I/O Psych Final Exam
Intended Message vs. Message Sent
A person can send unintended messages Think about what you want to communicate Practice what you want to communicate Learn better communication skills
situational leadership theory
A theory of leadership stating that effective leaders must adapt their style of leadership to fit both the situation and the followers; determines employee's competency and motivation level and then adapts leadership style to fit
How can groupthink be reduced?
-leader should not state his own position or beliefs until late in decision-making process should promote open discussion and encourage group members to speak group or committee can be separated into groups to increase the chance of disagreement. one member can be assigned the job of devil's advocate.
What causes social loafing?
-person thinks her effort won't be noticed -person "free-rides" because he doesn't feel like his effort is necessary -person doesn't want to look like the "sucker" who is doing all of the work
How can social loafing be reduced?
-task is challenging, appealing or involving -they think their group is unreliable or unable to contribute -incentives are present -when group members are friends each member's contribution is identifiable -personal responsibility is increased
When is groupthink likely to occur?
-when is cohesive -is isolated from outsiders -believes it is infallible -feels it is morally superior -is under pressure to conform -has a leader who promotes a favorite solution has gatekeeper who keep information from members
office design
70% of organizations have developed an open "cube farm" to facilitate employee communication. Freestanding-all desks placed in large open area Uniform plans- placed at uniform distances and separated by panels into cubicle areas Free-from workstations- combo of designs so different needs of each worker can be accommodated
know the five main levels of employee input and control
Absolute -employee has sole responsibility for making decisions and is responsible for the outcomes of decisions Shared/Participative/Team -employee has an equal vote in making decisions. Employee reaches consensus with other to make decisions Advisory -Employee makes recommendations, suggests new ideas, provides input. Ownership of own product -employee becomes responsible for own quality Following -work is closely checked/approved by others. Employee is closely or constantly supervised.
telephone calls
Both parties can hear the other's voice inflection, making it easier to understand the tone of the message. One limitation is the absence of nonverbal cues.
communication channel
E.g., memo, letter, e-mail, etc.
What are the email and voice mail rules?
Email Include a greeting Include a detailed subject line Don't write in all caps. It is difficult to read and comes across as if you're screaming. If you are going to forward an email message, change the original subject line and delete the long list of previous messages or names of people to whom the email had been previously forwarded. Take the same care in writing that you would in writing a formal memo Don't spend company time on personal email unless your organization specifically allows you to do so. Allow ample time for the receiver to respond; not everyone considers email to require an immediate response Voice mail Speak slowly. Give your name at the beginning of the message and then repeat it at the end of the message Spell your name if the person is not familiar with you or if your name is difficult to spell Leave your phone number, even if you think the person already has it. To avoid phone tag, indicate some good times that the person can return your call. Don't ramble. Anticipate the possibility of getting voice mail rather than talking to the actual person and have a short message ready. Don't include information that you don't want other people to hear.
Subordinate Ability theory
Leader effectiveness is influenced by abilities/attitudes of subordinates and how these interact with the leaders's style
Organizational Climate: IMPACT theory
Leaders have 1 of 6 behavioral styles and each style is effective only in a particular situation Leadership style -> Ideal Climate Information -> Ignorance Magnetic-> Despair Position-> Instability Affiliation-> Anxiety Coercive-> Crisis Tactical-> Disorganization
teams do not work because of lack of skill
Most common for team members to lack either the sills needed to work in a team or the expertise to solve the problem itself.
how might a company help to reduce the impact of downsizing when signs of the problems are recognized?
Outplacement programs to reduce downsizing emotional counseling -denial -anger -fear -acceptance financial counseling career assessment and guidance
What are the consequences of empowerment?
Personal 1. Increased job satisfaction for most 2. Stress a. Decreased stress due to greater control b. Increased stress due to greater responsibility Financial 1. Bonuses 2. Pay increases Career 1. Increased job security 2. Promotions 3. Increased marketability 4. Increased chance of being terminated
What are typical effects (physical, psychological and social) for the victims of downsizing? What effects might survivors experience after downsizing?
Physical -headaches -upset stomach -sleeping problem -heart troubles -increase in hospitalization -hypertension -ulcers Psychological -increase stress -alcohol/drug use -depression -anger -frustration -marital problems Social well-being -avoid fam/friends due to shame and embarrassment -avoid social situations that require money Survivors -more apprehensive, less secure -lower morale and satisfaction
What are the eight reasons as to why people join groups?
Psychological needs -affiliation -identification survival needs -emotional support -assistance or health commonality -common interests -common goals situational reasons -physical proximity -assignment
What is the pattern of communication from the sender to the receiver?
The sender encodes the message (what I want to say) then transmits the message (what i say). The receiver receives message (I hear her say) then decodes the message (I think she means).
business meetings
Typical employee spends an average of 4.35 hours attending 3.34 each week. Offer several advantages over email, memos, and phone calls, their time demands can result in negative employee attitudes.
email & voice mail
Used primarily to exchange general and/or timely information and ask questions; they are not meant as substitutions for important conversation. Include the reduction in the use and filing of paper and time saved by avoiding "small talk".
interacting group
a collection of individuals who work together to perform a task
nominal group
a collection of individuals whose results are pooled but who never interact with one another
intranets
a computer-based employee communication network used exclusively by one organization
What is groupthink?
a deterioration in mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment in the interest of group solidarity
attitude surveys
a form of upward communication in which a survey is conducted to determine employee attitudes about an organization
suggestion boxes
a form of upward communication in which employees are asked to place their suggestions in a box
policy manuals
a formal method of downward communication in which an organization's rules and procedures are placed in a manual; legally binding by courts of law.
Feidler's Contingency Model of Situational Favorability
a leader's style is only effective in certain situations a) Least preferred coworker scale-rate subordinates with whom they would least like to work b) Situation favorability rating -high task structure -high position power -good leader-member relations High LPC leaders best with moderate favorability Low LPC leaders best with low or high favorability
queuing
a method of coping with communication overload that involves organizing work into an order in which it will be handled.
bulletin boards
a method of downward communication in which informal or relatively unimportant written information is posted in a public place.
newsletters
a method of downward communication typically used to communicate organizational feedback and celebrate employee success
leader performance
a part of trait theory that postulates that certain types of people will be better leaders than will other types of people; leaders have sills that enable them to perform well and these characteristics are what make them leaders. -intelligence -openness to experience -extraversion -conscientiousness -emotional stability -high self-monitoring
leader emergence
a part of trait theory that postulates that certain types of people will become leaders and certain types will not.
change resisters
a person who hates change and will do anything to keep change from occurring
change analyst
a person who is not afraid of change but makes changes only when there is a compelling reason to do so
receptive changers
a person who is willing to change
use of a gatekeeper
a person who screens potential communication for someone else and allows only the most important information to pass through
reluctant changers
a person who will initially resist change but will eventually go along with it
escape
a response to communication overload in which the employee leaves the organization to reduce stress.
omission
a response to communication overload that involves the conscious decision not to process certain types of information.
use of multiple channels
a strategy for coping with communication overload in which an organization reduces the amount of communication going to one person by directing some of it to another person
compromising
a stye of resolving conflicts in which an individual allows each side to get some of what it wants.
brainstorming
a technique in which ideas are generated by people in a group setting
actual words used
a word can mean one thing in one situation and something else in another. Words can be vague Words can mean different things to different people. The word "fine" -to describe jewelry -to describe the weather -to describe food or sex
What is flextime and how should it impact job satisfaction?
a work schedule that allows employees to choose their own work hours.
What are the common advantages and disadvantages of a compressed work week?
advantages -more vacation days -more time to spend with family -have increased opportunity to moonlight -reduced commuting costs and times disadvantages -moderate increase in fatigue -lack of sleep
parallel teams
also called cross-functional teams, they consist of representatives from various departments (functions) within an organization.
focus groups & exit surveys
an outside consultant meets with groups of current employees to get their opinions and suggestions. This information is passed onto management; employees voluntarily leaving an organization also provide an excellent source of information. These interviews can be emotionally charged, and organization can learn much by listening to the "real" reason the employee is leaving the organization.
use of time
arrive on time to show that you care can show a higher-status or lower-status attitude tremendous cultural differences in such things as being late and keeping to time schedules
How does outside pressure affect group cohesiveness?
become a highly cohesive group
How does group homogeneity affect group cohesiveness?
best working groups are heterogeneous (i.e., consisting of mostly similar people with one dissimilar adding different vantage point).
nonverbal cues of body language
body language: posture, gestures, facial expressions, touching
paralanguage
communication inferred from the tone, tempo, volume, and rate of speech
What is upward communication?
communication within an organization in which the direction of communication is from employees up to management
What is downward communication?
communication within an organization in which the direction of communication is from management to employees.
evolutionary change
continual process of upgrading or improving
What should be considered when implementing the change?
creating an atmosphere for change, communicating details, time frame, and training needs.
Carnall's (2008) stages of change
denial-denying change is going to take place defense-becoming defensive and creating reasons why change won't work discarding-employees realize that not only is the organization changing, but they have to as well adaptation-employees must test the new system internalization-employees become immersed in new culture and comfortable with new system
error
deviation from a standard of quality; also a type of response to communication overload that involves processing all information but processing some of it incorrectly
revolutionary change
drastically changes way things are done
What is interpersonal communication?
exchange of a message across a communication channel from one person to another
coaching
explains and clarifies how the work should be done
How does membership stability affect group cohesiveness?
extent to which members like and trust one another, are committed to accomplishing a team goal, and share a feeling of group pride.
What is transformational leadership?
focuses on changing goals, standards, ethics, and performance of others. The develop a vision, and change organization to fit this vision and motivate others to reach this vision charismatic inspirational challenge the status-quo carefully analyze problems confident and optimistic
delegating
give tasks and let them do the tasks with minimal supervision
supporting
gives plenty of emotional support and opportunities for 2 way communication
project teams
groups formed to produce onetime outputs such as creating a new product, installing a new software system, or hiring a new employee
work teams
groups of employees who manage themselves, assign jobs, plan and schedule work, make work related decisions, and solve work-related problems.
Leadership Motive Pattern in leader performance
high need for power and low need for affiliation
How does group status affect group cohesiveness?
higher status creates more cohesiveness
What is the potential influence of group leader and group member individual dominance?
if group member or leader has an accurate solution, the group will probably perform at a high level if have an inaccurate solution, will lead the group astray and will perform poorly
third-party facilitators
liaison or ombudsperson. both are responsible for taking employee complaints and suggestions and personally working with management to find solutions.
teams do not work because of distrust of team process
management does not trust the concept of teams. When management was not enthusiastic about the team approach, it only made 49% satisfactory progress. Supportive management made 84% satisfactory progress.
Message Sent vs. Message Received
many factors can affect how a message is received i.e., actual words used ad communication channel
career assessment & guidance
may need to seek out and consider other careers. will receive tests to determine abilities and find what career they would be best to work in.
Message Received vs. Message Interpreted
meaning of message can change depending on how receiver interprets message -listening skills affect how message is received -listening styles affect interpretation as well
teams do not work because of excessive meeting requirements,
meet too infrequently or meet so often that they waste time when they do met. limit topics to be discussed and to meet only when entire team is needed to contribute.
gender differences
men -talk about major events -tell the main point -are more direct -use "uh-huh" to agree -are comfortable with silence -concentrate on the words spoken -sidetrack unpleasant topics women -talk about daily life -provide details -are more indirect -use "uh-huh" to listen -are less comfortable with silence -concentrate on nonverbal cues & paralanguage (pitch, volume) -focus on unpleasant topics
gender differences in leader performance
men and women are both effective leaders, however men are more effective in "masculine" jobs and women are more effective in less "masculine" jobs
How does group size affect group cohesiveness?
most cohesive when group is smaller
memos
most common methods of business communication. Provide detailed information to a large number of people in a short period of time.
What is the definition of a group?
multiple members -2 + people perceive themselves as a groups group gives reads to members corresponding effects -If something happens to one member, affects all members members share common goals
financial counseling
need because of tremendous stress as they worry about how to make their rent, mortgage, and loan payments and how to pay for everyday bills. Should include the issues of severance pay, unemployment insurance, medical insurance, and any special programs that might be available to help the layoff victims.
When cultures change, what are the steps that should be taken to assess the new culture?
needs assessment determining executive direction implementation considerations training evaluation of the new culture
teams do not work because of lack of empowerment
not given sufficient authority to conduct their business. Managers worry that the job won't be done correctly, teams are moving too fast, and teams will overstep boundaries such that other parts of organization will be affected.
meeting cow
number and length of meetings
evaluation apprehension
other can reward ("cheer") or punish ("boo") one's performance -for well-learned task, person may expect to perform well and get reward, but expect punishment for less well-learned task
change agents
people who enjoy change and often make changes just for the sake of it
task vs. person orientations in leader performance
person oriented leaders -act in warm, supportive manner and who have concern for employees -believe employees are intrinsically motivated task oriented leaders -set goals and give orders -believe employees are lazy and extrinsically motivated best leaders are both task and person oriented
use of space
personal space bubble intimacy zone -0 to 18 inches -close relationships Personal distance zone -18 inches to 4 feet -friends and acquaintances Social distance zone -4 to 12 feet -business contacts and strangers Public distance zone -12 to 25 feet
importance of inflection
pitch of the voice when speaking
What are the issues that need to be considered regarding the person making the change?
popularity degree of respect history of successful change
What is a sacred-cow hunt?
practices that have been around for a long time and invisibly reduce productivity
distraction
presence of others is distracting -for well-learned task, person still performs because it is automatic, but concentration impairment hinders performance on less well-learned task.
how do you resolve conflict prior to it occurring and when it first occurs?
prior -have a formal policy on how conflict is to be handled. -employees receive training on causes of conflict, ways to prevent it, and strategies for resolving conflict. when -two parties should be encouraged to use the conflict resolution sills they learned in training to resolve on their own. -express desire for cooperation, offering compliments, avoiding negative interactions, emphasizing mutual similarities, and pointing out common goals. -increase trust between both parties
What is social loafing?
shirk individual responsibility in a group setting the larger the group, the greater the tendency towards social loafing
tips for listening
stop talking let the other person finish speaking focus on what the person is saying rather than on how well they are saying it, what your next response will be, or what you will eat for lunch. Try to understand what the other person is trying to say. Ask question to make sure you understand the person's point, but don't ask so many questions that they distract the speaker. Be patient and keep an open mind. If you disagree, you can always do so after the person is finished talking. Show the speaker you want to listen by using nonverbal cues such as making eye contact and nodding your head. Remove or resist distractions that will keep you from listening. Be silent for a few seconds after the person has finished speaking. This will encourage the person to continue to talk, you will be sure when they have finished talking, and it will give you time to respond calmly.
teams do not work because they are not a team
teams aren't often successful because they are teams in name only
management teams
teams that coordinate, manage, advise, and direct employees and teams
teams do not work because of unclear objectives
teams work best when they know why they were formed, what they are expected to accomplish, and when they are supposed to be finished.
How does isolation affect group cohesiveness?
tend to make the group highly cohesive
avoiding
the conflict style of a person who reacts to conflict by pretending that it does not exist
forcing
the conflict style of a person who responds to conflict by always trying to win
accommodating
the conflict style of a person who tends to respond to conflict by giving in to the other person
collaborating
the conflict style of a person who wants a conflict resolved in such a way that both sides get what they want
what is group cohesiveness?
the extent to which members of a group like and trust one another.
forming stage
the first stage of the team process, in which team members "feel out" the team concept and attempt to make a positive impression
performing stage
the fourth and final stage of the team process, in which teams work toward accomplishing their goals.
technical listening
the listening style of a person who cares about only facts and details
nonconforming listening
the listening style of a person who cares about only information that is consistent with his or her way of thinking
leisure listening
the listening style of a person who cares about only interesting information
inclusive listening
the listening style of a person who cares about only the main points of a communication
empathic listening
the listening style of a person who cares primarily about the feelings of the speaker
stylistic listening
the listening style of a person who pays attention mainly to the way in which words are spoken
storming stage
the second stage in group formation in which group members disagree and resist their team roles.
What is organizational culture and why is it important?
the shared values, beliefs, and traditions that exist among individuals in an organization. This culture establishes workplace norms of appropriate behavior and defines roles and expectations that employees and management have of each other.
artifacts
the things people surround themselves with that communicate information about the person our office -decor desk placement what we wear -clothing -accessories -hair styles -tattoos the car we drive the house we live in
norming stage
the third stage of the team process, in which teams establish roles and determine policies and procedures
What is business communication?
the transmission of business-related information among employees, management, and customers
emotional counseling
to help workers deal with the stress of downsizing
speed cow
unnecessary deadlines
paper cow
unnecessary paperwork
cash cow
unnecessary spending
What is social facilitation?
when presence of others enhances performance occurs when task is easy and well-learned
What is social inhibition?
when presence of others hinders performance occurs when task is difficult or not well-learned
What is telecommuting, and what are common advantages and disadvantages?
working at home rather than at the office by communicating with managers and coworkers via phone, computer, fax machine, and other off-site media. advantages -less work-family conflict -better relationships with their supervisor -higher job satisfaction -less role stress -lower intention to turnover -high performance levels disadvantages -difficult for union to organize workers when scattered in diff locations -difficult for govt. to enforce safety and fair treatment standards when they work at home -employees cannot be easily supervised when they work at home -difficult to disassociate work from home life
What is a compressed work week?
works schedules in which 40 hours are worked in less than the traditional five-day workweek.
Does nominal group, interacting group, or brainstorming typically perform best?
interacting
Hogan's (1989) characteristics of unsuccessful leaders
lack of leadership training cognitive deficiencies -unable to learn from experience, unable to think strategically Personality problems -paranoid/passive-aggressive -appears charming on the surface, but resents the successes of others and while appearing to be supportive will "stab" another person in the back -high likability floater -goes along with the group, is friendly to everyone, never challenges anyone's ideas, which enables poor performance, but is so well-liked that they are never fired. narcissist -overcome their insecurity by being the center of attention, promoting their own accomplishments and take credit for most of the successes of the group and avoid all the blame for failure
expert power
lead by knowledge
legitimate power
lead by position
directing
leader directs by telling what to do and how to do it
coercive power
leader's control over punishment
reward power
leader's control over rewards
What is leadership through contact: Management by Walking Around
leaders and managers are most effective when they are out of their offices, walking around, and meeting with and talking to employees and customers about their needs and progress.
Interaction between the Leader and the Situation
leadership effectiveness depends not only on traits, but also the particular situation the leader is in
referent power
leads because of employees loyalty and desire to please leader
How can a person go about obtaining leadership skills?
learn what skills successful leaders need Identify and acknowledge the skills you lack Colleges provide leadership workshops Part-time job in organization where you can advance quickly Enroll in conflict management course Identify someone who you think is a successful leader volunteer or tutor in a strong subject you have leadership development seminars volunteer for committee positions volunteer to head committees or teams volunteer for extra assignments that will provide you with new skills be honest with coworkers and others at work
What are the issues that need to be considered regarding the reason behind the change?
legitimate -financial reasons -external mandates -productivity improvement Not so legitimate -a whim -everybody is doing it
