of reformer countries. -In 2011, the region's total population was only 43 percent urbanized; only South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa have lower levels of urbanization. -Urbanization levels are much higher in the richer countries of Insular Southeast Asia, with Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia averaging 56 percent - the Mainland Southeast Asia countries of Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar averaging a much lower 28 percent. -However, Southeast Asia includes the three megacity (greater than 10 million) regions of Jakarta, Manila, and Bangkok. -Southeast Asia is also a major tourist destination. Thailand, Singapore, and Malaysia have emphasized tourism as a dedicated development strategy because tourism activities provide employment opportunities and promote upgrading transport infrastructure to cater to international tourists.

- Rich Singapore has a thoroughly globalized economy, exports high-value electronics goods, and is a regional center of banking, transport, and service industries. -Still a major global producer of plantation products, Malaysia has become a middle-income industrialized country with an economy based on a wide variety of electronics exports. -The economies of Indonesia and the Philippines remain more tied to resource exports and are poorer developing countries confronting problems of economically integrating their respective far-flung archipelagos. -Today Singapore continues to function as a leading regional maritime trade center, competing with Hong Kong as the busiest container port in the world -This example of a "borderless world" associated with globalization led to the 1989 establishment of a growth triangle centered on Singapore, the nearby southern Malaysian state of Johor, and the Indonesian islands of Batam and Bintan, situated just south of Singapore -The Phillipines receives FDI in the form of payroll, billing, and call centers, in part because of the English-language fluency of its educated middle class. -The former U.S. naval facility on Subic Bay near Olongapo in central Luzon has attracted numerous offshore manufacturing facilities as well, as have zones on the southern and northern edges of Manila and Mactan Island near Cebu. -mong the modernizer countries of Southeast Asia (except oil-rich Brunei), the Philippines still attracted the lowest amount of FDI during the 2000-2010 period. - manufacturing has become the engine of economic growth. As a result, Thailand's GNI PPP per capita in 2011 was $8,390, making it an upper middle-income country. -Thailand's 2011 exports accounted for 61 percent of GDP and manufacturing exports accounted for over 76 percent of this total. - Thailand has become the center of Southeast Asia's automobile industry; -it is the fourteenth largest global producer and the industry accounted for 12 percent of GDP in 2011. - Thailand is home to more than 15 foreign corporations assembling passenger cars as well as 1,800 parts suppliers. Thailand is also the world's largest exporter of pickup trucks. Japanese manufacturers arrived in the 1980s, and General Motors, Ford, BMW, and Porsche have established assembly operations -The engine of Vietnam's economic turnaround has been FDI, which accounted for 40 percent of industrial production in 2009 and 7.5 percent of GDP in 2010. Between 2005 and 2010, Vietnam attracted 16 percent of the total manufacturing FDI and 76 percent of all FDI in ASEAN

What factors have driven the rise in Asian immigrants to Australia since 1975?

- The country is more tolerant of Asian immigration than it has been in the past. Money talks: more than 60 percent of the country's exports now go to Asia; o

culture complex

A group of culture traits that are activated together; for example, how clothing is made and distributed to consumers.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) RESOURCES --Sub-Saharan Africa's plateau consists primarily of ancient crystalline rocks that have been created by immense heat, pressure, and chemical changes, creating a wealth of minerals in the process. The old, geologically stable core or shield areas of Africa are rich in chromium and asbestos, and areas of West Africa and the Gabon-Congo region have rich reserves of gold, diamonds, and manganese. Oil and gas deposits are associated with younger sedimentary rocks that occur along linear zones of the Atlantic front stretching from the Niger River delta to the Democratic Republic of Congo.

- The southwestern sections of Africa are rimmed by the Cape Fold Mountains, which rise to about 6,500 feet (1,980 meters), and the Karoo rock series, which contains coal deposits. --INLAND FISHING -biomass (wood, charcoal, agricultural residues, and animal waste) and oil, and to a much lesser extent on electricity, natural gas, and coal -cocoa, rubber, bananas, maize, cassava, sorghum, and millet. -There is a strong correlation between population distribution and the location of manufacturing activities. Manufacturing tends to be concentrated in the most densely settled and urbanized regions.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS The mainland countries can be divided into 4 subregions: West, East, Central, and Southern Africa -Assets include majestic mountains, many minerals embedded in pre-Cambrian rocks, rich volcanic soils in East Africa, scenic and economically valuable lakes, the biodiversity and commercial value of rain forests, and great hydroelectric power potential -straight coastlines that limit opportunities for natural harbors and narrow continental shelves that restrict potential offshore oil exploration and fish habitats. Leached soils in many rain-forest areas inhibit agricultural development. -tropical Africa consists of a great plateau that tilts downward from east to west. This plateau is fractured and scoured by several major river systems, leaving large gorges and undulating surfaces. -East Africa has several prominent mountain landscapes, such as the extensive East African Plateau, which features the two highest points in Africa: Mount Kilimanjaro (19,340 feet; 5,895 meters) and Mount Kenya (17,057 feet; 5,199 meters) - Further north is the Ethiopian Massif, which has its highest point at Ras Dashen (15,157 feet; 4,620 meters). -East Africa also features some extensive plains, such as the Serengeti Plains of Tanzania. - West and Central Africa are not entirely low-lying regions. Mount Cameroon (13,435 feet; 4,095 meters), the Jos Plateau (5,840 feet; 1,780 meters) in Nigeria, and the Fouta Djallon Highlands of Guinea are examples of major uplands that rise above the surrounding plateau. -In Southern Africa, the plateau is framed by a narrow coastal plain. The plateau reaches its highest point in the eastern sections where the Drakensberg Mountains (over 11,000 feet; 3,350 meters) are located. The plateau slopes downward toward the interior savanna and steppe plains and the arid regions of the Kalahari and Namib deserts in the west

- The southwestern sections of Africa are rimmed by the Cape Fold Mountains, which rise to about 6,500 feet (1,980 meters), and the Karoo rock series, which contains coal deposits. -Another unique aspect of the region's physiography is the East African Rift Valley which begins in the north with the Red Sea and extends through Ethiopia to the Lake Victoria region, where it divides into eastern and western segments and continues southward through Lake Malawi (Nyasa) and Mozambique -Southern Africa has large desert regions with unique sets of microenvironmental characteristics. -The Namib is a cool coastal desert fronting the Benguela Current of the southern Atlantic Ocean. -Especially unique are the crater lakes and the elongated lakes that occupy deep trenches in the rift valleys, such as Lake Malawi (Nyasa), Lake Tanganyika, and Lake Turkana. Lake Victoria, the world's second largest lake in terms of area, is nestled between the two arms of the rift valley. -The rift belt, along with the offshore islands of Réunion and the Comoros in the Indian Ocean, as well as the Canaries in the Atlantic Ocean, constitute the major volcanic regions of Africa. There are several explosive craters around the Uganda-Democratic Republic of Congo border. -The interior plateau is drained by major river drainage basins—the Nile, Congo (Zaire), and Niger. -Southern Africa's Kalahari Basin features two major physiographic landscapes: the Okavango Delta and the Makgadikgadi (Makarikari) salt pans. The Kalahari Basin lacks surface water in most of its southern sections. Its northern portion receives perennial stream flow mainly from the Okavango River, which rises from the highlands of Angola and drains into the dry expanses of Botswana, forming a vast inland delta that covers about 400,000 acres (162,000 hectares) . This region is a haven for one of Africa's most diverse wildlife areas and is developing its ecotourism potential.

SOUTH EAST ASIA CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES -Population growth, rapid urbanization, and export-driven economies during the modern period threaten forests and coastal habitats. -Southeast Asia has the greatest relative rate of deforestation compared to any other tropical region. - Southeast Asia has been the dominant global source of timber and pulp for more than 40 years. - While most countries have banned the export of raw logs, illegal logging remains rampant, particularly in Cambodia and Myanmar. -Enforcement is a problem as local and regional government officers are bribed to look the other way. Realizing that greater incomes can be earned by processing logs into pulp, plywood, and furniture, some governments have promoted domestic wood-based industries. -Vietnam is a major exporter of furniture, with much of the wood being smuggled across the border from Laos. Another major cause of deforestation is the growth of large oil palm plantations -the problem is that burning trees release vast amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, and the forests destroyed can no longer act as carbon dioxide sinks - Indonesia has become the third greatest carbon dioxide emitter in the world -While some logged forests have regrown into secondary forests or have been planted with fast-growing trees for pulp, the species biodiversity of both flora and fauna is much reduced. -Malaysia and Indonesia in 2010 ranked third and fourth in the world for the highest number of threatened species. -In addition to the Asian elephant and Sumatran tiger, the highest-profile animal victim of deforestation is the orangutan (meaning "forest person"), an orange-haired, tree-dwelling primate found in Sumatra and Borneo

- The wild orangutan population today is approximately 14,000-25,000, but experts predict that if the present rate of deforestation continues, the orangutan will become extinct by 2025. -With 90 percent of Southeast Asians living within 60 miles of the coast, it is understandable why coastal environments are ecologically threatened -Among various degraded coastal environments, the loss of mangrove forests and coral reefs is the most severe. - A major factor is the conversion of mangrove to farmed shrimp ponds, where shrimps are intensively raised using commercial feed -Mangrove conversion to shrimp ponds also causes saltwater intrusion, coastal land loss, and declining coastal water quality, as well as the loss of traditional coastal livelihoods. This is unfortunate because the sustainable use of mangrove forests yields greater value than the profits earned from exporting shrimp. - Large-scale agriculture, logging, and mining dramatically increase the sedimentation rates of rivers, resulting in poor coastal conditions for reef growth. -Urban-sourced pollution runoff and offshore oil spills have also exacted a toll. -Extracting reef resources is another serious problem. Artisanal resource extraction has always existed, but increased demand for reef corals and fish put greater pressure on reef sustainability. -it is the human-induced changes to tropical forests that have led to the more frequent, intense forest fires. -Only 20 percent of adults have the equivalent of a high school degree and government expenditure on education is one of the lowest in the world. Government corruption is endemic and seems to have increased; Cambodia's government was ranked the twentieth most corrupt in the world in the 2011 Corruption Perceptions Index and was the second most corrupt country in Southeast Asia behind Myanmar.

EUROPE CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia

- natural resource exploitation and agricultural and manufacturing innovations that profoundly altered the natural environment (DEFORESTATION, - Changes in precipitation and temperature can also be linked to periods of political and social unrest as well as disease outbreaks -The burning of coal for manufacturing and power generation (coal remains Europe's largest fuel source for electricity) also created an acid rain problem in many parts of Central Europe. -The high acid content interferes with aquatic organisms' life cycles, changes pH levels in soil causing tree death, and causes decay of buildings, monuments, and statues. -a combination of seasonal storm patterns, sea-level rise, subsidence, and land-use changes have threatened to submerge Venice. -Scientists estimate that the expected rise in global temperatures would cause significant coastal flooding in the British Isles, Southern Europe, and along the North Sea and Baltic Sea.

NORTH AMERICA MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

-Agriculture initially was the economic mainstay. -MANUFACTURING -TRANSPORTATION/UTILITES -LAND TO GROW CROPS -LIVESTOCK (COWS AND PIGS, CHICKEN) -SERVICE INDUSTRIES -MINING -TECHNOLOGY

SOUTH ASIA HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. -Following a succession of politically and economically powerful empires, South Asia was transformed by British colonial rule. -Beginning about 2000 B.C. a new culture group, the Aryans, invaded from the west to produce a mixed Indo-Aryan civilization, which at first was primarily nomadic but adopted sedentary agriculture over time. The Indo-Aryan culture subsequently spread eastward into the then forested regions of the Ganges River Valley, where large urban settlements were established. Indo-Aryans also introduced Hinduism, the world's oldest major religion, which now dominates India

-As with the Aryans earlier, Islam entered South Asia through the mountain passes of the Hindu Kush. -Portuguese arrived in the early 1500s, followed by the British and Dutch in the early 1600s, and the French in the late 1600s. - By the beginning of the eighteenth century, European trading stations dotted the coast of South Asia. -Over the next 250 years the British eventually gained political and economic dominance over a large portion of South Asia, leaving some regions as independent princely states, many of whom formed alliances with Britain. -Both Portugal and France continued to control small possessions along the coast, but surrendered them to India in the 1950s and early 1960s.

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS -The colonial influence of the late nineteenth century and the continuing American and European economic and military presence in Israel and a number of Arab states have contributed to widespread resentment of Western political ideas and foreign policy. -But Western technology, educational systems, and business practices have taken root among the region's countries and peoples, and offer a promising foundation upon which future cooperation and positive interaction can develop. -Despite the existence of an umbrella political organization in the form of the Arab League, Arab politics are highly variable. -Monarchies (Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain); one-party, secular states (Algeria, Syria, and until recently Tunisia, Egypt, and Iraq); a military dictatorship (Yemen), a new democracy struggling to replace an overthrown dictator (Libya); a religious community-based republic (Lebanon); -the influential Islamic advocates of religiously based governance; and the relatively powerless secularist proponents of multiparty democracy all vie for attention and compete for influence.

-Believing that they share a common culture and history, most Arabs desire a political unity that reflects their perceived oneness. - Yet this pan-Arab nationalist goal has proven very hard to achieve. Attempts to form meaningful unions among different combinations of Arab countries have consistently failed. -No country in the Middle East is without the tension generated by an increasingly intense struggle between secular and religious forces. The outcome of this struggle will determine the nature of both the region's internal politics and its international relationships. - In Algeria, the military-supported government -In Morocco the makhzen, the governmental monarchy of Mohammed VI, co-opted protesters, issued a new constitution, and accepted and learned to live with the moderate Islamist forces who won election in November 2011. -In Libya, protests in Benghazi in support of victims of the Gadhafi regime grew into a national rebellion that took nine months to dislodge the dictator. - In no part of the region is the final verdict on the shape of governance, the balance of secular and religious forces, and the proper distribution of resources settled.

What challenges does South Africa face that interfere with its political and economic power within the Sub-Saharan Africa region? -South Africa is potentially a major player in the economic and political transformation of not only Southern Africa but also the rest of Africa South of the Sahara. -South Africa was more interested in imposing its system of apartheid, consolidating its power base, controlling strategic resources, and annexing SWA territory. -But South Africa continues to press on with reforms aimed at overcoming spatial and economic inequalities, adjudicating land disputes, and empowering black men and women. -During most of the Cold War era, South Africa used its economic, strategic, and political leverage to sustain its policy of racial segregation, called apartheid. - At the time, South Africa was seen as a "bastion" against the spread of communism. -With the end of the Cold War, South Africa's political leverage faded, setting the stage for social, economic, and political reform in the country. -With one-man, one-vote black rule firmly established in South Africa, and with relative stability and political reform in neighboring countries gaining ground, South Africa now has the opportunity to play a positive and enabling role in the social and economic development of sub-Saharan Africa. -Apartheid promoted racial separation by creating theoretically independent black homelands based on tribal and ethnic affiliation. After the collapse of the apartheid regime, a new administrative structure of nine provinces expanded political representation and allowed for greater regional autonomy. - South Africa's unemployment rate remains at 25 percent, and 23 percent of its population still live in poverty. -South Africa still has one of the widest gaps of income inequality in the world. Millions live in poverty, including millions of black women who continue to work in the informal sector.

-Blacks occupy just 12 percent of senior positions in private business compared to 75 percent of whites. The situation is much worse for black chief executive officers (4%) and chief financial officers (2%); BEE has created a small black elite, but does not have the intended broad-based impact. -Another major challenge confronting the South African government is the land reform required to address the injustices of forced removals and years of denying Africans access to suitable land. - The three major components of the government's land reform program are land restitution, land redistribution, and land tenure reform. - Overall economic growth has been slow, investment in mining and industry is sluggish, wages have languished, unemployment rates are high, and discontent is widespread. -While labor relations in many of South Africa's mines may continue to deteriorate and produce conditions that are difficult for management to control, this situation is not an isolated occurrence. Deeply rooted problems also affect the agricultural sector. -questions surrounding the viability of the multiracial republic still remain. - Although the number of provinces was increased from four to nine to decentralize government and diffuse possible regional tensions, there are still threats of secession from different groups. -Extremist white nationalists are seeking a "volkstaadt," while Zulu hard-liners refuse to come to terms with a government of national unity. -There are also rumblings from Tswanas who at one time wanted no part of a federation. Although these are difficult and complex challenges, the government continues to push its agenda for change and unity through peace initiatives and economic reforms. As South Africa confronts these issues internally, it also has to deal with the challenge of defining its role in Southern and sub-Saharan Africa.

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLAND MAJOR CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS -One very large and generally arid landmass, Australia, dominates the region and provides the setting for a large assemblage of unique flora and fauna -The smallest of the continents, Australia is as remarkably flat as it is dry. -Australia's climate is wettest and most humid in the north, dry and desert-like in the vast center, and becomes mediterranean in the south and southwest. Only 11 percent of Australia gets more than 40 inches of rain a year; two-thirds of the country receives less than 20 inches. - drier than normal conditions are also generally observed in Queensland, inland Victoria, inland New South Wales, and eastern Tasmania in the southern hemisphere winter (June to August) -New Zealand has a humid temperate climate, commonly known as marine west coast, with mild summers and winters . - As a result New Zealand escapes the aridity that is such a prominent part of Australia's continental-scale landscape.

-But in the highlands of South Island, weather conditions are severe enough for glaciers to form, and winter sports bring thousands of tourists to its ski areas. The country's north-south elongation means that average temperatures in the north are at least 10°F (4.5°C) warmer than in the south. -Much of Australia is little used because water is scarce; a large area of Australia receives less than 20 inches (500 millimeters) of precipitation annually. New Zealand has a much wetter climate. -Most of the islands of both the north and south Pacific have a tropical marine climate, with warm temperatures throughout the year and limited daily and seasonal variation. -Most of these Pacific Islands can expect to encounter a moderate-intensity typhoon once a year and at least one major typhoon once in a decade

NORTHERN EURASIA MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine -Russia's bureaucracy is notoriously inefficient, and since Putin came to power it has nearly doubled in size--Still more damaging is corruption among government officials. -Transparency International's 2012 Corruption Perception Index lists Russia in a tie for 133rd place; this means that the public sectors of more than 130 countries are seen as less corrupt. -Russian history is replete with examples of deceptive appearances.

-Catherine II's chief advisor created fake ("Potemkin") villages to lead the empress to believe that Ukraine's development was well advanced, when in fact it had hardly begun. -Stalin held "show trials" of former comrades to convince society that "enemies of the people" abounded, when actually his victims were loyal to Communism. -Putin today stages "reality shows" to signal the regime's concern for the fate of iconic species, when Russia's environmental problems continue to proliferate

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

-Central Asia is a complex transition zone, heavily influenced historically by forces originating in the west (Southwest Asia and the eastern Mediterranean) and the east (China and Mongolia). - By the nineteenth century Russian imperial expansion from the north and British imperial ambitions to the south exposed the region to European influences. The result is an intricate mosaic of peoples and practices accumulated over two and a half millennia. -Within Central Asia and Afghanistan Turkic ethnic groups and Persian ethnic groups predominate

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLAND HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS - Australia and New Zealand are settler nations that were colonized and governed by Britain -Until 1788, Australia was inhabited by Australian Aborigines, the continent's indigenous people, and the Torres Strait Islanders off the northern tip of Queensland. -These populations were members of some 300 distinct "nations" and there were multiple languages spoken. Aboriginal people have complex origins, but it is certain that they have been in Australia for over 50,000 years, much of that time as semi-nomadic hunters and gatherers (and very occasionally, settled peoples) - It was in 1770 that Britain's Captain James Cook became the first European to survey the east coast of Australia, the part of the continent that appeared most suitable for settlement. But the first British ships did not disembark at Sydney Cove until 1788. -Exploration and settlement by adventurers, emancipists (convicts who had served out their sentences), and others continued into the nineteenth century. Immigration was encouraged by Britain through land grants to settlers that paid no heed to prior Aboriginal occupancy. For the British authorities, Australia was terra nullius (empty land) that they could legally occupy. -New Zealand was one of the last countries in the Pacific to be settled, first by eastern Polynesians who came by ocean-going canoes (waka) in separate voyages between A.D. 1250 and 1300. Their language and spiritual beliefs evolved further in isolation from other groups after their mid-thirteenth century arrival in New Zealand

-European settlement of New Zealand, which occurred at a similar time to Australia, involved the resettlement of some Australian residents eastward as part of the migration flow -The Maori people were New Zealand's first inhabitants. New Zealand was one of the last countries in the Pacific to be settled, by eastern Polynesians who came by oceangoing canoes (waka) in separate voyages between a.d. 1250 and 1300. -Approximately 68 percent of New Zealanders say they have European origins—mostly British, but including people from the Netherlands, Yugoslavia, Germany, and other countries who arrived in significant numbers once immigration restrictions were eased after World War II. -The indigenous Maori population is the largest minority, at about 16 percent. -The remaining minority population is made up of other Pacific Island peoples (mostly from Niue, Samoa, Tokelau, and Tonga), who migrated to New Zealand after 1960, and 350,000 Asian resident

EUROPE POPULATION STATISTICS Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia

-Europeans are having fewer and fewer children, and populations are aging and in many cases shrinking. -the EU predicts that the population will increase until around 2025, after which it will decline -MOST COUNTRIES ARE URBANIZED LIVING IN CITIES

EAST ASIA POPULATION STATISTICS -most basic environmental challenge facing China is the provision of clean freshwater. -With only 7 percent of global water resources and approximately 20 percent of the world's population, clean water is in short supply. -One-quarter of China's surface water is too polluted even for industrial use and less than half of total water supply is drinkable. - The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that almost 100,000 people die annually from water pollution-related illnesses and that 75 percent of diseases are linked to substandard water quality - Approximately 320 million rural inhabitants do not have access to safe drinking water and approximately 190 million use drinking water containing excessive levels of hazardous substances. -Chemical pesticides, fertilizers, and livestock waste in surface runoff are the primary forms of rural-based water pollution. -Animal wastes have increased dramatically because of the rising demand for meat among a more affluent population. - Untreated residential and industrial wastewater enters 75 percent of rivers flowing through urban areas, making their water unfit for both human consumption and fishing. - Eighty percent of China's sewage and other wastes enter rivers and lakes untreated. Many township and village enterprises that have become critical to China's economic growth drive are the sources of much of this pollution. -air pollution in older urban areas and in those regions experiencing dramatic postreform growth. -China surpassed the United States as the largest producer of greenhouse gases in 2006, but two important observations qualify this fact. -One important source of pollution is high-sulfur coal; Beijing's residents and factories are highly dependent on coal as a heating and energy source. - An estimated 70 percent of the coal used fails to meet the government's stated environmental standards. Transport is another major source of air pollution. - Air and water pollution became acute. Beloved Mt. Fuji could rarely be seen from Tokyo, which was shrouded in a brownish smog most of the time. -Fishing was halted in Tokyo Bay. -Poisonous chemicals, such as organic mercury and cadmium, entered the food chain in certain localities, which produced horrible birth defects and suffering. - China is the world's largest coal producer, but in 2011 became the world's largest coal importer. China consumes more coal than the United States, Japan, and the European Union combined.

-China (1.35 billion) and Japan (128 million) are the first and tenth most populated countries in the world. -South Korea (48.9 million), North Korea (24.6 million), Taiwan (23.3 million), and Mongolia (2.9 million) round out the balance of East Asian countries. - In addition, some regions of individual countries possess high population densities - Even with large expanses of open spaces in China and Mongolia, the population density of East Asia is about three times the world average. -The region also has some of the most populated urban areas in the world. - some 94 percent of China's population resides in the humid eastern region, which constitutes only 43 percent of China's land area. -Within this eastern region, about 40 percent of the population occupies some 10 percent of the land area, coinciding with the alluvial valleys of the lower Huang He and Chang Jiang and the coast. - Population densities in some of these more crowded rural regions may easily reach 250 persons per square mile (100 persons per square kilometer). - Population densities progressively decrease with increasing distance from the coast and some provinces are far more populated than others. -Much of the drier and elevated western half of China is sparsely populated. - Likewise, drier Mongolia to the north of China is sparsely populated. -Environmentally dominated by desert and grasslands, Mongolia's average density is three persons per square mile, which makes it one of the lowest population density countries in the world. - Population concentrations in North and South Korea are found in the western foothills and lowlands where both national capitals are located. -In Japan, approximately 80 percent of the national population is found on the largest island, Honshu, and the majority of this population is strung along the coastal plain and foothills of the Pacific or the southeast coast where the largest urban regions are located. -Dominated by an eastern mountainous backbone, the vast majority of Taiwan's population is concentrated along the western alluvial plains dotted with large urban regions. -The greatest population densities are found in the well-watered river valleys and coastal plains. Eastern and western China exhibit one of the sharpest population density transitions of any country in the world. -The spatial distribution of China's population is uneven. -The Han are China's majority culture group, accounting for 92 percent of the population and primarily found in the eastern two-thirds of the country. -The remaining 8 percent of China's population are comprised of ethnic or cultural minorities primarily located in interior regions. -The government officially recognizes 55 different minority groups, of which 18 have populations greater than 1 million people. With the exception of Xinjiang and Tibet (Xizang), every province or autonomous region has a Han Chinese majority. -The direct consequences of single-child families as well as a shortage of females are many. The existence of fewer women has led to a "marriage squeeze" in which there are too few females for men wanting to marry. -Mongolia, physically isolated and landlocked, is about three times the size of California, but is only populated by about 3 million people - North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea, with 24.6 million people) and South Korea (Republic of Korea, with 48.9 million people) -Seoul (23 million people live in the larger urban region) is now one of the world's most populated cities and the primate city for the world's 15th largest economy. -Taiwan's 23.3 million people now live with a population density of 646 people per square kilometer. -Japan's population has aged greatly since 1950 and is expected to continue to do so in the decades ahead.

EAST ASIA RESOURCES

-China can be divided into three broad agricultural regions: rice in the southeast, wheat in the northeast, and oasis agriculture in the west. -Vegetables and various types of melons are grown everywhere, as are soybeans, to make traditional bean curd—an important source of protein in a traditionally meat-scarce diet. - Fruit orchards also are important; in the north, apples and pears are common, while in the south, citrus dominates. - Supplementary crops increase opportunities for peasant farmers to earn additional income. -coal -oil -hydroelectric power -iron -steel -chemicals -textiles -wind energy -solar energy -Mongolia's economy stagnated until the early 2000s when the country opened up its vast and recently discovered mineral resources to development. These resources include copper, gold, uranium, coal, and other strategically important minerals. -Japan is severely lacking in mineral resources and must import nearly everything it needs for energy production (except hydropower) and industrial development. - Japan was able to marshall its greatest resource—a well-educated, technically proficient people. Its able administrators and entrepreneurs were eager to seize the reins and rebuild the nation just as fast as U.S. authorities would allow.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) MAJOR CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS -sub-Saharan Africa appears uniformly hot and humid since much of the region falls between the Tropics of Cancer (23.5° N) and Capricorn (23.5° S). -The cool Benguela ocean current in southwest Africa and the warm Mozambique ocean current in eastern Africa modify the climates of their coastal environments. -The snowcapped, high-altitude environments in the Ethiopian highlands and around Mount Kilimanjaro contrast with much warmer temperatures in the lower elevations of Tanzania's middle belt and the forest zones of central Africa.

-Cities and villages that border Africa's large inland lakes and extensive coastlines benefit from the modifying maritime effects, in contrast to the hotter and drier continental locations of the African Sahel. --Regions located near the lower latitudes of the equator are much warmer and wetter than the higher latitude regions of Southern Africa. -Mean monthly temperatures in rain-forest zones remain above 64.4°F (18°C) all year, and substantial precipitation occurs in every month, with most stations averaging between 60 and 80 inches (1,500-2,000 millimeters) annually. Abundant rainfall in tropical rain-forest regions is associated with high temperatures, low atmospheric pressures, and often luxuriant plant growth. -dusty and hazy conditions across much of West Africa. -Humid tropical rain forests, subhumid tropical savannas, semiarid steppes, and deserts.

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

-DRIEST DESERT (the Atacama in Chile and Peru) -LARGEST TROPICAL FOREST (The Amazon) -THE AMAZON RIVER, PARANA RIVER AND THE ORINOCO RIVER -MULTIPLE MOUNTAIN RANGES (Andes mountains, Sierra Madre and Occidental ranges, AND HUASCAR -VOLCANOES (Popocatépetl), -ALSO FROM VOLCANOES, COMES a lot of snowfall and some host large glaciers. The meltwater from these glaciers and snowpack is an important source of water for irrigated agriculture and drinking water for rural and urban populations. -VOLCANOES emit ash and other materials that help form fertile soils in the valleys between the volcanoes.

SOUTH ASIA MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

-Discriminatory practices generally take place at the state level rather than the national scale, where non-Muslims occupy some of the most important government administrative positions in this secular country. -democratic

SOUTH EAST ASIA MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS -The emergence of economic, political, and cultural cores in Southeast Asia began with the introduction of Hindu and Buddhist systems of belief and political organization from India. -The lone exception was Annam in northern Vietnam, which was influenced by Han China. -In Mainland Southeast Asia there were a number of riverine empires . - The most powerful was centered on the lower valley and delta regions of the Mekong. -First occupied by the Indianized kingdom of Funan during the early centuries A.D., the focus of power moved inland to Tonle Sap, the largest natural lake in Southeast Asia, where the powerful commercial Khmer Empire ruled between the ninth and fifteenth centuries. -there are substantial cultural distinctions between the more populous and powerful lowland peoples and the upland minority groups, such as the Karen of Myanmar and Thailand and the Hmong of Vietnam and Laos.

-During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the arrival of Arab, Indian, and Chinese traders dramatically transformed the development of Insular Southeast Asia. - Indian merchants introduced Islam, which was adopted by local royalty, who became leaders of "sultanates." Islam subsequently spread rapidly throughout the local population and eventually reached Mindanao in the southern Philippines. -The main exceptions to adoption of Islam were the more isolated interior peoples, who remained animists, and Bali, which remained Hindu. -Mainland Southeast Asia is primarily Buddhist whereas Islam dominates in Insular Southeast Asia. Exceptions are Roman Catholicism in the Philippines and the island of Timor, Hinduism in Bali, and pockets of Christianity and indigenous religions in interior regions. -Malaysia and Indonesia are insular nations that share a number of cultural traditions. I

SOUTH ASIA MAJOR CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Of paramount importance is the seasonal monsoon rainfall system, which provides the water that supports rural South Asians' livelihoods. -Asia's summer monsoon rains are fed by southerly wind flows -April and May mark the beginning of the rainy season or wet monsoon - Sustained and heavy rainfall then occurs when the ITCZ, a belt of low pressure, migrates northward during the northern hemisphere summer months. During this four-month period substantial amounts of precipitation fill rivers and saturate dry soils. -During the northern hemisphere winter the Asian landmass becomes much colder than the adjacent oceans, forming a strong high-pressure cell over east-central Siberia. - A dry northerly or easterly wind then spreads over much of southeastern continental Asia, and greatly reduced rainfall characterizes the dry monsoon. -This dramatic seasonal shift of wind and precipitation produces stark landscape changes in agricultural areas

-For many South Asian locations, more than 75 percent of annual precipitation occurs during those four wet season months. -The arrival of the rains is welcomed—both for the life-giving moisture and for the associated cooling, which relieve the 90°F-100°F (32°-38°C) temperatures typical of much of interior India at the end of the dry season. -Late in the monsoon season, cyclones (as Indian Ocean hurricanes are called) frequently devastate the lowland coastal areas of the Bay of Bengal. Heavy rain and occasionally storm surges are destructive forces associated with the storms lashing the densely settled portions of southern Bangladesh. -The dry and cooler winter monsoon from October through March brings less than 10 inches (250 mm) of rain to all but the extreme tip of India and Sri Lanka, with temperatures averaging 60°F (15.5°C) in northern India.

NORTHERN EURASIA CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine -their economies are not completely reformed, their governments at best are vulnerable and flawed democracies, and they lack full-fledged civil societies. -However, not all of these countries, especially Ukraine and Georgia, welcome the Russian embrace. -Shipping suffers because all of Russia's and Ukraine's ports are hampered by ice in winter, with the exception of Murmansk on the Kola Peninsula's northern coast. _Chernobyl nuclear reactor meltdown and the destruction of the Aral Sea. -Countless other environmental problems are known to exist in the region, involving air, water, and ground pollution, erosion, threats to biodiversity, and other issues -All the major rivers in the European part of the area suffer from diverse and numerous sources of pollution. - The Black Sea and the Sea of Azov are heavily polluted.

-Forests have been clear-cut in cold areas where it takes many decades for them to regenerate. -The Ural Mountains include a broad array of environmental hotspots, including the site of another nuclear radiation disaster near Chelyabinsk. - Oil pipelines from western Siberia leak into fragile tundra and taiga landscapes, harming both wildlife and indigenous people. The Arctic city of Norilsk, with its massive smelters for nickel and other ores, has destroyed a forest the size of Britain with acid precipitation. - Nobody in cities drinks tap water—St. Petersburg's water is infamous for giardia, a tenacious intestinal parasite. -human rights issues, national minorities' grievances, economic shortcomings, and environmental problems -Ethnic warfare

NORTH AMERICA MAJOR CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS

-HUMID SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE (IN MOST SOUTHEASTERN STATES) -CONTINENTALALITY ( WINTERS TEND TO BE COLD AND SUMMERS ARE HOT MOST INNER STATES) -MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE (PACIFIC COAST) -MARINE WEST COAST CLIMATE (ALONG THE COAST OF ALASKA) -STEPPE CLIMATE (OREGAN AND WASHINGTON) -DESERTS (SOUTHWEST) -HUMID CONTINENTAL CLIMATE(NORTHEASTERN US AND CANADA) -SUBARTIC AND POLAR (CANADA AND ALASKA)

EAST ASIA MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS Japan, China, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. - China has heavily influenced the religious, philosophical, and linguistic traditions of all East Asian countries except Mongolia. - Unlike the regions of South Asia and Southeast Asia, Western colonial rule was rarely imposed in East Asia. - Almost 2,000 years of imperial rule came to an abrupt end with the arrival of Western merchants and militaries in the mid-nineteenth century and the surrender of sovereignty to Western economic interests in enclaves along China's coast. - The breakdown of a unified China caused internal political fragmentation and the eventual rise of competing political visions of a modern China. -Communists and Nationalists engaged in a protracted civil war that ended in a Communist victory after the defeat of the Japanese invasion in World War II. -Chinese civilization is often referred to as the world's oldest surviving culture. -This distinct culture was perceived by the Chinese themselves as being indigenously derived, without substantial external influences. The Chinese, hemmed in by mountains to the north, west, and south and the Pacific Ocean to the east, came to think of themselves as the bearers of a superior civilization that possessed a deep sense of cultural unity. - The Chinese rulers believed they lived in a special place, the Middle Kingdom or Zhongguo. -From 1766 B.C. to A.D. 1912, 15 major dynasties ruled China, each important in its own right. - During some dynasties, very important cultural, political, and economic behaviors emerged, -Shang (1766-1122 B.C.), centered where the Huang He enters the North China Plain. -Their contributions to Chinese cultural identity included the development of metal working and the distinctive character-based written language - Most importantly, the Shang period marked the transformation of Chinese society from one based on egalitarian agricultural communities to one oriented toward socially and occupationally stratified urban centers. - Government officials had the power to forcibly enlist peasants for unpaid labor during times of war or when government construction projects required large inputs of labor. -The militaristic Zhou dynasty (1027-256 B.C.) originated farther upstream on the Huang He and established their capital at a site close to modern-day Xi'an. - They extended the imperial domains southward beyond the Chang Jiang, farther west up the Huang He and Wei River valleys, as well as to the northeast. -One of the most important cultural traditions that emerged during the end of the Zhou period was the ethical philosophy of Confucianism, based on the writings and teachings of Confucius. - Confucianism emphasized that humans were moral by nature and that immoral behavior was a product of the loss of virtue by all. - Confucius argued that authority within the government or family should not be based on formalized law and brute force punishment but rather on living a virtuous life characterized by obligations to others. - Much like the philosophies of Socrates and Jesus, both of whom preached "man's moral duty to man," the teachings of Confucius constituted a new ethical system that has endured in East Asia to the present. -The next dynasty to bring in a new imperial "order" was the Qin dynasty (221-207 B.C.). ruled in the period during which China became a unified state and culture. -The name China probably originated from the word Qin. -The totalitarian Qin emperor Shih-huang-di forged a unified and spatially integrated state by dividing imperial territory into 40 military regions, each administered by a staff of officials who were appointed by the central government based on merit rather than birth.

-He has become universally known for the thousands of terracotta warriors found buried with him to protect him in the afterlife. -Another aspect of Qin rule that defined Chinese culture and space was the completion of the Great Wall, which served to spatially separate China's political core from the drier northwestern grasslands of Inner Asia which posed a barrier to Chinese settlement. -Lower rainfall prevented sedentary agriculture, which was a defining characteristic for being Chinese. -the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), a period so important that the Chinese today still refer to themselves as "people of the Han." -As organizers of the first large-scale empire in East Asia, the militarily powerful Han conquered a wide corridor of far western lands in Inner Asia from pastoral nomadic kingdoms and brought these new territories within the Chinese orbit. -The development of the great Silk Road indirectly connected the Chinese and Roman empires through traders who traveled Inner Asia as merchant intermediaries. -The Han then turned their energies to the wetter southern frontier, where opportunities to secure an abundant source of food were greater. This south-central region became key to the economic and political power of the northern-centered government. -Although constructed during the Sui dynasty that followed the Han, the 1,400-mile-long, between modern-day Hangzhou (just south of Shanghai) and the heart of the North China Plain, facilitated the much-increased trading of commodities among the regions of a now more integrated empire -The Song, or Sung, dynasty (A.D. 960-1279) was a distinctive period of Chinese history because of the many social and economic development patterns that emerged. Having been forced south by Mongol invasions, the new Song capital was Hangzhou, a city of huge physical proportions that easily outsized the largest urban settlements in Europe at that time. -The commercial success of the Song dynasty was characterized by the expanded use of early-ripening rice varieties, improvements in irrigation, and government-printed money that facilitated interregional trade throughout the Chang Jiang basin. -For the first time in China's history, long-distance maritime trade developed, bringing Arab and Indian merchants and products to the coastal cities and encouraging Chinese merchants to establish trading networks in Southeast Asia. -China in the thirteenth century resembled eighteenth-century Europe. -The Song dynasty was replaced by the Mongol-based Yuan dynasty which in turn was replaced by the Ming dynasty, considered to be one of the most stable dynasties in China's history. Ming rule was then replaced by the Qing dynasty (A.D. 1644-1911), a non-Han Chinese, Manchu-led government from the forested region of present-day northeastern China and the last great Chinese dynasty. -Among urban families child gender preference is far less important when compared to more traditional rural families -Culturally, kimono-clad women, tea ceremonies, ancient Shinto temples, and centuries-old castles contrast with the punk culture of public spaces, fast-food outlets, anime, modern skyscrapers, and neon-emblazoned entertainment districts, all in close geographical proximity to each other in Japan's largest cities. -Socially, Japan's institutions seem to value hierarchy and order in education, business relations, and the factory floor, but in many ways Japanese society is quite permissive. -From their Kyushu base, it was the Yayoi who introduced sedentary agriculture (paddy rice in particular), bronze and iron technology for making farming tools and weapons, the ancient form of spoken Japanese, and a religion that eventually developed into Shintoism, which is anchored in a number of gods or kami

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS -These countries are characterized as much by the unifying bonds of Islam and Arab culture as by deep internal contrasts and severe conflicts. -The uneven distribution of oil reserves explains many differences in development, standards of living, and political influence. -Islam expanded rapidly from its core in the western Arabian Peninsula to dominate most of North Africa and the Middle East by the mid-eighth century. -The Islamic faith remains a powerful force in structuring society and state, despite the presence of nationalist forces and non-Islamic minorities. -most Christian communities, regardless of the rite practiced, are Arabs -Finally, this world region has long functioned as a crossroads for Europe, Asia, and Africa, enabling an exchange of goods and ideas throughout history. -The traditional flowing robes reduce moisture loss through sweating by insulating the wearer from the intense desert sun and by allowing free airflow to cool the skin. Their light color reflects rather than absorbs sunlight, keeping body temperature lower, and the use of head coverings reduces the risk of sunstroke

-Housing also reflects climatic adaptation Vaulted roofs, high ceilings, and the use of tiles promote cooler conditions by allowing warm air to rise or by absorbing less heat. Shutters and sunscreens cover or shade window openings to prevent direct sunlight from penetrating and heating interior spaces -Over time identification of the Middle East with the eastern Mediterranean took deep root. Today this is reflected in the widespread use of the term Middle East in popular literature, by academic area studies programs, as well as most aid and international organizations -The Arabs occupy the central core of the region, having spread out from their ancestral homeland in the Arabian Peninsula. Large minorities of Turks, Persians, Kurds, Berbers, and Nilo-Hamitic groups are found in more peripheral locations. -. In public, women cover their head with a scarf, their face with a veil, and their body with an enveloping outer garment that reaches to their feet. Men wear a skull cap and very full, untrimmed beard, although more modern-style clothing may be worn outside the home.

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS

-INDIANS (AZTEC, MAYANS, AND INCAS) -SPANISH IMMIGRANTS-WEST OF THE MEREDIAN -PORTUGUESE IMMIGRANTS-EASTERN SIDE -AFRICAN SLAVES -GREAT BRITAIN -THE NETHERLANDS -FRANCE -ITALIANS

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

-INDIANS (AZTECS, MAYANS AND INCAS) -PORTUGUESE -SPANIARDS -AFRICANS -BRITISH -THE NETHERLANDS -FRANCE -RELIGION CHANGING MORE TO PROTESTANT -WOMEN'S ROLES ARE EXPANDING (BETTER EDUCATION, BETTER PAY AND JOBS) -INDIANS DEMANDING RIGHTS TO ANCESTRAL LAND

EAST ASIA HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS

-In 1543, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive, followed by the Spanish, Dutch, and English over the next half century. The visitors were impressed by Japanese technological and cultural achievements, while the Japanese were attracted to European trade goods that included guns, tobacco, and Chinese luxuries. -By 1640, the Spanish and Portuguese were expelled and the Dutch, English, and Chinese were confined to a small island in the port of Nagasaki on the western coast of Kyushu. The government closed Japan over fears that foreign influences would undermine peasant and samurai loyalties. -The Ainu were among Japan's earliest inhabitants Racially different and almost exclusively a hunting and fishing people, they also were treated as aliens by the Yamato Japanese.

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. -The environmental challenges facing Central Asia and Afghanistan today are largely a result of Soviet planning and overreach that had no place for either sustainability or the welfare of the local inhabitants. -In Central Asia, these challenges include the Aral Sea crisis , erosion from the Virgin Lands Program, and the remnants of the Soviet nuclear program. The nuclear program has affected both eastern Kazakhstan and the Fan Mountains of Tajikistan. - In eastern Kazakhstan around the Soviet city of Semipalatinsk (now Semey), the Soviets exploded approximately 460 nuclear bombs in an area of the nearby steppe. Radiation remains a problem and over the years has destroyed the health of both people and livestock in the area. - In Tajikistan, uranium mining has caused severe damage to many streams that flow out of the Fan Mountains. The Soviets allowed the runoff (or tailings) of the mines to flow into nearby streams, and from where these tailings enter the water, no life can be found downstream for many miles.

-In Afghanistan, the number one hazard is the detritus of more than three decades of war, especially landmines. -The Soviets placed millions of landmines in unmarked areas throughout the country, and the warring factions that have fought for control of Afghanistan have since laid many more. This has had a disastrous effect on the Afghan economy and the Afghan population. Many thousands of farmers and travelers have been killed or maimed in spite of recent efforts to remove the mines; much of the best agricultural land has been unavailable because of fear that the land could contain mines. All of these challenges began with the U.S.S.R., but it is up to the individual countries today to try and mitigate the effects of these Soviet policies.

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The Soviets placed millions of landmines in unmarked areas throughout the country, and the warring factions that have fought for control of Afghanistan have since laid many more. This has had a disastrous effect on the Afghan economy . Many thousands of farmers and travelers have been killed or maimed in spite of recent efforts to remove the mines; much of the best agricultural land has been unavailable because of fear that the land could contain mines. All of these challenges began with the U.S.S.R., but it is up to the individual countries today to try and mitigate the effects of these Soviet policies.

-In terms of development and economy, three processes characterized the Soviet period: centralization, collectivization of agriculture, and Russianization. -Kazakhstan has perhaps the greatest potential, both in resources and potential productivity. It has the region's strongest economy and a large agricultural base, in addition to one of the world's largest oil and natural gas deposits in the northern Caspian Sea -. Turkmenistan also has large oil and gas deposits near its share of the Caspian Sea region and although the terrain is arid, agriculture is possible because extensive Soviet-era irrigation projects diverted large amounts of water from the Amu Darya that normally would have gone to the Aral Sea. But Turkmenistan continues to be hampered economically and politically by its authoritarian government.

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA MAJOR CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS - Aridity dominates the region and renders much land of limited utility for agriculture. -Of much greater importance for human settlement are the mountain ranges and upland plateaus that provide a basis for livelihood and economy. These highlands have lower temperatures, higher rainfall totals, and more reliable agricultural resources than many coastal districts and interior areas. Rainfall totals are often substantial. -At Ifrane in the central Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco, as much as 60 inches (1,500 millimeters) of precipitation can fall in a year. Much of this moisture occurs in the form of snow since the mountains are high, and the wet season occurs in the coolest part of the year.

-In the area of Midelt, less than 65 miles (100 kilometers) further inland, average annual precipitation is less than 10 inches (250 millimeters). A similar contrast exists between Beirut, Lebanon on the Mediterranean coast and Damascus, Syria only 50 miles (80 kilometers) to the east. Beirut averages 37 inches (940 millimeters) of rainfall per year, while Damascus is functionally an oasis that receives less than 9 inches (230 millimeters) annually. -The intervening Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges absorb much of the moisture produced by the winter storms passing through the Mediterranean, leaving the interior regions dry but creating humid zones along the coast and in the uplands. - more densely populated settings include upland areas that receive substantial rain and have cooler temperatures, coastal lowlands watered by runoff from the uplands, inland plateaus exposed to seasonal storms, and oases. -Much of the region, particularly the portion bordering the Mediterranean Sea, experiences a dry summer subtropical climate with less than 20 inches (500 millimeters) of annual rainfall -Where mountains are high, this precipitation falls as snow and remains on the ground throughout the winter.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS -Governments are confronted daily with conflicts and contradictions between traditional African and imposed European value systems. -The inherent contradictions pervade the social, cultural, economic, and political lives of Africans. Countries wrestle with the question of whether or not to adopt a common non-Western language, school systems debate replacing their European curriculum with one that is Afrocentric, and politicians search for the "ideal" constitution that incorporates aspects of traditional authority into largely Western-based political systems.

-In the northern regions of West, Central, and East Africa, a third element, Islam, further complicates the political and cultural environments. In Sudan, Nigeria, and Somalia, in particular, Islamic fundamentalism has emerged as a potent force. -The legacies of colonialism are still felt in the daily lives of Africans. -Ethiopia and Tanzancia are socialists. -Botswana is a multiparty democracy that has held free and fair elections since its independence in 1966. -Modern Zimbabwe, formerly known as Southern Rhodesia, gained its independence in 1980. Southern Rhodesia had opted for internal self-government rather than succumb to Afrikaner domination under a union with South Africa. -While the majority of African countries support democratic reform, Zimbabwe's 2013 election serves as a grim reminder of the country's history of an uncompromising, nonconformist political dictatorship.

EUROPE MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia

-granting additional powers from central governments to subnational regions is called devolution. -There are devolutionary movements among the large Hungarian and Roma populations in Romania, as well as Catalan and Basque minority groups in Spain and to a lesser extent, France. -In the United Kingdom, the province of Scotland has been granted substantial devolved power by the central government in London. - A Scottish parliament was created in 1998 for the first time since 1707, and a referendum for full independence may be held soon. -The idea that a particular nation, or intergenerational group based on ethnicity (language or religion), should have control over its own affairs and should govern its own territory is also a European invention. -SOCIALIST HEALTH CARE

How has the HIV/AIDS epidemic shaped population patterns, economic opportunity, and political conditions in many countries of Sub-Saharan Africa in the past three decades? The nations of Southern Africa have the world's highest rates of adult HIV. Life expectancies have fallen dramatically and human and economic development have been greatly impacted. -Because AIDS affects adults in their productive years, the disease has a direct impact on the development of human capital. A World Bank study in Tanzania estimated the cost of replacing teachers dying from AIDS at $40 million through 2010.

-In the same country, rural households affected by AIDS deaths spend approximately $60 (the equivalent of annual rural income per capita) on treatment and funerals. -A study of South Africa estimated the direct cost of AIDS in the year 2000 was between $1.2 billion and $2.9 billion. -Economic growth is compromised as household savings and resources are diverted away from productive investment - From a social and psychological standpoint, AIDS has a devastating impact on children who lose their parents. -Millions of orphaned children face limited educational opportunities, and many are left to fend for themselves or are cared for by other children or by the elderly.

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN LANGUAGES Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

-Indo-European language (the Indo-European language family also includes English, French, Russian, and most other European languages), -the various Turkic people speak languages from the Altaic family, which some linguists believe is related to Mongolian and Korean. -RUSSIAN -IRANIAN GROUP(TAJIK, PASHTO, NURASTANI BALOCHI) -TURKISH (UBEK, KAZAHK, KYRGYZ, TURKMEN, KARAKALPEK)

SOUTH EAST ASIA RESOURCES - Malaysia and Indonesia produced 86 percent of the world's palm oil, used in a wide variety of food products ranging from chocolate to cookies as well as in soaps and cosmetic products. - Palm oil is also in great demand in Europe as a cheap and efficient "green energy" biofuel to reduce fossil fuel emissions. -Southeast Asia—particularly Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam—accounted for 56 percent of total U.S. shrimp imports -oil, rubber, tin, hemp, sugar, palm oil, tea, and tobacco. -The region only has 1 percent of the world's oil reserves, 4 percent of natural gas reserves, and less than 1 percent of coal reserves.

-Indonesia is the resource giant of Southeast Asia; its resource share includes 42 percent of the region's natural gas, 24 percent of the oil, and 72 percent of the coal reserves. - Malaysia is a distant second, with 32 percent of the region's natural gas and 35 percent of oil. -In terms of primary energy consumption, the regional energy mix in 2010 was 40.8 percent from oil, 17.6 percent from natural gas, 14.1 percent from coal, 4.4 percent from geothermal, and 1.7 percent from hydropower

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLAND POPULATION STATISTICS - Thus the bulk of the Australian population remains concentrated east of the crest line of the Great Dividing Range in Queensland, New South Wales, and central Victoria, and in isolated, moderately dense nodes around Adelaide and Perth. - Inland from the Pilbara Coast, in the Kimberly Plateau, in Arnhem Land behind Darwin, and in the flatlands of the interior Outback of New South Wales and Victoria where water is scarce, population is limited and widely dispersed. -In Papua New Guinea the reverse distribution occurs: coastal lowlands, particularly on the heavily forested south coast, are very low-density environments. -Only the coastal cities of Port Moresby and Lea are exceptions.

-Instead, the bulk of population is concentrated in the central highlands where cooler temperatures and more favorable agricultural opportunities are found. - Most of New Zealand's relatively small population isconcentrated on the higher potential North Island, and in a few large urban areas on South Island. -The population of Australia is concentrated in a narrow strip along the east, southeastern, and southwestern coasts, but the drier interior is comparatively empty. A mountainous interior, particularly in the South Island, similarly confines New Zealand's population to coastal locations. -Some 89 percent of Australia's population lives in urban areas. Around 40 percent of the people live in the two sprawling metropolitan areas of Sydney and Melbourne, with populations of approximately 4.7 and 4.2 million respectively . One reason for this is that Australia's agricultural production is extensive rather than intensive, and employs few people. -All five of Australia's largest cities—Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane (2.2 million), Perth-Freemantle (1.9 million), and Adelaide (1.3 million)—are seaports, and each is the capital of one of the five mainland states of the Commonwealth. -most of New Zealand's 4.4 million Kiwis live in cities, similar to the situation in Australia. However, the cities of New Zealand are generally much smaller; the largest is Auckland on North Island, with 1.4 million people -The Pacific Islands' population is only about 11.9 million

What geographic factors help explain the ongoing conflicts in much of the tropical regions across central Africa (e.g., Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia)? -Nigeria's climatic diversity makes possible a broad range of food and cash crops . The northern savanna zone supports cash crops such as peanuts and cotton as well as food crops such as guinea corn, millet, and cassava. In the southern forest and wooded zones, principal cash crops include cocoa, rubber, oil palm, and coffee, while food crops include sorghum, rice, maize, and yams and other tropical tubers. -Much of Central Africa lies in the equatorial region where tropical humid conditions prevail. The states in the region account for 17 percent of sub-Saharan Africa's land area and only 11 percent of its population . -Gabon, the Congo Republic, and Equatorial Guinea have capitalized on the wealth of mineral and forest resources. Cameroon, the Central African Republic (CAR), and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) have been plagued by economic mismanagement and/or political instability. Overall, the pattern of development has been very uneven. Rapid population growth throughout the region, together with political instability and human welfare problems compromise future prospects for improvement. -The northern region lies in the watershed of Lake Chad and its landscape is characterized by semiarid savanna grasses, bushes, and acacia trees. The south supports denser vegetation as it merges into true rain forest near the Congo Basin. -The CAR is doubly dependent—on both its immediate neighbors, and international markets for the import and export of crucial goods. The principal route that external trade must take is a 1,110-mile (1,800-kilometer) journey south along the Ubangi River to Brazzaville on the Congo (Zaire) River, and then by rail to Pointe Noire on the Atlantic coast. -In addition to the high freight and line-haul costs associated with shipment between different modes of transport, exports must also absorb very high insurance costs associated with safeguarding goods against theft, vandalism, and perishability at coastal ports. -Economic development in the republic is hampered by a poorly developed social and physical infrastructure, economic mismanagement, and political instability. -The country has no railroad, and less than 2 percent of its estimated 13,700-mile (22,000-kilometer) road network is paved.

-Its telecommunications system is substandard, consisting mostly of low-powered radios. -Agriculture accounts for about 55 percent of the republic's economic output and 60 percent of the workforce, and is dominated by coffee (its major export crop), cotton, and, to a lesser extent, tobacco. - It has valuable species of hardwood that are underutilized, as well as untapped reserves of petroleum and uranium. Diamonds now account for about 50 percent of export earnings, despite an increase in smuggling activities. -Despite a large and diverse resource base, the DRC's 69 million people remain one of the poorest populations in Africa, with a per capita GNI PPP of only $320. The nation is plagued by low educational attainment, high female illiteracy, and high rates of child malnutrition. The majority of its population lacks access to health services, basic sanitation, and safe water. -Perhaps the single most important factor to explain the DRC's social and economic malaise is the more than three-decades-long despotic and self-indulgent leadership the country endured under Mobutu. His regime was the epitome of corruption, greed, and incompetence. Mobutu did little to improve the country's social and physical infrastructure, but chose to enhance his personal wealth by building castles, chateaus, and villas in Spain, France, Belgium, and Switzerland. His net worth was estimated at $3-$7 billion. -Physical environments are quite diverse, with semiarid and arid conditions dominating Somalia, northern Kenya, and Sudan and temperate conditions in the fertile Lake Victoria agricultural borderlands of southeast Uganda, northwest Tanzania, and southwest Kenya. - Tensions based on ethnic rivalries afflict every nation in the region, and have resulted in civil wars and secession efforts . Socialist and communal development strategies have been followed and largely found wanting, but neoliberal approaches have not succeeded either. Pockets of success in ecotourism and agriculture are encouraging but distressingly limited. -This clanocracy acts as both a unifying and divisive force. Mohammed Fara Aidid and Ali Mahdi, both from the Hawiye clan, collaborated to overthrow the government of former president Siyaad Barre (from the Marehan clan, a subclan of the Darood) in 1991. The coup was a reaction to Barre's brand of scientific socialism, which clashed with Islamic and clan-based traditions. -South Sudan's independence came amidst much hope for a bright future. But immense challenges must be overcome: sharing oil revenues, resolving border disputes, and easing lingering ethnic tensions. With independence, landlocked South Sudan controlled three-quarters of the previously united country's oil reserves. But oil export requires transport through oil pipelines that cross its northern neighbor to distribution facilities on the Red Sea. -Other boundary issues remain unsettled. A referendum to determine whether the contested border region of Abyei will be in the south or north has been delayed -It is too early to tell whether the new Somalia government will endure. Islamic extremism remains a threat and underlying clan differences remain a strong divisive force. -Clan warfare is typically provoked by disputes over water and pasture rights or political control. -Until a strong and unified government emerges, untainted by the interests of a specific clan, conflict and economic stagnation will continue to afflict Somalia.

EUROPE MAJOR CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia

-Moderate climates and generally ample precipitation are important factors explaining the more or less even distribution of population in Europe -Europe is mild for its latitude, and experiences little of the extreme temperature swings one finds in North America and the rest of northern Eurasia. -Europe's three large climate regions are marine west coast, humid continental, and mediterranean. -The Alps, with their unique mountainous climate of wet, cool summers and snowy, cold winters, and the Nordic countries of Finland, Sweden, and Norway, with much the same conditions as the Alps.

global warming

Increasing atmospheric temperatures, particularly due to the release of greenhouse gases that are produced by the burning of fossil fuels. When these gases build up, they retain heat within the atmosphere. climate change as a result of greenhouse gases, example is the melting of the polar ice caps

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLANDS MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -The smallest of the continents, Australia is as remarkably flat as it is dry. -The western half of the continental mass is composed of a low elevation, eroded tableland seldom exceeding 1,000 feet (300 meters) above sea level. -A few more prominent ranges, the Darling Range inland from Perth for instance, are really escarpments that frame the edges of the tableland. -Large desert areas occupy most of the western interior. -The eastern half of the continent is composed of two main features: a large lowland basin extending from Adelaide in the south to the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north, and a long mountain range inland from and running parallel to the east coast. -The Great Artesian Basin is a sandstone layer, recharged by moisture from the northern Great Dividing Range. It underlies over 20 percent of Australia's interior land surface and is the only reliable source of fresh water in the northern interior lowlands. -The southern interior lowlands receive surface flow from the higher southern Great Dividing Range through the Darling and Murray river systems. -The irrigated Riverina district west of Sydney is a particularly important agricultural region in this area. -Short streams flowing eastward from the crests of the Great Dividing Range provide water for a fertile but narrow coastal plain before emptying into the Coral and Tasman Seas. -Thin soils and dense, bushy woodland characterize the landscape.

-New Zealand was formed from the Ring of Fire, a section of the belt of unstable crust rimming the Pacific. -The islands are the crest of a giant fold in the Earth's crust that rises sharply from the ocean floor. - Almost three-quarters of South Island is mountainous, dominated by the Southern Alps, which rise to elevations above 12,000 feet. - North Island is less rugged, but it has peaks that exceed 5,000 feet and live volcanoes. -The physical geography of the Pacific Islands has made conventional Western-style economic development difficult. -Many high islands are of volcanic origin with extremely rugged interior cores, but only a few have mineral wealth. - Others are relatively flat atolls that have formed on the tops of coral reefs, are low-lying, and are exposed to storms and sea level rise. - The vast majority of the islands, except mainland Papua New Guinea, are relatively small and limited in the numbers of people they can support. -The tiny coral atolls that make up the Marshall Islands contain few natural resources, despite their lush, densely vegetated tropical landscapes. The runway of Majuro Amata Kabua International Airport on the coral island of Majuro takes up almost the entire width of one segment of the atoll.

How has trade changed between Australia and New Zealand in the past few decades?

-New Zealand's economy has benefited from a free-trade agreement known as "Closer Economic Relations," which was signed with Australia in 1983. -That agreement opened Australia's larger domestic market to New Zealand's products and gave a much-needed stimulus to New Zealand's industry, making Australia the country's largest trading partner in both exports and imports.

What is the current trade relationship between Australia and New Zealand?

-New Zealand's economy has benefited from a free-trade agreement known as "Closer Economic Relations," which was signed with Australia in 1983. -That agreement opened Australia's larger domestic market to New Zealand's products and gave a much-needed stimulus to New Zealand's industry, making Australia the country's largest trading partner in both exports and imports.

What challenges does Nigeria face as it strives to become a regional power in Sub-Saharan Africa? -The government has the difficult tasks of rebuilding a devastated infrastructure and weakened economy, and unifying a divided population. As the winds of change sweep across Nigeria, a number of threats persist. Impoverished residents of the oil-rich Niger River delta continue to press for a greater share of the region's wealth, and radical Islamic fundamentalists in the North pursue their political agenda.

-Nigeria's present underdeveloped state is almost entirely a result of wasted human resources and corruption. The country's abundant mineral and agricultural wealth has served only to heighten, not diminish, ethnic divisions. -Recently, Islamic Sharia law, based on the Quran, was instituted in 12 states in northern Nigeria, resulting in such drastic penalties as stoning for adultery, amputation for theft, and flogging for alcohol consumption. Women tend to be more victimized than men. Sharia law is diffusing to southern states and threatens to trigger yet another constitutional crisis in Nigeria.

NORTHERN EURASIA MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine

-Northern Eurasia comprises six former Soviet countries—Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan -the Ural Mountains, conventionally considered to divide Europe and Asia, reach a maximum of 6,250 feet (1,900 meters) in the remote north, but rarely exceed 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) in the settled area of the country. -- Eastern Siberia consists of rugged, eroded plateaus bounded on the east and south by substantial mountain ranges. -Narrow strips along the Pacific shore and in coastal river valleys benefit from the moderating influence of the sea, but most of the immense area east of the Yenisey River is isolated and inhospitable. -The Volga stands out among them as the longest river in Europe and the one most treasured in Russian culture. Unfortunately, the Volga flows to the landlocked Caspian Sea, which contributed to Russia's historical isolation, although a canal enables access to the Sea of Azov today. -The result of the northern location, continentality, and topography is a pattern of exceptionally large bands of essentially uniform vegetation and natural regions: tundra, taiga, mixed forest, deciduous broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semidesert, and deser

NORTH AMERICA CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES

-OUTWARD EXPANSION, (urban sprawl has led to the loss of agricultural land) -coalescence of cities into congested urban corridors(cities running into each other) -abandonment and decay of city centers, not only due to middle-class migration to the suburbs but also many businesses frustrated by downtown congestion -Left behind are empty buildings, densely populated low-income residential areas (the "ghettos"), and too often crime and other social problems—often within the shadow of a bustling central business district that depends on workers from the suburbs -significant income disparities—that is, differences in the amount of money people earn—exist among groups and regions.

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLAND MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS

-One reason has been the domination of Australian politics by the Liberal Party (U.S. Republicans equivalent), in power for almost three times as long as the center-left Labor Party (equivalent to the U.S. Democrats) since Federation in 1901.

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES -The most notable is the struggle between Israel and the Palestinian Arabs, who are supported by most of the region's Arab states. -Unresolved, this conflict impacts the domestic politics of Middle Eastern and North African countries as well as regional and international relations and adversely influences economic investment strategies, development opportunities, and human rights practices. Major ethnic divides within many states in the region further magnify these issues. --the contrasts are evident in levels of technological development, the extent of dependence on oil for national revenues, cultural differences, religious divisions, the influence of militant Islamic factions, ethnic diversity, and uneven progress toward stable societies. -Interstate rivalries are another area of conflict and sparked the inconclusive eight-year war in the 1980s between Iraq and Iran over resources, territorial claims, and regional leadership.

-Only 2.4 percent of the region's land surface contains forest, mostly found in the uplands. Maintaining existing forest habitats in the Atlas ranges of the Maghreb, as well as the coastal mountain uplands of the eastern Mediterranean and south coastal mountains of the Black and Caspian Seas bordering Turkey and Iran is important, but difficult to achieve. -Limited ground cover, whether of trees or grass, means increased potential for erosion. -Substantial rural-to-urban migration means abandoned fields and a loss of erosion protection. -Tourism, often promoted in many areas as a boost to local economies, can have undesirable impacts on local resources as well. Particularly threatened are Red Sea coral reefs, which are subject to physical damage from diving and are often swamped with sediments and effluents produced by nearby residential and industrial areas. -Offshore fishing resources of the region's oceans often are indirectly hurt by development efforts. -Arab Spring refers to the democratic uprisings that arose independently and spread across the Arab world in 2011. The movement originated in Tunisia in December 2010 and quickly took hold in Egypt, Libya, Syria, Yemen, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS - Although politically independent, many African nations continue to depend economically on their former colonizers for trade, technology, and other goods and services, which discourages economic diversification. -Another challenge to economic development is the fact that most African economies are still monocultural—that is, they rely on one or two primary products for export revenue. -A sectoral imbalance also persists, with weak internal linkages between agriculture and industry, both of which focus on exporting products to overseas markets rather than providing for local needs. -Creating linkages between key economic sectors within a country is a prerequisite for developing a self-sufficient and self-sustaining economy. -Agriculture -export of cash crops such as cocoa, coffee, tea, sisal, oil palm, and peanuts, and the production of raw materials for the urban-industrial sector. - The average per capita GNI PPP for sub-Saharan Africa was $2,238. - Immense variations among countries ranged from a high of $25,620 in oil-rich Equatorial Guinea -$14,550 in diamond-wealthy Botswana to a low of $340 in conflict-ridden DRC.

-Other countries at the high end of the economic scale include South Africa, Gabon, and Namibia. These countries are well endowed with oil and strategic mineral resources, although the uneven distribution of wealth within each country is problematic -Exports from AGOA-eligible countries have grown by more than $65 billion and over 300,000 jobs have been created in Africa. -Microcredit and microfinancing opportunities are helping groups in Africa to open small businesses and credit accounts. -In situations where stronger banknotes, such as the U.S. dollar or the euro, have an important local economic function, coins for these currencies are almost nonexistent. Mobile phone airtime is increasingly used to fill this gap. The air-time "funds" that a phone owner accumulates instead of small change have real value because they can be transferred to other phones, exchanged for cash or goods in stores, or used to pay small debts. New start-up companies have emerged to promote and facilitate these transfers and extend phone technology into economic activities formerly dependent on face-to-face contact. -The Southern African Development Community (SADC) was founded in 1980 to reduce southern African dependency on South Africa for rail, air, and port links, imports of manufactured goods, and electrical power. -Angola is responsible for energy while Botswana coordinates agricultural research, livestock production, and animal disease control. - Malawi coordinates inland fisheries, forestry, and wildlife; Namibia takes care of marine fisheries and resources; - South Africa manages finance and investment; -Tanzania handles industry and trade; and Zambia coordinates mining, employment, and labor. -South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, and Zimbabwe dominate intra-SADC trade, accounting for more than 75 percent of exports and more than 65 percent of imports.

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. -From 1920 to 1991, the Central Asian countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan were part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.). -The region is dominated by mountain climates in the southeast and deserts and midlatitude steppes in lower-lying areas to the north and west. -With soaring mountain peaks over 19,700 feet (6,000 meters) high and depressions that sink below sea level, Central Asian landscapes are extremely varied. -Extensive lowland deserts and semiarid plains contrast with intensive islands of verdant vegetation in deep river valleys and narrow floodplains, creating a difficult, often extreme, setting for human life and livelihood.

-Prone to earthquakes -In Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan particularly, most people live in river valleys, as well as foothills and meadows located in and at the base of these mountain chains. The streams on which they depend are fed by spring and summer runoff from nearby mountains as well as by natural springs that contribute water flow from the mountainous areas into the lower, desert environments of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and southwestern Afghanistan. In the mountain complexes summers are mild, but extreme cold and abundant snowfall characterize the winters.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES -Massive land-use conversion and modification following deforestation (see Exploring Environmental Impacts: Tropical Deforestation and Loss of Resources) seriously impacts global species diversity and undercuts the basis for ecotourism -The steppe margins of the Kalahari in Southern Africa and the Sahel zone on the southern side of the Sahara are often threatened by desertification and soil degradation. -drought is a major problem in Southern Africa, particularly in its western and central sections.

-Rapid urbanization has left many cities with inadequate water supply and sewage disposal systems, limited solid-waste disposal mechanisms, and inefficient public transportation. The basic infrastructure of roads, highways, and other public services is lacking in most cities as well. -Improvements in meeting the basic human needs of sub-Saharan Africa's peoples must be achieved through better nutrition, improved medical care, more equitable income distribution, increased levels of education and employment, and expanded opportunities for women -The Sahel ("shore of the Sahara") is a highly variable environment that poses many challenges to the people who live there. Recurring droughts, poor soils, often sparse and degraded vegetation, epidemics, and famines are common occurrences.

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS The Middle East and North Africa (sometimes abbreviated as MENA) region is composed of countries that cluster around the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf (Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia) -There are large sandy areas of mobile sand dunes, such as the Great Western Erg in Algeria or the Nafud Desert in northwest Saudi Arabia -sandy areas are largely devoid of vegetation except when groundwater happens to be close to the surface . -Stony hammada (rock) and serir (pebble) surfaces are more common. -Both sandy and stony areas also lack the soil and water needed to sustain vegetation and human life. -0f much greater importance for human settlement are the mountain ranges and upland plateaus that provide a basis for livelihood and economy. These highlands have lower temperatures, higher rainfall totals, and more reliable agricultural resources than many coastal districts and interior areas. Rainfall totals are often substantial.

-Rising in Mount Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon mountains, the Orontes River flows through Hama before reaching the Mediterranean Sea. The river's water nourishes irrigated fields and provides domestic water supplies for the settlements along its route. -The seasonal contrasts in temperature and precipitation between the uplands and lowlands have historically constituted the basis for important nomadic movements of livestock. Today much reduced in scope and practiced by fewer people in many countries, this upland-lowland form of migratory animal husbandry is still practiced as in former times when it helped support the great lowland civilizations by supplying meat and other animal products. -Rainfall in the mountains is trapped by precisely contoured terraces on steep slopes to sustain viable agricultural communities with a sophisticated village architecture. -Similar "islands" of life exist deep within the desert in oases (singular: oasis), where erosion has lowered the land surface and a relatively high groundwater table results in water existing close to the surface.

What push/pull factors are driving immigration patterns in Australia, New Zealand, and The Pacific Islands?

-Scores of skilled laborers from the eastern states and overseas have relocated to Western Australia to take advantage of jobs and high wages. -Up to 2,000 people a week were migrating to the state, mostly to Perth, in the late 2000s. - Migration levels are still relatively strong because wage rates and job opportunities still exist, despite the lingering impacts of the global economic recession

EUROPE MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia. -characterized by mountainous zones, plains, and river valleys -Danube river ( extensive river begins in Germany and passes through eight other countries before emptying into the Black Sea in Romania.) - Europe's best-known rivers flow mostly toward the Atlantic (Rhine, Seine, Loire, Elbe) or Mediterranean/Adriatic Seas (Ebro, Po). -Mountains like Pyrenees and Alps run east-west. -The Mediterranean Sea lies atop a major plate boundary between the Eurasian and Hellenic plates and the African Plate, providing (along with Iceland) the region's major tectonically active zone and youngest mountain ranges.

-Sicily's active Mount Etna and the Greek island of Santorini, site of one of the largest volcanic eruptions in recorded history, are along this subduction zone. -Northern and northwest Europe are characterized by areas of very old, highly eroded mountains, now hilly areas with few physical impediments to human activity. This includes much of the southern half of Germany and France, the Scandinavian Peninsula, and the highland areas of northern England and Scotland -the plains and lowlands of Europe that formed the focus of economic development over the centuries. -The most famous cities are found usually in open areas of flat terrain: London situated in the London Basin; Paris in the Paris Basin, which itself is part of the North European Plain; Budapest on the Great Hungarian Plain; and Venice and Milan in the large expanse of the Po River valley in northern Italy.

cyclones

Indian Ocean hurricanes.

SOUTH EAST ASIA POPULATION STATISTICS - In the continental portion of the region, the population has traditionally been concentrated in river valleys separated by mountain chains. -In the island half of the region, population clusters are found along coastal plains. -The 2010 population of the Jakarta EMR was 28.3 million, with 18.2 million in the core and inner zones. The populations of the Manila and Bangkok EMRs were 22 and 14 million, respectively. -But Indonesia, with 241 million people, is the world's fourth most populous country and other countries in the region are highly populated by world standards. These include the Philippines (96.2 million), Vietnam (89.0 million), Thailand (69.9 million), and Myanmar (54.6 million), which are ranked 12th, 14th, 20th, and 24th in the world, respectively.

-Southeast Asia is also characterized by some of the least populated countries in the world; Brunei and Timor-Leste have 400,000 and 1.1 million people, respectively. -In Mainland Southeast Asia, people are concentrated primarily along major river valleys where growth has followed the historic settlement patterns. River deltas such as those of the Irrawady in Myanmar, Chao Phraya in Thailand, and the Mekong and Red in Vietnam are densely populated because of high agricultural productivity as well as the growth of urbanization and industry associated with globalization.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) POPULATION STATISTICS About 346 million people, 38 percent of sub-Saharan Africa's total population, now live in urban areas. -20 sub-Saharan African countries have populations of less than 5 million, and half have populations under 10 million. Only nine countries have populations of more than 25 million, specifically, in rank order, Nigeria, Ethiopia, DRC, South Africa, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Sudan, and Ghana. -The region's population is concentrated in two major zones of dense settlement: the West African coastal belt stretching from Dakar (Senegal) to Libreville (Gabon); and a north-south belt stretching from the Ethiopian highlands down through Lake Victoria, the copper belt of DRC and Zambia, and to the Witwatersrand region of South Africa - Three broad, sparsely populated zones include, from north to south, the Sahel region extending from Dakar in the west to Mogadishu in the east, the west-central forest regions of DRC and Gabon, and the arid/semiarid region of southwest Africa. -These spatial distributions coincide with environmental (vegetation, soil, climate, topography), developmental (levels of urbanization, industrialization, and agricultural development), and sociopolitical characteristics (oppressive regimes, ethnic disputes, resettlement schemes). -The West African coastal strip contains most of West Africa's urban, economic, and political centers. Other economic centers, such as the copper belt of DRC and Zambia, the diamond and gold mining centers of South Africa's Witwatersrand region around Johannesburg, and the rich agricultural lands of the Lake Victoria borderlands, attract large population clusters as well.

-Sub-Saharan Africa continues to have the highest fertility and mortality rates in the world, along with the highest proportion of young dependents. -Families have an average of five children, although there is considerable variation by region, socioeconomic status, and place of residence (rural versus urban). -While the majority of countries continue to have high fertility rates, most countries in Southern Africa have below-average rates. -In South Africa, Botswana, and Zimbabwe, comprehensive family planning programs, coupled with improvements in female literacy, have slowed birth rates to 2.4, 2.8, and 4.1, respectively. -Saharan Africa's population is most concentrated in the Guinea coast of West Africa, the highlands of Ethiopia, the Great Lakes of East Africa, and the southeast coast of Southern Africa. Dry zones are sparsely settled. -Nairobi's high-rise city center serves as the commercial and communications hub of East Africa. Nairobi is home to more than 3 million people, most of whom live in sprawling squatter settlements. -Genocide in Rwanda and Burundi destabilized the east and central African region, killed more than half a million people, and displaced countless refugees. The Tutsi and Hutu, who share the same language and traditions and have lived in the same territory for more than 500 years, were involved in a tragic genocidal war -Of South Africa's 51.1 million inhabitants, 79 percent are African, 9 percent European, 9 percent "colored" or of mixed race, and 3 percent Indian or Asian.

EUROPE MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia

-THE HOLOCAUST -the legacy of Christian religious traditions -the most imposing and architecturally noteworthy structures are the churches and cathedrals you encounter in every village, town, and city. You will also have passed through the three dominant Christian regions: Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy. Although the dominant trend in Europe today is secularism -During the early Middle Ages, Roman Catholic clergy began to use religion as the key feature distinguishing Europe from non-Europe. They were asking many questions, but a key one was how to engender allegiance to the church in Rome among a diverse and geographically expansive area. -To early European Christian elites, Europe was wherever the Christian realm, or christianitas, had spread. -URBANIZATION -INDUSTIRALIZATION- -ARTISTIC COMMUNITIES -SOCCER

SOUTH ASIA RESOURCES India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. -The most important is cattle, which are rarely consumed for their meat because of the traditional Hindu taboo against consuming beef. Dairy products in the form of milk, yogurt, and "ghee" (clarified butter), however, are important sources of animal protein. -cattle dung is gathered for cooking fuel in many regions where fuelwood is scarce. Cattle are used for plowing and for short-distance transport. - Cattle hides sustain India's thriving leather and tanning industries. -milled rice, various edible oils, and chickpeas and lentils, -Rice farming dominates along the western Malabar coast and in humid eastern India. The more drought-tolerant wheat and millet prevail in the more arid central and western zones.

-Tea is the primary plantation crop of the humid Himalayan foothill regions of northeastern India. -In much of India, cattle dung is collected and dried to be used as cooking fuel. -Despite the expenditure of many hours of work per land unit, rice yields in India are significantly below the world average - In 2010, India accounted for approximately 10 percent of the world coal reserves and in 2009 about 42 percent of its energy production came from lower-quality bituminous coal. - India is also a major producer of iron ore, accounting for 6 percent of world production and 5 percent of world reserves. -In 2011, hydroelectric power provided 14 percent of the country's power. Another 24 percent come from biomass such as wood and cow dung, commonly used in India's villages. -Using cattle manure, villagers produce methane-based biogas as a localized alternative energy source to generate power for lighting, cooking, and pumping water.

AUSTRAILA, NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLAND RESOURCES -The Great Barrier Reef off the northeast coast of Queensland is one of the world's great natural wonders. It stretches for 1,616 miles over an area of approximately 133,000 square miles , making it the largest coral reef ecosystem in the world. The reef is so large that it can be seen from space. - the Great Barrier Reef one of Australia's top tourist destinations with an average of 1.9 million visitor days a year, second only to Sydney. Visitors contributed A$59 million a day to the Queensland economy in 2012. -Western Australia is endowed with large deposits of iron, alumina, natural gas, nickel, and gold—wealth in the desert. -The state produces more than 20 percent of the world's alumina, and about 17 percent of its iron ore. -The central coast area known as the Pilbara is the nation's engine of iron production. Iron ore mines run 24 hours a day, and in the Pilbara alone there are 16 mines, with more awaiting approval by state and federal environmental agencies.

-The Argyle diamond mine in the northwest is the world's largest producer of diamonds and the only known source of pink diamonds. -Western Australia also extracts up to 75 percent of Australia's gold. The northwest continental shelf is home to huge reserves of natural gas. At James Price Point, Woodside Petroleum is planning the largest liquified natural gas (LNG) processing plant in the world 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of Broome. -Wheat and barley are dominant crops, alongside sugarcane, fruits, and animal products, primarily from cattle and sheep (Figure 12-14), and these generate a significant export trade. -leads in production of bauxite and alumina, diamonds, lead, and uranium (with 40% of the world's uranium deposits); is second in production of gold, nickel, and zinc; is third in iron ore and manganese; and is fourth in coal, copper, and silver. -The mediterranean climate of southeastern Australia also encourages the cultivation of vines, and Australia has become an increasingly important producer and exporter of wine. -Pastoral industries still dominate exports and, because of the country's small population, make New Zealand a world leader in per capita trade. It is among the world's top two or three exporters of mutton, lamb, butter, cheese, preserved milk, wool, and beef. -, New Zealand produces globally acclaimed Sauvignon Blanc wines.

What geographic factors help explain why South Africa, Nigeria, and Ghana are among the most powerful economies in Sub-Saharan Africa? -Buoyed by a diverse agricultural base dominated by cocoa, coffee, timber, and palm oil, -Following the signing of the Ouagadougou Peace Accords in 2007, a reunited Côte d'Ivoire reengaged with the international community and reactivated programs that focused on debt restructuring, infrastructure rehabilitation, governance, and institutional development. The country financed these initiatives with revenues from coffee and cocoa exports, as well as oil, gold, and iron ore. The tourist industry was also upgraded to take advantage of the rich savanna fauna and an elaborate national park system. -Ghana (formerly known as the Gold Coast) had significant gold, manganese, bauxite, and timber reserves. It was also a leading world producer of cocoa. It had a well-educated human resource base, and its population was supported well by its 92,000-square-mile (238,000-square-kilometer) area. Ghana was also endowed with one of the world's largest artificial lakes, Lake Volta, which was dammed at Akosombo to develop a multipurpose river project that included the harnessing of hydroelectric power to smelt alumina and to develop inland fishing.

-The country now has expanding economic sectors in agriculture, industry, mining, and telecommunications boosted by oil discoveries and expanding partnerships with Mongolia, Ukraine, India, and Brazil. It is one of a few countries expected to meet the Millennium Development targets set for 2015. Barring any political misfortune, Ghana is poised to establish itself as a leader in social, economic, and technological reform in sub-Saharan Africa. -Boosted by the development of its petroleum industry in the late 1960s, Nigeria recorded better than average economic growth rates up to 1980. Oil still dominates the economy, accounting for 20 percent of the GDP, 75 percent of government revenues, and 86 percent of total export earnings -In addition to oil, Nigeria has the largest reserves of natural gas in Africa, as well as significant reserves of lignite coal, tin, and iron ore. -South Africa is a pivot area of the Southern Hemisphere relative to three major zones of peace: the Indian Ocean, which was declared a "zone of peace" by the United Nations in 1971; the Antarctic region, which under the provisions of a 1959 treaty is restricted to research and scientific activities; and Latin America, which was declared a Nuclear Weapon Free Zone under the terms of the Treaty of Tlatelolco, signed in Mexico City in 1967. -South Africa also is located on a major alternate route for international shipments of petroleum and minerals. - South African ports remain significant support stops for supertankers as well as destinations for petroleum shipments to Southern Africa. -accounts for 30 percent of the region's gross national income, 40 percent of industrial production, 80 percent of crude steel production, and 58 percent of installed electricity capacity. South Africa also has the densest road, rail, and air networks in sub-Saharan Africa. Its rail and harbor network is the only reliable trade link with the outside world for the landlocked countries of Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi, as well as for much of the DRC. Each year, several million migrant workers are employed in South Africa's mining, industrial, and agricultural sectors.

NORTH AMERICA MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -Canadien Shield (xtends outward from Hudson Bay to include much of Quebec and Labrador, most of Ontario and Manitoba, and a substantial part of Arctic Canada ) -The Appalachian Highlands (system of mountains extends from Newfoundland to northern Alabama. The 6,000-foot (1,800-meter) peaks that mark the highest points are relatively low in elevation. Nonetheless, these mountains created a significant barrier to westward movement in the early years of the United States. -The Pacific Coastlands -Interior Lowlands -The Great Lakes

-The Blue Ridge Mountains, or Great Smokies as they are known in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia. today. The Ridge and Valley province, a strikingly folded landscape of long, parallel ridges and valleys, extends from New York to northern Alabama. In terms of geologic age, the Blue Ridge formation is part of the relatively "old" eastern Appalachians and the Ridge and Valley formation is part of the relatively "new" western Appalachians. -Gulf-Atlantic Coastal Plain lies along the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coasts of the United States. -The Rocky Mountains - The Interior Plateaus ( The Colorado Plateau lies more than a mile high in southwestern Colorado, eastern Utah, northern Arizona, and New Mexico, producing the Grand Canyons, The "Old West")

NORTH AMERICA POPULATION STATISTICS In 1776, the United States had perhaps 3 million people, and Canada only a small fraction of that number. -By early 2013, the U.S. population had risen to more than 315 million and the Canadian population to an estimated 35 million. - By 2020, both countries may see substantial growth, due partly to natural increases but mainly to immigration. -The rapid population growth experienced by the United States after 1800 was due to not only immigration but also high birthrates and declining death rates.

-The Canadian demographic experience has been generally similar to that of the United States. Canada grew mainly by natural increase between 1867 and 1900, but its natural increase was limited by a low fertility rate. -Most of the U.S. population presently lives east of the Mississippi River. The greatest concentrations are in the northeastern quadrant of the country, the area bounded by the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Great Lakes. -Given the harsh environments of the Canadian north, most Canadians live within 200 miles (320 kilometers) of the U.S. border .The majority (around 60 percent) of Canadians live between Windsor, Ontario, and Quebec City, Quebec. The other major population concentration is on the West Coast around the cities of Vancouver and Victoria, British Columbia.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) LANGUAGES -One of the most intriguing aspects of sub-Saharan Africa's cultural geography is the more than 1,000 languages that exist in the region. -Most of these languages do not have a written form or tradition, and approximately 40 are spoken by 1 million or more people. -Linguistic scholars have identified four major linguistic families: Niger-Kordofanian , Nilo-Saharan, Khoisan, and Afro-Asiatic (Semitic-Hamitic). -Niger-Kordofanian (spoken by 150 million. stretches across half of sub-Saharan Africa, extending from West Africa to the equatorial and southern regions. It includes the west Atlantic languages of Wolof and Fula in Senegambia; the Guinean languages of Kru (Liberia), Akan (Ghana), Yoruba (western Nigeria), and Igbo (eastern Nigeria); the central and eastern Sudanese languages of Azande (Central African Republic) and Banda; and the most widely spoken subfamily, the Bantu )

-The Kordofanian (The Kordofanian branch is centered in a small area in the Nuba hills of Sudan and consists of about 20 languages. ) - Nilo-Saharan(west-to-east direction, from the Songhai language in southwest Niger to the Nilotic languages of Nuer and Dinka in southern Sudan and Luo and Masai in southwestern Kenya. It also includes the Saharan languages of Kanuri (which can be traced to the Kanem and Bornu kingdoms of Lake Chad), Kanembu, and Teda.) -Khoisan (confined to the Kalahari Desert region in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. ) -Afro-Asiatic (Semitic-Hamitic).found in sub-Saharan Africa in Mauritania and the East African Horn, where Semitic languages such as Amharic and Tigre are spoken. This language family also includes Cushitic languages such as Somali and Mbugu (Tanzania), and Chadic and Berber languages. -the Malay-Polynesian family was introduced to Madagascar about 2,000 years ago, -while Afrikaans, a derivative of Dutch, has Indo-European origins dating back to 1602 when the Boers arrived in South Africa. -Lingua franca (Swahili, Hausa, English, French and Portuguese)

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS - The Arabs occupy the central core of the region, having spread out from their ancestral homeland in the Arabian Peninsula. Large minorities of Turks, Persians, Kurds, Berbers, and Nilo-Hamitic groups are found in more peripheral locations. -ews of European origin and from North Africa and the Middle East migrated to Israel after it gained independence in 1948, a process of return that continues today from diverse sources. -Nearly 70 percent of the population in the Middle East and North Africa now lives in urban areas, although a number of countries still have very large rural populations: Yemen (71%), Egypt (57%), Syria (46%), and Morocco (42%).

-The MENA region has a higher level of urbanization than many other regions, including China, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. -Urban areas grew rapidly in the second half of the twentieth century, and some of the region's cities—most notably Cairo, Egypt; Istanbul, Turkey; and Tehran, Iran—now rank among the world's 50 largest urban areas. -The subregion also includes the smaller states of the eastern Mediterranean, the Levant, as well as Turkey, a unique Middle Eastern country in that it possesses a physical foothold in Europe, has associated membership status in the European Union, and seeks full membership. All of the countries in this broad spatial and political grouping share strong historic ties to Europe.

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS -The Middle East and North Africa are a common meeting ground linking Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia. -Nomadic herds contribute manure that helps fertilize the farmer's fields in autumn, while the stubble on those fields provides fodder for the herder's animals, primarily sheep that are highly valued in urban markets. These same herds are a major source of meat and animal products for the settled population, and much of the food and equipment used by herders come from farmers and urban merchants.

-The Mediterranean Crescent countries encompass the North African states of the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia), as well as Libya and Egypt. -All of the countries in this broad spatial and political grouping share strong historic ties to Europe. They were once part of the Roman Empire and part of a regionwide culture and political economy. During the Ottoman Empire, most of North Africa was grouped with the Balkan lands of southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean into one political unit. These historical ties are symbolized in the contemporary landscape not only by extensive Roman monuments and ruins but also by similarities in house types, traditional clothing styles, irrigation systems and other agricultural production technologies, legal arrangements, and patterns of trading and raiding over centuries.

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN POPULATION STATISTICS Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

-The Soviets placed millions of landmines in unmarked areas throughout the country, and the warring factions that have fought for control of Afghanistan have since laid many more. This has had a disastrous effect on the Afghan population. Many thousands of farmers and travelers have been killed or maimed in spite of recent efforts to remove the mines; much of the best agricultural land has been unavailable because of fear that the land could contain mines. All of these challenges began with the U.S.S.R., but it is up to the individual countries today to try and mitigate the effects of these Soviet policies. - Tajikistan has only about 7.1 million people, - Afghanistan and Uzbekistan have by far the largest populations, but these are densely settled in river valleys with only minor populations living in the extensive desert regions.

Describe how climate plays into the economic conditions of many of the region's countries. Look at Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands and see if you can determine this. -Drier conditions would place severe constraints on available water for irrigated agriculture, particularly in Australia's Riverina "breadbasket" district in New South Wales, potentially affecting both domestic consumption and exports. -. Higher temperatures and strong winds can generate firestorms that turn drought-parched vegetation into a lethal inferno. -Fire is a natural part of Australia's ecosystems, but can be expected to become increasingly damaging to humans and more frequent in the future.

-The drier northern and central parts of the country pose much greater problems for development. Along the northern fringe of Australia are the tropical savannas, where the climate—intense humidity and heat and three to four months of heavy rain followed by eight to nine months of almost total dryness—has made commercial agriculture and settlement more difficult. -Much of interior and western Australia experiences a desert climate. These regions are used primarily for extensive animal grazing. This image shows sheep at the Toorale station in the Outback of New South Wales 800 miles (1,200 kilometers) west of Sydney during a drought period.

SOUTH EAST ASIA MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -Thousands of mountains, basins, river valleys and islands that make up this 11-country region -The first subregion is Mainland Southeast Asia, a group of countries that are physically part of the Asian continent and include Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. -The second is Insular Southeast Asia, comprising the countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, Timor-Leste, and the Philippines. -While the peninsular half of Malaysia is physically part of the Asian continent, its economy and culture warrants its inclusion in Insular Southeast Asia. - landforms are composed of alternating bands of mountain ranges and river valleys . - These north-south aligned mountain ranges are actually lower elevation spurs of the Himalayas. -While a handful of mountain peaks reach up to 9,000-10,000 feet , most average 3,000-5,000 feet, and are geologically stable - From west to east between these mountain ranges run several very big rivers, including the Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong, and Red. -These rivers provide irrigation water for rice-based agriculture, fish for millions, and before the modern period functioned as transport corridors that reached deep into the forested continental interior

-The geographic center of Insular Southeast Asia is characterized by mountainous cores with narrow coastal plains; -in eastern Borneo and Sumatra these coastal plains are fronted by wide, waterlogged forests. While laced by numerous rivers, none of the islands contain rivers as long as those in Mainland Southeast Asia. -While no single volcano or mountain in this part of Southeast Asia is extremely lofty, many peaks reach 10,000 feet or higher ). -At the edge of both volcanic arcs are deep oceanic trenches marking tectonic plate boundaries. These plate boundaries have produced some of the most destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in the world. -Mt. Merapi is Java's most active volcano and makes for hazardous living among the densely populated surrounding villages. -The countries of Mainland Southeast Asia physically consist largely of north-south trending mountain ranges and broad intervening lowland river valleys, which support the majority of the population.

SOUTH ASIA MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. -South Asia (1.64 billion) has passed East Asia (1.58 billion) as the most populous world region. High population concentrations do not of themselves cause poverty or weak economic development, for people are both producers and consumers of resources. But when human productivity is low, high population densities frequently are associated with widespread poverty. -he South Asian tradition of state control of industry does not provide the required competitive environment and economic growth to absorb the huge pool of surplus labor, though India has made significant strides by privatizing industry and engaging the capitalist forces of globalization. -Some of the country's industrial regions have been transformed because of substantial foreign direct investment coupled with private domestic investment that has thrust them onto the global economic stage -Others remain focused on heavy industries in an environment of continued government regulation. -India contains some of the most populous cities in Asia and the world, and although globalization is transforming these urban landscapes to express newfound wealth, far too many inhabitants remain part of a growing urban underclass. -Since the early 1990s the industrial sector has grown dramatically as a result of the government promoting both domestic and foreign private investment, more private-sector control, and more market-oriented policies. -Progress has been slow: in 2011, industry accounted for only 29 percent of GDP (compared to 47 percent in China) and manufacturing accounted for only 17 percent of the total workforce. India's economy has not relied on exporting manufactured consumer goods to the same extent as China; its industries are anchored in information technology and business services that are skills-based and capital intensive but not substantially labor-intensive. Information technology industries make up about 7 percent of India's GDP, but only 2 percent of the country's workforce. - India is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, experiencing a healthy 7.3 percent average annual GDP growth rate from 2000-2010, and was the world's fourth largest economy in 2010. India's GNI PPP (Gross National Income in Purchasing Power Parity) increased dramatically from $1,649 in 1995 to $3,400 by 2010. -The economic sector that received the largest FDI from 1990-2009 were services (31%).

-The greater Mumbai region attracts the most investment, followed by New Delhi, the state of Gujarat north of Mumbai, and the southern states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. -Although dwarfed by inflowing FDI, outflowing FDI by Indian corporations has dramatically grown as well. -Between 2000 and 2010, FDI outflow increased from US$514 million to US$14.5 billion. -The largest Indian multinational corporation is the Tata Group, a company with diverse overseas investments including automobiles, chemicals, and telecommunications. - Mumbai has become India's most cosmopolitan city, and symbolizes the new era of national economic growth linked to the global economy. Modern skyscrapers, hotels, and apartment buildings dot the cityscape, evidence of a highly trained workforce of professionals and entrepreneurs flush with new investment capital. The city is India's busiest international seaport as well as the country's primary air-transport gateway. -Mumbai is also the headquarters of major domestic corporations, the national stock exchange, and the center of the Hindi-language film industry known as "Bollywood." -Mumbai still boasts a healthy industrial base in automobiles and petrochemicals. But the driving economic force today is service industries such as telecommunications, real estate, banking, insurance, and other business services. -Despite Mumbai's prosperity, a significant slice of the city's residents are poor rural-to-urban migrants, as well as those left behind by Mumbai's engagement with the global economy, which has resulted in the closing of state-owned industry -One of the most dynamic urban-industrial regions in India, Bengaluru is among the global centers of information technology. - India's national capital of New Delhi is not a national industrial center. It is the center of government power and home to some of the best world-class universities in the country, in addition to a broad spectrum of industries.

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA RESOURCES - cereal crops, primarily wheat and barley. -Tree crops such as almonds and olives and grapevines are also important, particularly along the Mediterranean coast. -Drier parts of the Middle East and North Africa are used for herding, but oases based on groundwater and Mediterranean agriculture in higher rainfall areas play the most prominent roles. Oil is the most important mineral resource. -chromite in Turkey and mercury in Algeria. -Moroccan phosphate exports are significant and command a substantial share of the world market. -Turkey is the only country in the region with sufficient domestic coal and iron ore reserves to support a broad industrial economy. -Many parts of the Middle East and North Africa have abundant oil and natural gas deposits,

-The richest deposits are found in and around the Persian Gulf, and in the Saharan territories of Libya and Algeria -solar power -Despite abundant sunshine, the Middle East and North Africa overwhelmingly relies on fossil fuels to meet its energy needs. Investment in solar or wind technology is a development strategy more characteristic of those countries lacking access to fossil fuel resources. -Morocco is the world's leading exporter of phosphates, and Tunisia is the fifth largest. -Cotton in Egypt -Saudi Arabia is the regional leader in oil production and export, while Iranian oil exports have declined as a result of international sanctions. Iraq, which has very large oil and natural gas resources, is beginning to recover from the damage inflicted by war and internal conflict and become a major petroleum exporter.

SOUTH ASIA CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. -Air pollution is the most serious atmospheric environmental problem, particularly across the northern part of the region. Both in urban areas and broad swaths of densely settled rural areas, the skies are obscured by a pea soup-like haze -Pollution levels are especially high during the dry monsoon season when the lack of rain to clean the air is coupled with descending air associated with a dominant high pressure cell. -Pollution sources include the usual culprits of dirty coal-fired plants and leaded gasoline. Often ignored are microscopic, suspended particles that originate not only from fossil fuel use but also from burning biomass—wood and cow dung used by the poor for both urban and rural cooking stoves. -These fine particles enter the lungs and the bloodstream to cause much higher rates of heart disease, asthma, and lung disease. - In some urban areas the levels of suspended particulates are 5 to 10 times higher than the World Health Organization deems acceptable. - Women and children who spend the majority of time in the indoor spaces of home are particularly vulnerable. -In Bangladesh, some 90 percent of the population use some form of bio-fuel for cooking, and particulate matter, along with malnutrition and unsafe drinking water, are leading causes of premature death. -Sustainable water is the most serious challenge to economic and social development. Growing water scarcity is directly linked to rapid population growth. -With approximately 21 percent of the world's population and the second highest rate of natural population increase of any world region, South Asia possesses only 5 percent of the world's renewable water resources. -Although rapid population growth is an important factor in explaining water scarcity, poor infrastructure, government water policies, outdated water extraction technologies, the interstate politics of water, and wet monsoonal patterns and global climate change also affect sustainability.

-The strongest challenge to national unity originated in Punjab, where Sikh separatists, seeking an independent "Khalistan" in the 1960s, forced New Delhi to redraw boundaries so that Punjab became a Sikh majority state. -Under a neoliberal market-based economic system, government-subsidized food and social service programs have been cut, forcing women to spend more time on earning income to make up for the increased cost of food and social services once provided by the government. -In addition, as agroprocessing industries have become more mechanized in response to greater international competition, female agricultural laborers, who depend on these critical off-season employment opportunities, are losing their jobs. -Increasing rural debt among small farmers is another concern. The social marginalization of poor farmers, debt associated with switching to genetically modified seeds, and the risks and costs of shifting from food to cash crops have resulted in more than 200,000 suicides among farmers since the late 1990s. -India's promising economic future will be severely constrained unless it solves these basic institutional and infrastructural energy problems. Approximately one-third of Indians lack electricity because they are too scattered and isolated to be reached by conventional transmission lines. -Without money for durable housing, tens of millions of India's urban poor live in substandard dwellings that vary from single-room rentals to makeshift shelters built of assorted discarded materials. -Because many migrants live on land that does not belong to them on the outskirts of the city, their squatter settlements resemble a "village in the city" -Squatter settlements are common at railroad right-of-ways, riverbanks, coastal margins, land prone to flooding, and even open spaces adjacent to airport runways. -Public services such as electricity, sewerage, and clean water are uncommon. -More than 60 percent of the urban population lacks municipal sewerage and water systems, leading to high levels of intestinal diseases, particularly among children, because water extracted from near-surface sources with hand pumps is often contaminated. - At the bottom of the poverty chain is a large pool of sidewalk or pavement dwellers who do not even have a roof over their heads. Mumbai is home to 1.2 million pavement dwellers. India's recent economic growth has produced ever wider disparities between the urban rich and poor.

orographic precipitation

Mountain-induced rains such as those of the Cascade Mountains in the American Northwest.

orographic effect

Mountains create a barrier to a moving air mass that must be overcome, which in the process modifies the temperature and moisture characteristics of the air mass. The result is excess precipitation on the windward side and drought on the leeward side of the mountain.

SOUTH ASIA MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -South Asia is one of three subregions of Asia, and is often called the "Indian subcontinent" because of the territorial dominance of its largest country, India. -On India's periphery are the smaller countries of Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh; the island country of Sri Lanka, and the even smaller archipelagic country of the Maldives. South Asia is the second poorest world region after sub-Saharan Africa. -South Asia is structured by mountain ranges and major plateaus. More important for South Asia's people are the fertile lowland areas of the great river valleys and deltas. Of paramount importance is the seasonal monsoon rainfall system, which provides the water that supports rural South Asians' livelihoods. -The world's most imposing boundary between world regions is South Asia's northern mountain rim, which encompasses the Karakoram in northern Pakistan and India and the even loftier Himalayas that separate lowland India from the Tibetan Plateau. -This formed in ancient geologic times with the subduction of the northeast-migrating Indian plate under the Asian plate. -The edge of the Asian plate became upthrusted and folded into an imposing mountain wall. Because of this active tectonic plate environment, the northern mountain rim has been subject to numerous earthquakes. The most recent occurred in 2005 in Kashmir where 80,000 people died and over 100,000 were left homeless.

-There exists a stark contrast between the Indian lowlands and the Himalayas. Perceived as religiously sacred, no other mountain chain in the world possesses as many peaks exceeding 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) as the Himalayas. -The second large-scale physical region encompasses the alluvial plains of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers, called the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Indus and Ganges rivers are separated by the uplifted Thar Desert. -The nutrient-rich Indo-Gangetic alluvial soils support about half of South Asia's people. -Much of the southern half of India consists of an elevated surface called the Peninsular Plateau, which is underlain by a core of ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks. - Its most extensive portion, the Deccan Plateau, averages between 2,000 and 3,000 feet (600 to 900 meters) above sea level and possesses the largest share of India's minerals. -The edges of the Deccan Plateau abut the Western and Eastern Ghats, meaning "steps." The Western Ghats are a steep mountain range with average elevations of 5,000 feet (1,500 meters), below which is a narrow, lushly vegetated coastal plain. -India, one of the world's largest countries, is divided into 28 states and seven union territories.

SOUTH EAST ASIA MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS -Singapore is also the only developed nation in Southeast Asia where ethnic Chinese constitute the majority. -Because of economic and ethnic differences with Malay-majority Malaysia, this ethnic Chinese enclave became a separate independent country in 1965. -The pervasive role of government in economic and social planning has been central to Singapore's success. The state controls many profitable domestic industries and actively seeks out foreign investment. -Social planning policies have assured social stability in an ethnically diverse population, adequate housing for all, a relatively crime-free environment, high personal savings rates, and an immaculately clean urban environment. -Despite being perceived by some as an overly regulated state, Singapore's government continues to attract FDI because it is virtually free of corruption. -Although on paper Singapore is organized as a constitutional democracy, these accomplishments are the product of a "soft-authoritarian" government dominated by a single political party that has handily won every election -. Because the government views its primary responsibility to be the promotion of economic growth, political freedoms in the Western sense become less important in legitimizing political power. -ndonesia relies extensively on maritime shipping for economic development.. -The country of the Philippines includes more than 7,000 islands, many of them uninhabited. The Philippine Islands have experienced the greatest degree of Western cultural influences compared to other Southeast Asian countries.

-This mine, situated high in the Maoke Mountains of western New Guinea, western New Guinea, has been the object of prolonged and serious conflict between the Indonesian government and a coalition of international environmental and indigenous tribal interests. -High unemployment and underemployment rates are due in part to high population growth rates. - Not enough jobs are being created for those entering the workforce, which explains why 29 percent of Filipinos, about 28 million people, live below the poverty line. -Closing the income gap between the rich few and the sea of poor is critical to the country's future economic prospects. -At the same time, this most democratic of Southeast Asian countries experiences endemic political corruption and instability, which drives potential foreign investments elsewhere. -socialist Vietnam -Myanmar remains one of the last isolationist military governments in the world, - Government surveillance of the Internet, lack of political freedom, and periodic discrimination against religious institutions, both Buddhist and Christian, can only create social unrest among young Vietnamese. -Improving the lives of rural people during the 1990s was severely hampered because of the millions of land mines and unexploded bombs used by Vietnamese, American, and Khmer Rouge military forces. Cambodia is one of three countries in the world that account for 85 percent of unexploded land mines.

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

-This world region was at the crossroads of some of the most important ancient empires, such as Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq), the Indus River valley (now in Pakistan), the Iranian Plateau, Greece, Rome, and China. -The seeming paucity of natural resources sharply contrasts with a rich diversity of cultural groups, often complexly intermixed and established in place for centuries if not millennia. -The dominant religion in Central Asia is Islam. -Minority Shi'a and Ismaili sects are largely confined to the mountains of central Afghanistan and the Pamir Mountains of eastern Tajikistan and Afghanistan, where historically these minorities have found refuge. -Christianity is represented by Russian Orthodox minorities in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. - To a considerable degree, this map is a religious heritage map in the former Soviet republics, since a large part of the population considers itself to be secular, or even atheist, rather than religious in matters of faith.

NORTHERN EURASIA CLIMATE Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine -Northern Eurasia is a realm of great extremes: sweltering heat and brutal cold; excessively dry and abnormally wet; and huge swaths of forest and vast expanses of steppe. -Northern Eurasia has relatively few types of natural region. Most of the area is inhospitable to human settlement because of the seasonal extremes of the continental climate, the short growing season, and environmental hazards, such as permafrost. -Most regions are affected by pronounced oscillations in climatic conditions at different times of the year. - Eastern Siberia consists of rugged, eroded plateaus bounded on the east and south by substantial mountain ranges.

-Three main factors combine to give most of the region a vigorously continental climate, marked by a long, relatively dry, and very cold winter and a short but surprisingly warm summer. -dry, especially to the east and southeast of the Volga River. -The southern tip of the Crimean peninsula, shielded from the cold winter air masses, enjoys a mediterranean climate. -South of the Caucasus Mountains there is much variety, but all the lower elevations enjoy longer growing seasons and milder winters than the lands to the north. -The eastern shore of the Black Sea has a humid subtropical climate, the only area of this type in the region. -Moving away from the Black Sea, the climate becomes more arid.

NORTHERN EURASIA MAJOR ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine - Belarus as a nation is hardly distinct from Russia and its current political-economic system is a throwback to Soviet times. -Azerbaijan, like Russia, faces a problem many countries would be glad to have: how to manage windfall revenues from petroleum exports. - They must further restructure their economies to make them more diverse and robust in order to profit from globalization while simultaneously providing for citizens' needs. -They must also firmly establish and enforce the rule of law, for without this, economic development is distorted by corruption and the growth of civil society is stunted by repression. -So long as these countries lack economic stability and healthy civil societies, they will remain vulnerable to political extremism.

-Today Odesa is Ukraine's largest port and a major tourist attraction -But perhaps the most controversial stage of the transition was privatization of industry. Under the Soviet system, the country's economy in theory was the property of the people, although in practice it belonged to the state. Privatization reform promised to make all citizens shareholders in corporations, but in reality the elite concentrated control over all valuable assets. A social-Darwinian struggle of survival between the new entrepreneurs led to the emergence of the oligarchs, a few individuals who controlled vast economic empires. Whereas under Communist rule nobody could accumulate private wealth, today Russia is second only to the United States in the number of billionaires. - Hardly anything is produced more cheaply in Russia than anywhere else because of harsh climatic conditions, distance to markets, inadequate transportation and communications infrastructures, obsolescent technology, corruption, and other factors

open coastal cities

Much like Special Economic Zones (SEZs), but with lower levels of government funding for site improvement.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA (SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA) MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS -The legacy of colonialism and the diffusion of Islam from the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa have profoundly influenced the religious landscape of Africa South of the Sahara -Islam is concentrated in the northern Sahelian regions, the Horn, and the coastal corridors of Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique. Significant Muslim minorities also exist in the central regions of several West African states, resulting in recent insurrections in northern Nigeria and northern Mali from extremist Islamic groups. -Christianity is widespread in the central and southern sections of Africa -A strong Roman Catholic presence in the former Portuguese-ruled territories of Angola and Mozambique and former Belgian-controlled Rwanda, Burundi, and DRC; -An Anglican presence in the former British holdings of Ghana, Nigeria, and Kenya; and Presbyterians common in Malawi. -Judaism had a strong following in the Gondar region of Ethiopia, where blacks, who came to be called Falashas (black Jews), were converted to the faith by Semitic Jews who emigrated to Ethiopia between the first and seventh centuries -Buddhism and Hinduism, are practiced by small numbers of people in southern and eastern Africa. -In the Congo, Nzambi is the all-powerful creator of the sky, earth, and man. God is perceived as having two sides: Nzambi Watanda (God above), who is good, and Nzambi Wamutsede (God below), who is wicked.

-Traditional African religion ascribes to a hierarchical order, with God at the top, followed by ancestral spirits and divinities, human beings, animals, plants, and inanimate objects. -Departed ancestors are believed to serve as intermediaries between the living community and God. Deities and ancestral spirits are honored in sacrifices and special ceremonies. -Small temples and spirit shrines to honor nature gods dwelling in rivers, mountains, hills, and lakes are commonplace. -Each member of the extended family has obligations and ties to the other members. The family includes both the living and the dead. -In traditional African societies, marriage is a union, not of two individuals, but of two extended families. Marriage is perceived as a civil contract between two families. This contract calls for the transfer of goods or money, or both, from the bridegroom's family to the bride's family in the form of bride wealth. -The extended family, respect for the elderly, socialization between the elderly and the young, and the significance of ancestors are all attributes that most Africans share. -Another important trait is the role played by cultural symbols as a means of expression (Adinkra symbols of greatness/leadership, harmony, governance, experience, and wisdom. The colors of the Kente cloth also have symbolic relevance. Gold/yellow signifies royalty and wealth; blue indicates harmony and love; green denotes nurturing of the land, growth, and spiritual revival; and red illustrates a heightened political and spiritual awareness.)

SOUTH EAST ASIA HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS -The first period, from about 1500 to 1800, was characterized by mercantile colonialism. Private Western trading companies established trading forts and engaged in commerce with local elites for native luxury goods. This form of colonialism involved both the Dutch East India Company centered on Java and the British East India Company with trading forts in Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and Singapore. In the Philippines and Timor-Leste, the Spanish and Portuguese, respectively, engaged in direct colonial rule by the late 1500s. -This period was followed by an era of industrial colonialism, which lasted from 1800 to 1945 and brought direct Western political control of territory as well as Western private or corporate economic involvement. By the late 1800s, the British and Dutch had brought much of their territories under direct rule, as did the French in French Indochina (modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia).

-While Chinese settlers became a significant presence in many Southeast Asian port cities as early as the fourteenth century, their populations dramatically increased when trading, agricultural, and mining activities expanded during the early European colonial era. - South Asian Indians in the British colonial possessions of sub-Saharan Africa provided a similar middlemen function. Eventually, some became captains of industrial, banking, insurance, shipping, and corporate agroprocessing empires that competed with European firms. Excluding Dutch Indonesia and Burma, Overseas Chinese accounted for some 38 percent of Southeast Asian capital investment during the late 1930s

EAST ASIA MAJOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Japan, China, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. -China (People's Republic of China) North of China is medium-sized and landlocked Mongolia, to the northeast are the small-sized peninsular states of North Korea and South Korea, and to the southeast is the island state of Taiwan (Republic of China), to which China lays claim politically. - Also included in the region is the archipelagic country of Japan. - In many respects, East Asia shares landform and climate attributes with the lower 48 of the United States as well. -China and the United States' east-west similarity extends to eastern river basins and uplands contrasted with drier, but elevated uplands and highlands in the west -Loess Plateau, an elevated tableland 4,000-5,000 feet above sea level situated between the Ordos Desert and the North China Plain. - Loess is a term used to describe a fine, yellow, dust-like soil deposited thousands of years ago by winds originating in the Mongolian grasslands to the north of China. - Loess is very fertile, but at the same time highly susceptible to erosion. resulted in soil carried away to streams flowing into the Huang He, appropriately translated as the "Yellow River" because of the yellow hue of its loess sediments. -Surrounded by high mountains and plateaus, the Sichuan Basin is densely inhabited by an agricultural population situated primarily on the Chengdu Plain. It was the northwestern mountainous edge of the basin that experienced a horrific 7.9 magnitude earthquake in May 2008; - To cultivate on steep slopes, terracing is essential if erosion is to be controlled. Where terracing is absent, heavily dissected slopes often are the result. -The middle plain is surrounded by numerous low mountains and hills, dotted by many shallow lakes. These lakes act as flood reservoirs for the Chang Jiang during the high-water summer monsoon season. The lower plain of the Chang Jiang sits less than 10 feet above sea level, and this wetland environment is characterized by a patchwork of rice paddies and fishponds, laced by a dense network of streams and canals

-Yunnan Plateau, which occupies the environmental transition zone between the cold Tibetan Plateau and eastern monsoon China. With elevations ranging from 5,000 to 9,000 feet , this dissected upland is laced by mountainous spurs of the Tibetan Plateau. -Between the mountain ridges are deep river gorges and small upland valleys dotted with agricultural settlements. -Stretching along China's southeast coast are the Southeast Uplands, which average 3,000-4,000 feet (900-1,200 meters). With rugged hills and low Although threatened by deforestation, the surrounding uplands are China's most important source of timber. -Mongolia's landforms can be divided into two generalized regions. Much of the southern half of the country is a broad flat or undulating elevated surface; the most southern stretches comprise the Gobi Desert with the southeast being short or tall grassland. -In the far northwest are the tall Altai Mountains and the lower and more eroded Hangayn and Tian Shan Mountains in north-central Mongolia. North and South Korea occupy a peninsula with rugged, but not extremely elevated north-south mountains occupying the eastern two-thirds of both countries. - Japan, a long north to south archipelago, was created by the meeting of four tectonic plates: the Pacific and Philippine plates, which are subducted or thrust under the Eurasian and North American plates, create crustal folds that express themselves as mountains. - A young and dynamic geological environment, these mountains and hills comprise 80 percent of Japan's land surface. -Mountains are rugged, with steep slopes, but they are not very high by world standards. Most peaks are below 6,000 feet , but 10 peaks higher than 9,000 feet Japanese Alps in central Honshu. -Mount Fuji, perhaps the world's most famous volcanic cone, reaches up to 12,388 feet. -The balance of Japan's land surface is composed of flat surfaces found either as terraces at the downslope edge of mountains or along relatively narrow coastal plains - Most of the largest pockets of flat surfaces are found along the Pacific side of Honshu Island. -Taiwan too is formed at tectonic plate margins with a mountainous east coast and a broad north to south plain along the western third of the island. -The Korean peninsula is divided into the countries of North Korea and South Korea, with widely diverging agricultural and industrial development.

NORTHERN EURASIA POPULATION STATISTICS Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine -RUSSIA-RUSSIAN AND TATERS -UKRAINE-UKRANIANS AND RUSSIANS -BELARUS-BELARUSIAN AND RUSSIANS -The most densely settled areas of Northern Eurasia are southwest of the Ural Mountains, where the most favorable conditions for productive agriculture occur in this region -large settlements in forbidding locations also exist in the north and east, a legacy of the largely self-sufficient Soviet economy. -Death rates are the other part of the equation. Environmental pollution in too many places is a threat to health and longevity.

-all three countries rank near the top worldwide in abortions per capita. -the three countries have very high infant and maternal mortality rates, so the quality of basic health care is a major problem . The weakness of the nuclear family and of social institutions leaves many children vulnerable. In Russia there are 2-4 million children (out of a total of 35 million!) living on the streets. -Russia is infamous for its murder rate, but all three Slavic countries are among the top five for homicides per capita in Europe. This is in part a consequence of alcohol abuse, as are the very high suicide rates.

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN MAJOR POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

-exhibit both authoritarianism and chaos politically. -The Soviet Union had definite ideas about urban spaces based on quantifiable egalitarianism as well as centralized planning. This meant that each urban area would theoretically have similar layouts, architecture, and entertainment activities; therefore, each capital had a republic university, an academy of sciences, a Communist Party headquarters, and a writers' union as well as cinemas, theaters, and opera and ballet companies. -With political chaos engulfing Kyrgyzstan, and authoritarianism in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan

EAST ASIA CURRENT AND PAST CHALLENGES

-income inequality problem -absence of any movement toward political reform that includes a more representative government, which might allow individuals to speak out against perceived injustices. -A country wishing to join the ranks of global economic superpowers cannot limit its people to only government-approved information. - ethnic unrest in the autonomous provinces of Xinjiang and Tibet (Xizang). -The natural hazards associated with this geologically active landscape are many, but earthquakes are the most life threatening because Japan occupies a small but volatile segment of the Pacific Ring of Fire. In addition to numerous active volcanos, there are 500-1,000 sensible earthquakes each year; Tsunamis

CENTRAL ASIA AND AFHANISTAN CLIMATE Afghanistan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

-most of Central Asia exhibits a continental climate characterized by intensely hot summers, cold winters, and arid conditions (potential evaporation is greater than potential rainfall). Another contributing factor to the climate is that the region is entirely landlocked. -To the north and east of the desert regions lie the steppes of Central Asia. This natural region dominates much of Kazakhstan And is characterized by grasslands that extend both north and west into Russia with only a few trees located in river valleys. Although the soils are generally rich, much like those of the prairie lands of the U.S. Great Plains, a steppe environment differs from a prairie environment in its generally lower and more variable precipitation.

Grand Canal

A 1,400-mile (2,250 kilometer)-long canal between modern-day Hangzhou and the heart of the North China Plain; it facilitated the trading of commodities among the regions of the Chinese empire and continues to move bulk goods today.

household responsibility system

A Chinese policy based on a production contract in which a peasant household is obliged to produce a specific amount of grain or cotton to be sold to the state at a regulated price.

chernozem

A Russian term referring to the fertile black soils of the steppe or semiarid zone of Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan; similar soils in other parts of the world.

hacienda

A Spanish term used in Latin America for a large rural landholding, usually devoted to animal grazing; which had a high degree of internal self-sufficiency and operated under a semi-feudal system dominated by criollo owners who resided primarily in urban centers.

Ujamaa

A Swahili word meaning "familyhood," expressing a feeling of community and cooperative activity; a term used by the Tanzanian government to indicate a commitment to rapid economic development according to principles of socialism and communal solidarity.

African National Congress (ANC)

A black political group in South Africa, committed to majority rule and abolition of apartheid; victorious in the 1994 national elections, the first in which blacks could participate.

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

A conservative Hindu-based political party in India which often has been reluctant to compromise with Muslim and Sikh interests. This has slowed efforts by some to seek common approaches to development challenges.

pristine myth

The misconception that the New World was a lightly populated, unmodified wilderness when it was first encountered by Christopher Columbus.

Kurds

A pastoral and agricultural people residing largely in Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, with lesser numbers in Syria, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.

crossroads location

A place where contrasting cultures meet and often clash.

Russification

A policy of cultural and economic integration practiced in the former U.S.S.R. that required all other Slavic and non-Slavic groups to learn the Russian language.

Sunshine Policy

A policy of reconciliation between South Korea and North Korea, introduced in 2000.

Kyzyl Kum desert

A prominent desert in Turkmenistan.

Buddhism

A religion that emerged in India from the teachings of Siddharha Gautama or Buddha ("awakened one") in the fifth century B.C., spread widely in eastern and central Asia, and remains an important faith in Bhutan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka.

Aral Sea

A sea in the southern drylands of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan that is rapidly shrinking due to massive water diversion from its two river sources for desert irrigation projects.

monsoon

A seasonal reversal in surface wind direction; associated primarily with South, East, and Southeast Asia.

New York and Pennsylvania, together with portions of New Jersey and Maryland, made up the Middle Atlantic Core.

A variety of peoples settled the middle colonies: English, Dutch, German, Scots-Irish, and Swedish.

NORTH AMERICA MAJOR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

AFRICAN AMERICANS HISPANICS ASIANS AMERICAN INDIANS MIDDLE EASTERN MIXING POT ETHNIC CLUSTERING The result is a racial and cultural mosaic that enriches their contemporary geographies, while presenting challenges to governments that struggle to accommodate competing groups.

New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD)

African Union (AU) program designed in 2001 to complement the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) in alleviating poverty, accelerating regional integration, and promoting good governance.

East African Rift Valley

African valley that begins in the north with the Red Sea, extending 6,000 miles (9,700 kilometers) through Ethiopia to the Lake Victoria region, where it divides into eastern and western segments and continues southward.

Third world

Also known as developing nations; nations outside the capitalist industrial nations of the first world and the industrialized communist nations of the second world; generally less economically powerful, but with varied economies.

What is the relationship between the Taliban and the opium crop by many Afgan farmers?

Although many farmers benefit, most crop grown is for survival and most money is collected by resurgent Taliban.

Deccan Plateau

An elevated (2,000-3,000 feet/600-900 meters above sea level) surface in southern India, rich in minerals, but limited in its agricultural potential due to its relative dryness.

Dairy Belt

An extended region from Nova Scotia to Minnesota where moist, cool conditions and nearby urban markets favor specialization in dairy production.

Gulf of Mexico

An extension of the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, bordering the southeastern United States, Mexico, and some of the Caribbean Islands.

Corn Belt

An extensive region in the central part of the United States with rich soils where corn and hogs once dominated farm output, but where soy beans and other crops now are also common.

North America has been shaped by the marginalization of its native populations and the huge influx of immigrants beginning with Europeans and Africans.

Asian and Latino immigration continue to shape the population of the United States. Anti-immigrant attitudes and policies largely target growing Latino population, even those who are long-time U.S. citizens.

home town associations (HTA)

Associations formed by migrants, often from the same town or district, to provide assistance in support of community projects in their home country.

Why do many experts believe that Kazakhstan has the greatest potential for economic development in Central Asia?

Because Kazakhstan will have potential to produce as many of barrels per day like Saudi Arabia.

Why is Evo Morales such an important voice in South America?

Because he supports the poor, indigenous people, and is enemy of globalization.

Why is Panama such an important part of the global transportation system, and will that role continue in the future?

Because it has a Canal that generates $1.5 Billion per year Yes. the "post Panamax" canal is scheduled to open in 2015.

Where in the United States and Canada has recent population loss most pronounced?

Between 2005 and 2010, more people left the Northeast and Midwest than moved in.

EUROPE RESOURCES Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia

COAL WIND POWER SUN BIO-FUEL(RAPESEED(CANOLA OIL) FISHING OIL NATURAL GAS

Silk Road

Caravan route stretching from China to the Middle East and ultimately on to Europe, the main historical corridor for goods from the east.

Discuss convection and its relationship to weather.*

Convection is movement in any fluid, caused when part of the fluid (whether gas or liquid) is heated. The heated portion expands and becomes less dense, and rises up through the cooler portion. Convection causes the turbulence you see in water heating on a stove, and in turbulent clouds overhead. As air is warmed, it expands and becomes less dense. In becoming less dense—that is, weighing less per unit of volume—warm air rises above cooler, denser air, just as a hot-air balloon rises through the cooler air surrounding it.

The movement of air causes precipitation in three ways:

Convection —in which air warmer than its surroundings rises, expands, and cools by this expansion Orographic uplift —in which wind forces air up and over mountains Frontal uplift —in which air is forced up a boundary (front) between cold and warm air masses

free trade zones (FTZ)

Enclaves in countries where materials are imported, processed, and reexported as finished products.

Aboriginal Land Councils

Established by the Aboriginal land Rights Act of 1976, and amended in 2006, these local and regional councils represent Aborigines in land management issues, particularly in negotiating royalty settlements with mining companies.

ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA)

Established in 1992 to reduce tariffs on trade between member countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

Characteristics of nations whose populations enjoy substantial access to necessary resources.

Explosive population growth, advanced technology, favorable trade balances

Describe food chains and identify their key trophic levels.

Food chains include producers (green plants), usually multiple levels of consumers including herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores, and decomposers. Energy is supplied to an ecosystem from the Sun, passed through it via a food chain, and dissipated as heat.

maquiladora industry

From the Spanish verb maquilar, meaning "to mill or to process"; used to denote foreign-owned (largely U.S.) manufacturing firms located in Latin America, particularly northern Mexico, to realize the advantage of low-cost labor.

NORTHERN EURASIA RESOURCES Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine

GAS OIL STEEL COPPER COAL IRON ORE GOLD ALUMINUM CHROMIUM LEAD-ZINC NICKEL PLATINUM URANIUM HYDROELECTRIC STATIONS

Growing worldwide demand has caused increases in energy prices, although prices have sometimes fallen dramatically during economic recessions.

Generally, high prices have stimulated exploration for new deposits and development of technologies for extracting more gas and oil from existing fields. This has caused available resources to expand along with global demand.

Describe the importance of the human-environment tradition in the study of geography.*

Geographers study human-environment interactions such as use of natural resources, and the role of culture in influencing such resource use. EX: to understand hunger in Africa, geographers examine relationships among climate, soils, agricultural practices, population growth, food prices, environmental degradation, international economic forces, and political unrest. The interrelationships among factors affecting places help us understand why humans behave as they do. No other scientific discipline takes this integrative approach.

GIS

Geographic Information Systems - storing, displaying and analyzing geographic data

Define the field of geography, describe its scope, and identify the major subfields.*

Geography is the study of the interaction of all physical and human phenomena at individual places, and spatial patterns of these phenomena and interactions. Physical geography studies the characteristics of the physical environment, while human geography studies human groups and their activities.

encomiendas

Grants of authority and responsibility from the Spanish crown to Europeans in Latin America; included control over large parcels of land and became a mechanism by which Europeans and their descendants gained and maintained control over land and indigenours villages.

Climate classification provides a tool for describing climate and communicating that description. The most important variables in defining climate are temperature and precipitation.

Humid tropical (A) climates occur in the tropical low-pressure zone and are dominated by the intertropical convergence. Dry climates (B) are found generally on the western sides of continents in the subtropics and in continental areas isolated from moisture sources. Warm midlatitude climates (C) occur in subtropical areas on the eastern sides of continents and on west coasts at higher latitudes. Cool midlatitude climates (D) occur in continental areas, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere. Polar climates (E) occur at high latitudes.

centralization

Important to the development of Central Asia during the Soviet era. The government in the U.S.S.R's capital, Moscow, made all political, economic, and cultural decisions and put them into practice throughout the U.S.S.R.

Describe how technology has changed our needs for wood resources.*

New technology for reusing materials is being developed in part because space in landfills has become a scarce resource, especially in large urban areas of relatively developed wealthy countries, where consumption is highest. This space scarcity is stimulating development of new methods for reusing and recycling materials.

subarctic climate

Long, cold winters and short summers with limited precipitation characterize this high-latitude climate. weather pattern characterized by severly cold, bitter winters and short, cool summers

Vladimir Putin

Second president of Russia from 2000 to 2008, Prime Minister during the presidency of Dmitrii Medvedev, and fourth President of Russia since 2012.

The population of Earth is about 7.2 billion people, and 90% of the population is concentrated on less than 20% of the land area.

Major population concentrations are in east Asia, south Asia, and Europe. Secondary concentrations are in Southeast Asia and eastern North America. Much of Earth's land surface is virtually uninhabited.

Yenisey River

Marks the boundary between the West Siberian lowland and the plateau of Central Siberia.

Vladimir Lenin

Marxist, leader of the Bolsheviks who started the bloody civil war in 1917 that resulted in the establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R) in 1922.

What is Moscow's role in role in Russia? How might it's position change in the future.

Moscow is a connected global center, 21st Century window on world culture. Moscow has extreme air polution and that can be deadly in the future.

permafrost

Permanently frozen ground common in high latitudes.

EUROPE HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF IMMIGRATION PATTERNS Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, The United Kingdom, and (former) Yugoslavia

ROMANI (GYPSYS) -Migrants from North Africa, South Asia, and Southwest Asia have brought their religious traditions to Europe, including Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism.

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN POPULATION STATISTICS

SHOULD HAVE 740 MILLION PEOPLE IN 2050. NO GROWTH AFTER THAT, WILL SEE AGING POPULATION -The highest population densities in the region are found in the Caribbean and around the megacities of Latin America that have more than 10 million inhabitants, including metro Buenos Aires, Argentina, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, Brazil, and Mexico City, Mexico. -Middle America has considerable ethnic and cultural diversity. Mexico is mostly mestizo, but indigenous peoples dominate southern Mexico and Guatemala. Populations with African ancestry are found in numerous locations in Central America, but most commonly in the Caribbean. Ethnic minorities live in many places where their ethnicity is not dominant, which is important to keep in mind when interpreting maps of ethnicity and ancestry.

import-substitution industrialization (ISI)

Strategies intended to protect infant industries from foreign competition, thereby stimulating local demand for local products and expanding local manufacturing employment opportunities.

Global circulation patterns include bands of low pressure and convective lifting in the tropics, high pressure and descending air in the subtropics, low pressure in the midlatitudes, and high pressure at the poles.

Surface winds blow from high pressure toward low pressure, deflected by Coriolis force. Thus, in low latitudes winds blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere, toward the equator. In the midlatitudes, winds generally blow from the west, and in the polar regions winds tend to be easterly but variable in the north polar region.

Cultural values determine how resources are used.

Technological factors limit our use of some resources by determining the particular applications to which certain materials can be put. Economic factors such as resource prices and levels of affluence influence whether a resource is used, and how much.

Explain how dissolved oxygen indicates the health of a stream or lake.*

The oxygen consumed in decomposing organic waste constitutes the biochemical oxygen demand. If a lake or stream contains an excessive amount of decomposing waste, the oxygen demand is too great and the water becomes oxygen starved, killing fish and other animals living in the water. This condition often occurs when water becomes loaded with municipal sewage or industrial waste.

Dnieper River

The axis of an extensive trade network that linked the Baltic and Black Sea regions starting in the tenth century.

Grameen Bank

The brainchild of Mohammad Younis, this microfinance organization began in Bangladesh in 1976 as a microlender of money to poor villagers, a majority of whom were women. Younis won a Nobel Peace Prize in 2006 for this significant and successful grassroots development initiative.

Sub-Saharan Africa

The countries in this region have been plagued by civil wars over their rich natural resources; Slash and burn agriculture leading to loss of rain forest is a major political issue in this region. Zulu nation can be found here.

Islam

The dominant religion of the Middle East and North Africa. This universalizing belief system was established by the Prophet Mohammed after he began having divine visions beginning in A.D. 610. Islam (which literally means "submission to the will of Allah, [or God]") has five tenets, or pillars, that must be upheld by its adherents: there is only one God and Mohammed is his Prophet (the creed); the offering of regular prayer; the responsibility of the more prosperous to aid the less fortunate; a fast during the ninth month of the lunar calendar; and the undertaking of a pilgrimage to Mecca.

al-Jazirah

The flat alluvial plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in southern Iraq.

Micronesia

The groups of islands in the Pacific just north of Melanesia, from Guam and the Marianas in the west to Kiribati in the east. The region's name refers to the small islands that predominate here.

extraterritoriality

The imposition of foreign laws to the exclusion of local laws, allowing foreign citizens to operate as if they were on their native soil and making foreigners of indigenous people who live in such jurisdictions, such as the former treaty ports in China.

indirect rule

The policy on which British colonial rule was based; its purpose was to incorporate the local power structure into the British administrative structure.

Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP)

The program launched by Nelson Mandela's government of South Africa, based on six major principles of improvement.

Media Luna

The shape ("half-moon") formed by departments in the eastern lowlands of Bolivia, whose inhabitants share few historical or cultural connections to the indigenous communities of the highlands.

culture hearth

The source area for particular traits and complexes.

friction of distance

The time and effort that is required to overcome physical movement across the landscape. Typically this friction is reduced with the advent of transportation innovations (for example, in 1800, traveling from New York to St. Louis could take one month, whereas today it takes only a few hours). the effort to overcome distance when moving/transporting items

Lake Baikal

The world's deepest lake with a maximum depth of more than a mile (1.6 kilometers), one of the world's greatest natural wonders and a Russian destination for nature lovers.

List the three factors that determine whether something created by natural processes is a natural resource.*

These factors include the physical characteristics of resources and the natural systems in which they exist, the technology of resource use, and human value systems

High temperatures also occur in high latitudes such as in North America, Europe, and Asia in July.

This is because at high latitudes the Sun is high in the sky in summer, and although it is not as high as in the tropics, the day lengths are much greater, so the total amount of sunshine arriving at Earth's surface in a 24-hour day in midsummer is actually greater at high latitudes than in the tropics.

The highest temperatures occur in low latitudes in both maps.

This is because the Sun is highest in the sky in these areas, and therefore the intensity of solar radiation is highest. High solar elevation angles occur throughout the year, and this makes the tropics (the area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn) consistently warm.

The US and Canada may be experiencing a new oil and gas boom. Why is this occurring?

This occurring due to fracking.

Describe the difference between weather and climate.*

Weather includes variables such as temperature and precipitation at any particular time, including both ordinary day-to-day conditions and extremes such as storms or heat waves. • Climate is the statistical summary of weather over time, and includes both the average conditions and the extremes. The averages considered in climate include observations accumulated over many years, and extremes are considered in climate usually in terms of their frequency or probability of occurrence.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Went into effect in 1994. Canada, Mexico, and the United States are now members of a single trade union intended to lead eventually to completely free trade and increased interaction between the member countries.

agricultural surplus

With domestication of plants and animals, agricultural productivity soared to the point that some farmers produced more than they consumed, creating surpluses.

Arabs

a Semitic people of the Middle East and North Africa who share a common language, cultural history and religion (Islam)

Transform Plate Boundary

a boundary between tectonic plates in which the plates neither converge or diverge but grind past each other = San Andreas Fault is this type, the Pacific Plate is moving northwest relative to the North American Plate.

Convergent Plate Boundary

a boundary between tectonic plates in which the two plates move toward one another, destroying or thickening the crust

Renewable hydroelectric power is

a major source of energy, and may expand significantly in South America and Asia.

Isostatic Adjustments

a vertical movement of Earth's crust caused by the loading or unloading of the buoyant crust - causes mountains

Map scale

affects the amount of detail that can be shown on a map. Small-scale maps reduce the size of features and show less detail; the ratio of size on a map to size on Earth's surface, large-scale maps make features larger and contain more detail.

biosphere

all living organisms on Earth - strongly influenced by the other systems as well as the organisms themselves

Global positioning systems

allow rapid determination of location and area used in millions of everyday devices.

Soil characteristics reflect these processes,

and there is close correspondence between the world climate map and the world soil map.

Per capita income, agricultural employment, energy use, and other measures are potential indicators of development,

but each measure has drawbacks. Although a number of theories exist to explain the development process, each is limited in its explanatory power and none is a complete explanation of development.

aridity

dryness; the dominant climatic characteristic of the world's desert and semi-desert regions; generally found in interior continental locations or in coastal areas bordering cold ocean currents

What are the pro and cons of the various types of tourism in Central America and the Caribbean?

ecotourism - Pros are the understanding the physical and cultural qualities of the region, while producing economic opportunities and conserving the natural environment. Cons are may not be any different than mass tourism voluntourism - Pros are that it is combination of tourism and volunteer work for a good cause. Cons are

Geographic systems analysis

focuses on interactions between physical systems such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere.

Streams are conveyor belts

for sediment from hillsides, and they play a major role in shaping landforms.

Exogenic Process

forces of erosion, such as running water, wind and chemical actions that occur at Earth's surface. that wear down Earth's crust and reshape it into new landforms.

Igneous Rocks

formed when molten crustal material cools and solidifies ex: basalt and granite

Sedimentary Rocks

formed when rocks eroded from higher elevations accumulate at lower elevations ex: sandstone, shale, limestone

Climate changes result

from changes in the geometry of Earth's orbit around the Sun; geologic factors such as volcanic eruptions; and changes in the composition of the atmosphere, some human caused.

In many mountain and poleward environments,

glaciers flow across the land, eroding rock and depositing it at places having higher temperatures that melt the ice.

The development of plywood in the early 20th century, and other forms of manufactured wood since then, .

have made it possible to make large, strong boards out of smaller pieces. This has reduced the need for large, old trees, and facilitated the use of small, young trees

Geographers study

human-environment interactions such as use of natural resources, and the role of culture in influencing such resource use.

Geography has deep roots

in ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean region and eastern Asia, with Arab scholars making major contributions.

The worst problems with acid deposition are

in east Asia, central Europe, and the northeastern United States, all of which are areas of substantial use of coal to generate electricity.

Plant growth is most prolific

in warm, humid climates where water and energy are plentiful. Plant growth is less in dry or cool climates.

Shield Volcano

largest on Earth; lava erupted from these cools to a rock called basalt; usually sedate

Remote Sensing

mapping Earth from satellites and aircraft

Wind plays a major role in moving

material in deserts, and the absence of vegetation allows even infrequent rainfall to shape the land.

Socioeconomic development

maturation of skills and abilities that enable people to live successfully in the world with other people

Climate is the

statistical summary of weather over time, and includes both the average conditions and the extremes.

Weather is the

temperature, precipitation, and so on at any particular time

Endogenic mechanisms are forces

that cause movement beneath Earth's surface, raising some portions and lowering others. The most significant of these are movements associated with plate tectonics. This motion can create earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains, depending on whether the boundaries between plates are convergent, divergent, or transform.

Photosynthesis is

the basis of food chains and ecological systems. Plants compete for water, sunlight, and nutrients, and plants that are best adapted to compete for limiting factors will dominate a given environment. Such adaptations help explain the world distribution of major vegetation types.

Area analysis examines

the characteristics of specific locations (sites) and their interactions with other places (situation). Area analysis also examines regions, including formal regions defined by uniformity of a particular physical or cultural feature, and functional regions defined by interactions among places.

Density

the frequency of occurrence in relation to geographic area; usually expressed as # per sq km or sq mile (ex: Population Density = # of people per sq kilometer)

Volcano

the surface vent where lava emerges; thousands are dormant (inactive but with potential to erupt); many volcanic eruptions occur under water; volcanoes give many warnings so it is more accurate to predict eruptions than it is earthquakes

atmosphere

thin layer of gases surrounding Earth to an altitude of less than 300 miles. Movement of air in the atmosphere, driven by solar radiation and the redistribution of that energy vertically and horizontally, is the main force creating weather and climate.

Solar radiation heats Earth,

varying by latitude, season, and by day length. The annual total radiation is highest and varies least over the seasons in low latitudes, while day length and angle of incidence cause greater seasonal variations at high latitudes. Energy arrives from the Sun as shortwave energy and is reradiated by Earth as longwave radiation that heats the atmosphere. Insolation and subsequent energy exchanges control temperatures and drive atmospheric circulation, causing storms and precipitation.

The hydrologic cycle moves water among the oceans, land, and atmosphere

via evaporation, evapotranspiration, and precipitation

In humid regions,

water moves downward through the soil, carrying dissolved substances lower in the profile or removing them altogether.

Describe the ways in which wave action shapes coastlines.*

waves caused by wind blowing across the ocean surface cause intensive erosion and rapidly change landforms.

Relocation Diffusion

when people or things move between two points

The outermost layer of Earth's surface in land areas is soil,

which is a mixture of mineral and organic matter formed by physical, chemical, and biological processes.

Soil

• The outermost layer of Earth's surface in land areas is soil, which is a mixture of mineral and organic matter formed by physical, chemical, and biological processes. • Climate is a major regulator of soil development, through its control on water movement. Plant and animal activity in the soil produces organic matter and mixes the upper soil layers. In humid regions, water moves downward through the soil, carrying dissolved substances lower in the profile or removing them altogether. In arid regions, these substances are not so easily removed. Soil characteristics reflect these processes, and there is close correspondence between the world climate map and the world soil map.

Air and Water Resources

• Acid deposition results from emissions of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides. Coal-fired power plants are major sources of these pollutants, as are gas-fired electric plants and automobiles. The worst problems with acid deposition are in east Asia, central Europe, and the northeastern United States, all of which are areas of substantial use of coal to generate electricity. • The greatest problems in urban air pollution derive from carbon monoxide, and from photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is produced by the effect of sunlight acting on nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. In the past, emissions from coal and other crude fuels were most important in urban air pollution; these are still significant in some poorer countries. • Discharges of organic matter and fertilizers to streams cause eutrophication—excessive growth of algae—which depletes dissolved oxygen when the algae die and decay.

Migration in Context • Migration has changed the character and composition of many populations through history and in the current era. Three areas that are undergoing significant changes due to migration include Europe, Asia, and North America. • After centuries of European emigration, natural decrease in recent decades means that immigrants play an important role in sustaining economic vitality. Rising proportions of immigrants, especially from outside Europe, have been met with intolerance in many countries.

• Asian countries have sent many emigrants abroad, especially to the Americas. Chinese emigrant communities have disproportionately more wealth in some Asian countries. • North America has been shaped by the marginalization of its native populations and the huge influx of immigrants beginning with Europeans and Africans. Asian and Latino immigration continue to shape the population of the United States. Anti-immigrant attitudes and policies largely target growing Latino population, even those who are long-time U.S. citizens.

Carbon, Oxygen, and Nutrient Flows in the Biosphere

• Carbon is the basis of life on Earth. It cycles through the atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, and soil. Photosynthesis transfers carbon from the atmosphere to the biosphere, and respiration returns it to the atmosphere. • Plant growth is most prolific in warm, humid climates where water and energy are plentiful. Plant growth is less in dry or cool climates. • Large amounts of carbon are exchanged between the atmosphere and the oceans, and the oceans are major sinks for carbon dioxide that is added to the atmosphere by fossil fuel combustion.

Urban Functions

• Cities provide important services in a centralized location. • Cities have hinterlands that provide resources and migrants. • Ancient cities had important political and cultural functions. • Urban economies today have basic and nonbasic sectors.

Climate

• Climate classification provides a tool for describing climate and communicating that description. The most important variables in defining climate are temperature and precipitation. The most widely used classification scheme classifies climate into five main categories. Humid tropical (A) climates occur in the tropical low-pressure zone and are dominated by the intertropical convergence. Dry climates (B) are found generally on the western sides of continents in the subtropics and in continental areas isolated from moisture sources. Warm midlatitude climates (C) occur in subtropical areas on the eastern sides of continents and on west coasts at higher latitudes. Cool midlatitude climates (D) occur in continental areas, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere. Polar climates (E) occur at high latitudes.

Precipitation

• Convection causes air to cool, leading to cloud formation and precipitation. This releases latent heat into the atmosphere, further stimulating convective circulation. This circulation can be localized, or can become organized into large-scale storm systems such as tropical and midlatitude cyclones. • Fronts are boundaries between air masses of different densities. Cold air is typically more dense than warm air. When cold air advances toward warm air, a cold front is formed. The cold air drives under the less dense warm air, driving it up, and often causing precipitation. When warm air advances toward cold air, a warm front is formed, and the warm air rises over the cold, sometimes causing precipitation.

What Is a Natural Resource?

• Cultural values determine how resources are used. Technological factors limit our use of some resources by determining the particular applications to which certain materials can be put. Economic factors such as resource prices and levels of affluence influence whether a resource is used, and how much. • Most resources are substitutable to some degree, so that if one resource is less available or more expensive another resource is available to take its place. Price and usefulness of a resource in a given technological setting determine choice of one resource over another. • Nonrenewable resources form so slowly that for practical purposes, they cannot be replaced when used. Nonrenewable resources include fossil fuels and nonenergy minerals. Renewable resources are replaced continually, at least within a human lifespan. Renewable natural resources include air, water, soil, plants, and animals.

The Distribution and Density of Human Settlement • The population of Earth is about 7.2 billion people, and 90% of the population is concentrated on less than 20% of the land area. Major population concentrations are in east Asia, south Asia, and Europe. Secondary concentrations are in Southeast Asia and eastern North America. Much of Earth's land surface is virtually uninhabited.

• Factors that explain population distribution include the historical importance of places with climactic and topographic conditions that could support agriculture. Most of the population is concentrated in areas of mild midlatitude or seasonal humid tropical climates, but people can settle in harsh areas, especially with adaptive technologies. In some places, local population densities may be high, but trade and circulation free members of societies from the constraints of their local environments.

Energy and Weather • Weather is the temperature, precipitation, and so on at any particular time; climate is the statistical summary of weather over time, and includes both the average conditions and the extremes. • Solar radiation heats Earth, varying by latitude, season, and by day length. The annual total radiation is highest and varies least over the seasons in low latitudes, while day length and angle of incidence cause greater seasonal variations at high latitudes. Energy arrives from the Sun as shortwave energy and is reradiated by Earth as longwave radiation that heats the atmosphere. Insolation and subsequent energy exchanges control temperatures and drive atmospheric circulation, causing storms and precipitation.

• Four main processes transfer energy between the atmosphere and Earth's surface: (1) Longwave radiation sends heat from the warm surface to the cooler atmosphere. This radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere mainly by water vapor and carbon dioxide, and reradiated both downward to the surface and upward to space; (2) conduction of heat into soil, rock, and water store heat temporarily near Earth's surface; (3) convection carries surface warmth to the atmosphere; and (4) when clouds and precipitation form, latent heat exchange carries energy from the surface to the atmosphere.

Circulation Patterns

• Global circulation patterns include bands of low pressure and convective lifting in the tropics, high pressure and descending air in the subtropics, low pressure in the midlatitudes, and high pressure at the poles. Surface winds blow from high pressure toward low pressure, deflected by Coriolis force. Thus, in low latitudes winds blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere, toward the equator. In the midlatitudes, winds generally blow from the west, and in the polar regions winds tend to be easterly but variable in the north polar region. • Ocean surface circulation generally follows the prevailing winds, creating large gyres that are clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. In the midlatitudes of the southern hemisphere, strong currents blow around the globe from west to east. Vertical circulation is controlled by differences in water density

Ice, Wind, and Waves

• In many mountain and poleward environments, glaciers flow across the land, eroding rock and depositing it at places having higher temperatures that melt the ice. • Wind plays a major role in moving material in deserts, and the absence of vegetation allows even infrequent rainfall to shape the land. • Along coastlines, waves caused by wind blowing across the ocean surface cause intensive erosion and rapidly change landforms.

Plate Tectonics

• Major landforms of the world are created by a combination of endogenic (internal) and exogenic (external) landforming processes. • Endogenic mechanisms are forces that cause movement beneath Earth's surface, raising some portions and lowering others. The most significant of these are movements associated with plate tectonics. This motion can create earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains, depending on whether the boundaries between plates are convergent, divergent, or transform. • Exogenic processes are forces of erosion that wear down Earth's crust and reshape it into new landforms.

The Internal Geography of Cities

• Models of urban land use help us to identify patterns across different cities. • Cultural differences shape urban patterns in other regions.

Biomes: Global Patterns in the Biosphere • The world vegetation map closely mirrors the world climate map. Ecologically diverse and complex forests occupy humid environments, storing most nutrients in their biomass. In arid and semiarid regions, sparse vegetation is adapted to moisture stress. Forests adapted to winter cold are in humid midlatitude climates, developing as broadleaf forests in warmer areas and coniferous forests in subarctic latitudes. In high-latitude climates, cold-tolerant short vegetation occupies areas that have a mild summer season. Vegetation is absent in ice-bound polar climates.

• Overall, climate is the strongest control on natural vegetation, but humans have had profound influences on ecosystems in most of the world's land areas. Only a few thousand years ago, Earth was regulated by nonhuman processes, and people were merely negligible players. Today, however, humans are globally significant and locally dominant players in Earth's biogeochemical cycles. Environments in which human impacts are minor are increasingly scarce.

World Urbanization

• Rapid urban growth was a feature of industrialization in Britain and Europe. • Most urban growth today is in the developing world where cities do not have large industrial sectors. • Migrants arriving to cities in the developing world often live in informal settlements. • Many large cities have extensive informal economies that support large portions of the population.

Slopes and Streams

• Rocks are first broken down into smaller pieces through chemical and mechanical weathering. Then they are carried by gravity down the slopes of hills or by wind from one place to another. • Streams collect water from groundwater and overland flow and transport the water down to the sea. Streams are conveyor belts for sediment from hillsides, and they play a major role in shaping landforms.

The Locations of Cities

• Some cities were founded to utilize advantageous sites, such as mines, while others exploit favorable situations, such as crossroads on transport routes. • Gateway cities provide access points into larger territories. • Cities, towns, and villages form hierarchical networks.

Forests

• The development of plywood in the early 20th century, and other forms of manufactured wood since then, have made it possible to make large, strong boards out of smaller pieces. This has reduced the need for large, old trees, and facilitated the use of small, young trees. • Among the important uses of forests are timber products such as lumber and paper, recreation, biodiversity preservation, and carbon storage. These different uses may conflict with each other. Common ownership of many forest areas sometimes increases conflict.

Other Significant Demographic Patterns

• The natural ratio between females and males in a human population should be one to one, but, worldwide, men outnumber women. However, the sex ratio varies greatly among different countries. This may be due to a combination of economic and cultural factors. • The median age of humankind as a whole is rising. In rich countries, questions arise about the possibility of sustaining economic growth and about the equitable distribution of wealth among different generations. Many poor countries must quickly build up their national incomes and devise national welfare or social security programs.

World Population Dynamics

• The world population is increasing, but the rate of growth is slowing. The rate of increase in each country represents a balance among the crude birth rate, the crude death rate, and migration. Concern over population size focuses on the total fertility rate (TFR), which has been dropping in most countries. Most of the population increase is occurring in poor, not rich, countries. • Countries generally transition through four stages of demographic change. The demographic transition describes changes occurring in a society that begins with high birth rates and high death rates but stable population size. Declining death rates cause populations to grow, slowing only once birth rates start to decline later on. Population sizes stabilize as birth rates and death rates reach historic lows. Many rich countries' populations are now experiencing birth rates that are lower than death rates, causing population size to shrink and signaling a new phase of population decline. • In today's poor countries, crude birth rates are dropping fast but for different reasons, it seems, than wealthier countries. Theories of explanation focus on the growing role of family-planning programs, the status of women, new contraceptive technologies, and changing attitudes about fertility. Family-planning efforts face obstacles in traditional cultures, religions, and—in some cases—the cost of devices.

Cities and Suburbs in the United States

• U.S. metropolitan areas have witnessed explosive growth. • Job opportunity and housing continue to grow outward in their peripheral suburbs. • Some central cities that were once hollowed out started growing again at the end of the 20th century. • Local governments in large metropolitan areas must cooperate on common challenges.