Іспит - книга 3
93. Adverbial modifier. Definition. Examples.
Adverbial modifier. Definition. Examples. The adverbial modifier An adverbial modifier is a word or phrase that is used to modify another part of a sentence, typically a verb or adjective. Winter set in early and unexpectedly... (Cronin.) And she walked fast between the flowers... (Galsworthy.) The thunder rumbled and crashed, travelling east along the river. Just as a subject or object may have a number of attributes, so a verb-predicate may have a number of adverbial modifiers: They walked on silently side by side for ten minutes... (Kingsley.) Noah Claypole ran along the street at his swiftest pace... (Dickens.) According to their meaning adverbial modifiers may be classified as follows: Adverbial modifiers of place: They were walking eastward. (Maxwell.) The door was not fastened within... (Dickens.) Outside it was getting dark. (Hemingway.) Adverbial modifiers of time: Yesterday I passed by an elm avenue... (Gissing.) Martin talked for fifteen minutes with him... (London.) Adverbial modifiers of manner or attending circumstances: ...the gardeners were busily potting out spring flowers. (Aldington.) Winter set in early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow. (Cronin.) She could run like an Amazon. (Lawrence.) Adverbial modifiers of degree: I was completely happy. (Galsworthy.) By this time it was getting dark and snowing pretty heavilly. (Dickens.) Adverbial modifiers of cause: I flushed simply from being spoken to... (Cronin.) He therefore gave his horsemen orders to advance. (Scott.) She told me we must part, and told me why... (Dickens.) Adverbial modifiers of purpose: Mrs. Pratt had driven to Winster to see her mother... (Jerome.) Dessie stopped for a moment to ease her back. (Caldwell.) Adverbial modifiers of measure (time, distance, cost, weight): He moved down the stream a few steps.. (London.) He was now a hundred yards from the water... (London.) Adverbial modifiers of result: The unexpected offer of shelter was too unexpected to be resisted. (Dickens.) Ben was too busy to hear him now... (Aldridge.) Adverbial modifiers of condition: In case of your absence I shall leave you a note. Adverbial modifiers of concession: Even Miriam laughed in spite of herself. (Lawrence.) "We shall be friends in spite of separation..." (Eliot.) Adverbial modifier of exclusion or substitution introduced by except, save, but, instead, etc. She made no comment on it, except by a scornful movement of the lips. (Mazo de la Roche.) And then instead of going to Arusha they turned left. (Hemingway.) ... An adverbial modifier may be expressed by: An adverb: I had slept unusually well... (Gissing.) They walked silently side by side... (Kingsley.) ... A noun with a preposition (a prepositional phrase): ...the old man spoke with a quiet earnestness... (Kingsley.) ...he could not eat for happiness. (Joyce.) A noun without any preposition expressing extent, distance, definite and indefinite time, price, etc.: ...she had been hours in the attic... (Eliot.) It had not been light aiS day. (Dickens.) A participle: ...he would stroll, watching the roses open... (Galsworthy.) He went upstairs again, tiptoeing past the door, andj entering his room, switched on the light. (Galsworthy A gerund with a preposition: On arriving at the garden entrance, he stopped to look at the gate view. (Galsworthy.) After taking her elderly cousin across, Fleur did not land at once... (Galsworthy.) An infinitive: She rose and went to the doorway to wave good-bye to him as he passed through the gate. (Lawrence.) Paul went to meet his friends the next afternoon. (Lawrence.) A whole syntactical word-combination: We went home early in the evening. (Dickens.) ...the sun had set three hours before... (Dickens.) ...she had once before seen it long ago. (Bront§.) ... A Complex Adverbial Modifier. An adverbial modifier may be expressed by an infinitival, participial or ger- undial complex: Dusk dropped down without his noticing... (Galsworthy.) (attending circumstances.) He opened the study door, and held it for her to pass in... (Voynich.) Adverbial Modifiers Introduced by Subordi- native Conjunctions: Adverbial modifiers (usually extended, but sometimes also unextended) may be introduced by subordinative conjunctions (than, if, unless, though, as if, as though, till, when, while, whether... or). Time: ...while working so hard he needed sea air... (Galsworthy.) When travelling, I have now and then watched the sunrise... (Gissing.) Comparison: He walked as softly as the Ghost of Hamlet, and more slowly. (Dickens.) He studied me, ...as though weighing up my points. (Cronin.) Condition: "Take a month, if necessary, combine business with pleasure. You owe yourself a holiday." (Cronin.) Nobody spoke, unless spoken to... (Dickens.) ...I found great, if temporary, comfort in Grandpa's society. (Cronin.) The sound of heavy, if uncertain, footsteps above my head caused me, once or twice, to pause... (Cronin.) Concession: They stood around her though at a little distance... (Dickens.) "It is fair to-night, ... though not starlit... (Вгоп1ё.)
65. Universals, near universals, absolute, typologically recessive, allomorphic, isomorphic. Definition. Examples.
1. Absolute universals (абсолютні/повні універсала) i.e. features or phenomena of a language level pertaining to any language of the world (cf. vowels and consonants, word stress and utterance stress, intonation sentences, parts of the sentence, parts of speech, etc.). 2. Near universals (неповні/часткові універсалії) i.e. features or phenomena common in many or some languages under typological investigation. 3. Typologically recessive features/phenomena (типологічне рецесивні, втрачаючі колишню активну роль) are those losing their former dominant role as, for instance, case forms in English or the dual number forms of some nouns in present-day Ukrainian. 4. Isomorphic features/phenomena (ізоморфні риси/явища) are common features/phenomena in languages under Contrastive analysis. Isomorphic in English and Ukrainian is, for example, the existence of consonants and vowels, assimilation, and the categories of number, person, tense, as well as parts of speech, the existence of sentences, etc. i.e. common features, observed in all the compared languages; cf. categories of number, person, tense, parts of speech. 5. Allomorphic features/phenomena (аломорфні риси/явища) are observed in one language and missing in the other. For example: the gerund or the diphthongs and analytical verb forms in English, which are missing (allomorphic) in Ukrainian.
68. The pronoun. Definition. Examples.
A pronoun is a word that you use to refer to someone or something when you do not need to use a noun, often because the person or thing has been mentioned earlier Most Ukrainian pronouns have the following morphological categories: 1) that of number (мій — мої, наш — наші); 2) case (мого, моєму, моїм) and 3) gender (мій брат, моя сестра, моє завдання). English pronouns have nominative case (somebody), genitive case (somebody's, my, his, her, your, their), objective case (me, him, her, us, them, whom). subdivide the English indefinite pronouns into some subclasses: negative pronouns (nobody, nothing, etc.), generalising pronouns (all, both, every, each), quantitative pronouns (little, many, much, few) contrasting pronouns (another, other, otherwise, one, ones).
91. Attribute. Definition. Examples.
An attribute is a quality or characteristic given to a person, group, or some other thing. The attribute in both languages functions as an adjunct to a noun head in a word-group. The categorial meanings of English and Ukrainian adjuncts differ considerably, however, since English adjuncts can not express gender, case and only rarely number as in the example with the demonstrative pronouns this/that+Nsing - these/those + Nplur; such a + Nsing - such+ Nplur, many a+ Nsing- many+ Nplur. Almost all Ukrainian attributive adjuncts, however, mostly agree with the head noun in gender, case, and number. Almost all Ukrainian attributive adjuncts, however, mostly agree with the head noun in gender, case, and number. These adjuncts are: adjectives, numerals, pronouns, participles: гарний день, мій брат, перше літо, працююча зміна, засіяне поле, моя батьківщина, etc.
71. The adverb. Definition. Examples.
An indeclinable notional word expressing the quality or state of an action, the circumstances in which the action proceeds, or a degree of some other quality. English adverbs are mostly formed with the help of the suffixes -ly (greatly, slowly), -ward/-wards (seaward, eastwards), -ways (sideways), -fold (twofold) and partly with the help of the prefixes -a- (aback, aside; astride) and be- (before, besides). Adverbs in Ukrainian may be formed by means of suffixes, eg: -o (гарно, надійно), -е (добре, зле), -а (дарма, лежма), -и (полюдськи, по-французьки), -ому (по-їхньому), -ему (по-моєму, по-своєму) and by means of prefixes and suffixes (combined), eg: no- (no-людськи, по-свинськи), най- (найкраще, найзручніше), щонай-(щонайбільше); якнай- (якнайшвидше). Equally common in both languages is the formation of adverbs by way of reduplication, eg: so-so, willy-nilly, fifty-fifty; ось-ось, ледве-ледве, скоро-скоро, тихо-тихо, etc. A morphologically common group present pronominal adverbs (simple and compound) which are of the same roots as their corresponding pronouns. These adverbs indicate in a relative way time, place, direction or manner in which the action/state proceeds ( now, here, тоді, звідти, сяк) In accordance with their lexico-syntactic meaning, adverbs in the contrasted languages fall under the following three main divisions: 1) qualifying adverbs denoting the quality or state of an action; 2) adverbs expressing the manner in which the action is performed, and 3) adverbs giving a quantitative characteristics of an action/quality. Qualifying adverbs in both languages may be qualitative (badly, fast, slowly, well — погано, добре, швидко, повільно) or those denoting manner of action (unawares, upside-down, topsy-turvy, by chance — нехотячи, догори дном, випадково, несвідомо, спроквола). Qualitative adverbs in both languages include large groups of adverbs of manner, quantity or degree, which have corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian, eg: aloud, how, aloof, upside down, by heart, in turn, one by one, almost, enough, entirely, rather, sufficiently, very — вголос, напам'ять, скоса, спросоння, догори дном, дуже, також, багато, більше, менше, ледве, надто, майже, etc. These adverbs express the degree of a quality of an adjective or adverb, or the intensity of an action expressed by a verb The second large common group present adverbs denoting circumstances. They are : 1) Adverbs of time: now, always, then, today, tomorrow, just, so far, sooner or later - зараз, тоді, завжди, сьогодні, взавтра, щойно, рано чи пізно. Here also belongs the negative adverb never that has other similar negative derivatives within adverbs of place (nowhere ніде) and adverbs of direction (nowhence нізвідки, nowhere/ nowhither нікуди); 2) adverbs of frequency/repetition of an action: always, daily, frequently, twice, usually - завжди, щоденно, часто, двічі, звичайно; 3) adverbs and adverbial phrases of place or direction of an action: here, there, inside, inwards, outside, somewhere, nowhere, to and fro, etc. Тут, там, надворі, десь, ніде, туди й сюди, etc.; 4) a small group of adverbs in both contrasted languages is presented by those expressing cause and purpose. Eg.: rashly згарячу According to their lexical meaning, adverbs in both contrasted languages can perform the following common functions in the sentence: 1. The adverbial modifier of manner or quality 2. The adverbial modifier of time 3. The adverbial modifier of place and direction 4. The adverbial modifier of degree and quality 5.The adverbial modifier of cause and purpose
92. Object. Definition. Examples.
An object is a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun that is affected by the action of a verb As to its structural forms, the object in both contrasted languages may be: a) simple: I thought that the bank rented it. (F. King) А я думав, що банк позичив їх (гроші). B) Simple prepositional: He was afraid of this. (Hailey) Він не думав про це с) Extended (expressed by a subordinate word-group): «I do so dislike the summer crowds.» (S. Hill) Мені так надокучають юрби людей влітку. Types of Objects Direct objects identify what or who receives the action of a transitive verb in a clause or sentence. When pronouns function as direct objects, they customarily take the form of the objective case (me, us, him, her, them, whom, and whomever). Direct objects are the results of action. A subject does something, and the product is the object itself. The indirect object always goes before the direct object.Nouns and pronouns also function as indirect objects. These objects are the beneficiaries or recipients of the action in a sentence. Indirect objects answer the questions «to/for whom» and «to/for what.» Objects can function in active and passive voice. A noun that serves as a direct object in the active voice becomes the subject when the sentence is rewritten in the passive voice. For example: Active: Bob purchased a new grill. Passive: A new grill was purchased by Bob.
81. Verbiality. Definition. Examples.
Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of verbiality - a verbal expression of an idea or thought. the quality or character of a verb. This means that verbs refer to different different kinds of activity (go, read, skate), various processes (boil, grow, obtain), the inner state of a person (feel, bother, worry), possession (have, possess)
66. Nominals. Definition. Examples.
As a grammatical category, nominal describes words or groups of words that function together as a noun. The words in a nominal grouping give more detail about the noun (the headword), making it specific. "For example, in the noun phrase a nice cup of tea, it makes sense to say that nice is a modifier of a cup of tea, rather than just the head noun cup," says Author Geoffrey Leech in "A Glossary of Grammar." In this phase, "nice cup of tea" is a nominal; it provides more description than simply saying "cup." Using a nominal gives the reader a more complete sense about what the writer is trying to convey. (цей абзац для нашого розуміння) My most enjoyable climb Her sister's new bicycle All of our recent holidays A voice from the past The song that Jill sang The secretary general
78. Conjunction. Definition. Examples.
Conjunction. Definition. Examples. Conjunctions in the contrasted languages are functional words realising the connection of homogeneous parts in co-ordinate word-groups and sentences or linking subordinate clauses in composite sentences. A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases and clauses. As to their syntactic functions, conjunctions in the contrasted languages fall into two common-isomorphic groups: a) co-ordinating conjunctions and b) subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:- Jack and Jill went up the hill.- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming. Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:- I went swimming although it was cold. A graphic presentation of all classes of co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions in English and Ukrainian is as follows: 1) Copulative (єднальні): and, nor, neither... nor, as well as, both... and, not only... but also; і/й, та, також, і... і, ні... ні, як... так і, не тільки... але й/і. Copulative conjunctions in the contrasted languages have a bilateral combinability. They connect separate components, com ponental parts of word-groups or clauses in compound sentences which are of equal rank, eg: In the afternoon he and Jolly took picks and spades and went to the field. (Galsworthy), «It was a cold fall and the wind came from the mountains». (Hemingway). По обіді він і Джоллі взяли кайла і лопати й пішли на поле. Була холодна осінь, і вітер віяв з гір. І пить будем, і гулять будем. (Ukr. Folk-song) 2) Disjunctive (розділові) conjunctions denote in both languages sepa ration. They are: or, either... or або, ато, чи, або... або, чи... чи, то... то, чи то...чи то, eg: «I must weep, or else this heavy heart will burst». (Byron) «I have nothing of the artist in me, either in faculty or character». (B. Shaw). Я мушу плакати, ато від горя серце розірветься. «Все пішло то на податі, то на борги, то на оренди». (Гончар) 3) Adversative (протиставні): but, still, yet але, проте, зате, однак, все ж and others. Eg: Andrew turned towards her distressed, yet still determined to carry out his intention. (Cronin) Ендрю повернувся до неї занепокоєний, але готовий здійснити свій намір. 4) Resultative (пояснювальні): so, hence так, що, тож/отож, тобто, а саме, як от, eg: The grass was drenching wet, so he descended to the road. (Galsworthy) У траві стояла вода, тож він вийшов на шлях. І він катапультується, тобто вистрілює себе з літака разом з сидінням. (Гончар). 5) The causal conjunction (for) is pertaining only to English, eg: The windows were open, for it was hot. (Galsworthy). The corre sponding semantic equivalent of this conjunction in Ukrainian are, бо, тому що, оскільки - all of subordinating nature which testifies its allomorphism in the system of co-ordinate conjunctions in the contrasted languages. Consequently, it is sometimes far from easy for Ukrainian students to differentiate Ukrainian causal clauses in a complex sentence. It is not so with the subordinating conjunctions introducing subordi nate clauses. These conjunctions also include in both languages the group of the so-called connectives standing separate from regular subordinating conjunctions. Regular conjunctions of this group are: that, whether, if, що, чи, якщо/якби which are used to introduce in both languages subject, object, predicative and attributive clauses. Eg. Whether/if he is going to come or not is still unknown. The question is whether he is going to come or not. He asked if was going to come. I know that he is going to come. This is the flower that was bought there, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: Чи він прийде ще - не відомо. Питання полягає в тому, що/ чи він ще прийде. Я вірю/знаю, що він прийде. Common functions in both contrasted languages are also performed by connective or conjunctive/relative (as they are often referred to) pronouns: who, what, which, how many, хто, що, який, котрий, чий, скільки; and by connective/ conjunctive adverbs: where, when, how, why, де, коли, куди, як, чому. Subordinate conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are of isomorphic nature, i. E. Common in both contrasted languages, too. They express different sense relations and fall into the following groups: 1.Conjunctions of time: since, until, till, as long as, after, before, while, as soon as, коли, відколи, поки, аж поки, доки, аж доки, як, після того як, в міру того як, як тільки, тільки що, щойно, ледве. 2.Conjunctions/connectives of place and direction: where, wherev er, whence, де, де б, куди, звідки. 3.Conjunctions of cause or reason: as, because, since, seeing, бо, через те що, тому що, затим що, оскільки. 4.Conjunctions of condition: if, unless, provided, supposing якби, якщо, якщо б, коли б, аби, скоро. 5.Conjunctions of purpose: lest, that, in order that, so that, щоб, для того щоб, з тим щоб. 6.Conjunctions of result: so that, that, так що, отож:, тож. 7.Conjunctions of concession: though, although, as, even if, even though, however, wherever, whatever, whichever, хоч, хай, нехай, дарма що, незважаючи (на). 8.Conjunctions of comparison: as, as...as, not so... as, than, as if, as though, як, що, мов, мовби, немов, немовби, наче, неначе, начебто, ніби, нібито.
88. Syntactic connection: co-ordinate, subordinate. Definition. Examples.
Coordination and Subordination are ways of combining words, phrases, and clauses into more complex forms. (сурядність) Co-ordinate word-groups in English and Ukrainian are formed from components equal in rank which are connected either syndetically (with the help of conjunctions) or asyndetically (by placement). For example: books and magazines; to read, translate and retell; neither this nor that, книжки й журнали; читати, перекладати й переказувати, ні те й ні се (пядрядність) Subordinate word-groups in all languages are binary by their nature. It means that they consist of a head component, which is the nucleus of the word-group, and of one or more adjuncts/complements. They may be either a single notional word or a group of words/word-group functionally equal to it and having the function of a notional word, eg: my pen, his "oh", your "r", her father and mother, take part in the games, bad for you, the film "They fought for their Motherland", Peter's brother, etc. Coordinative phrases - The elements are equal in their status - Are used to expand sentence components but not to build the structure of the sentence - Are built either (1) with the help of conjunctions expressing coordination (the relation is formally marked) or (2) without conjunctions Subordinative phrases - the main type of phrase in any language - The elements are not equal in their status: a head word + one or more adjuncts - Are used to build the structure of the sentence - Are built either (1) with the help of prepositions expressing subordination (the dependence is formally marked)or (2) without prepositions Додатково Synthetical relations between the components of a phrase agreement - method of expressing a synthectical relationship which consist in making the subordinate word take a similar form of the head word // this book, those books as to the problem of agreement of the verb with the noun and pronoun denoting the subject of the action // a child plays, children play - usually treated on the sentence level government - the use of certain form of subordinate word required by its head word but not coinciding with the form of the head word. Only case in ENG - personal pronouns // invite him adjoinment - the connection between these words is preserved owning to the grammatical and semantic compatibility of the adv. Only verb + adv enclosure - some element of a phrase is enclosed between 2 parts of another element
79. Interjection. Definition. Examples.
Interjection. Definition. Examples. Interjections are unchangeable words or phrases expressing emotional and volitional reaction of the speaker on some event Do not correlate with notions, they do not express any relations or point to any connection with words in an utterance.. Hence, there are to be distinguished communicative, emotive, and signalising interjections, which express respectively joy or pleasure, sadness, warning or repugnance, etc. Cf.: «O-o, grand!» (Priestley) «O-o, пречудово!» «Fine!» (F. Fowles) - Прекрасно! «Oh, keeno!» (Murdoch) - Прекрасно! О, просто чудо! «My, how you've changed!» (Brautigan) — Боже мій, як ти змінився! «Oh, it hurts me. Oh!» (Maltz) - Ой, як болить. Ой! Interjections may be primary (первинні) and derivative (похідні). According to their structure, interjections may be simple, compound and composite, or phrasal. Simple interjections fall into some subgroups, namely: a) interjections consisting of one or two sounds: ah, a-ah, oh, oo, ooh, oof, coo, gee. Or in Ukrainian: а! Е! О! Е-е! Ай! Ах! Ox! Xa! Xe!yx! am! Em! Etc. B) Interjections may consist of consonant sounds only: brr, mm, sh (sh-sh) гм! Хм! Цсс! Шш! Брр! с) interjections often consist of more than two different sounds which form one syllable: gosh, tut, umph, whoop гай! Гей! Гов! Гоп! Пхе! Пхи! Etc; d) interjections can consist of two syllables: alas, ahem, boffo, hello/hullo, okey ага! Агей! Ату! Агусь! Ану! Люлі! Нумо! Овва! Ого! Мугу!); е) reduplicating (повторні) interjections are pertained to both languages as well: ah-ah, ay-ay, ee-ee, goe-goe, how-how, ho-ho, hubba-hubba, chock-chock, ta-ta, tut-tut. Similarly in Ukrainian: a-a, ану-ану, гай-гай, еге-ге, о-го-го, ну-ну, ха-ха. Compound interjections are more characteristic of English than of Ukrainian, eg: heigh-ho, holla-ho, fiddlesticks, whoo-whoop, wo-ho, yo-ho, etc. Cf.: Господи-Боже! Добридень! Спасибі! Боже мій! Derivative interjections constitute a common group in the contrasted languages too. They are mostly of common origin and sometimes even of identical lexical meaning. There are distinguished six types of emotional interjections in the contrasted languages: · А)of substantival origin: beans! Bully! Fiddle! Hell! Lord! Nuts! Raspberry! Rabbit! Rats! Taps! Господи! Матінко! Пене! Боже! Леле! Жах! Страх! Ґвалт! Слава! Хвала! Біда! Горе!; · B)of verbal origin: come! Look! See! Cut! Bother! Shoot! Диви! Гляди! Бач! Рятуйте! Пробачте! Даруйте! Прощайте! Побачимо! Цур! (from цуратися); · с) of adjectival origin (mostly in English): fine! Grand! Right! Dear! Swell! Divine! Gracious!; d) of adverbial origin: here! There! Now! Well! Why? So! Добре! Зараз! Тут! Там! Так! Геть! Прекрасно!; · e) of pronominal origin: «ay me! Oh me!» (Shakespeare) отаке! Стільки ж! Отакої! "Куди ж писати?" "Отакої! Не знає куди!.." (О. Гончар); · f) of phrasal origin (contracted), which are rather numerous in English: howdy (from how do you do), alright (from all right), my! (from my God/my Lord), dammit (from damn it), attaboy (from that's a boy), добридень (from добрий день), спасибі (from спаси біг), тсь! цсс! (from тихіше), etc. Here also belong interjectional orders given to domestic animals. For example: gee-up! Or giddap! Hait! Hi-up! (to horses) но! Гайда! Вйо! Whoa, hoa, whoa! Mnpy! Sookl sook! Цоб-цабе! Puss, puss, puss! Киці, киці-киці; киць-киць-киць; dilly, dilly! Тась, тась! Chook-chook! Chuck-chuck! Ціп-ціп-ціп! Etc. Imitations of sounds produced by birds and animals like dab-dab, mew, cock-a-dooble-doo, moo, how-wow, etc. And their Ukrainian equivalents кря-кря, няв, кукуріку, му-у, гав-гав, can not be treated as interjections or as emotives unless used on some occasions for the sake of stylisation. Cf. «Bow-wow!» Repeated the boy jokingly. «Гав-гав!» повторив, граючись, хлопчина
76. Functionals. Definition. Examples.
Functionals. Definition. Examples. The number of functionals in the contrasted languages is practically the same, the only exception being the article in English. Their nomenclature is as follows: 1) modal words (and modal phrases); - may, might, can, could 2) the preposition; - over 3) the conjunction; - and and but 4) the particle; - up, on, down 5) the interjection - oh, ah, eh, The lexical units belonging to this part of speech are characterised in both languages by their meaning of «modality». They are used to express the speaker's judgement concerning the action/event or object in the utterance/ sentence. These words/phrases in English and Ukrainian are as follows: certainly, indeed, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, of course, no doubt - певне, напевне, звичайно, може, можливо, безумовно, безсумнівно and others. Modals are traditionally classified as follows: 1. Modal words/phrases expressing various shades of certainty: cer tainly, of course, surely, no doubt, assuredly, indeed, undoubtedly, really (певне, напевне, звичайно, безсумнівно, безперечно, безумовно, зрозуміло, правда): . «Sure, he's a bum». (Caldwell) Безперечно, він волоцюга. 2. Modal words expressing various degrees of probability: maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably (може, можливо, мабуть, ймовірно, видно, здається): «Maybe it was all a lie...». «Може, все це була брехня...» (Steinbeck) 3. Modal words expressing various shades of desirability (fortunate ly, unfortunately), which have a restricted number of semantic equiva lents in Ukrainian (на щастя, на жаль, шкода): «You are wrong, unfortunately». «На жаль, ти неправий». «Fortunately, it didn't come true». «На щастя, це не здійсни- () лось».Jacobs 4. Modal words expressing doubt, uncertainty and coinciding in form with the modal words denoting probability (maybe, perhaps, proba bly — може, можливо, мабуть): «Maybe it's not yet time...?» Може, ще не настав час?(Caldwell) «...perhaps you'd better take а ... little longer to consider». (Jacobs) може б ти довше/ще якийсь час над цим поміркував.
87. Juxtaposition (parataxis). Definition. Examples.
Juxtaposition - the act or an instance of placing two or more things side by side often to compare or contrast or to create an interesting effect. Parataxis is a figure of speech in which words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are set next to each other so that each element is equally important. Parataxis usually involves simple sentences or phrases whose relationships to one another—relationships of logic, space, time, or cause-and-effect—are left to the reader to interpret. Julius Caesar's declaration, "I came, I saw, I conquered," is an example of parataxis. some examples of juxtaposition: -- extended; such as comparing and contrasting elements in a research paper or characters in a play (such as comparing Romeo and Tybalt) -- short; such as comparing something simple, as in aspects of two similes or metaphors (something as simple as "her stare was 'as cold as ice' and her passion was 'as hot as fire'") The taste of real coffee. Rich. Smooth. Mellow. Melts in your mouth. Not in your hands.
83. Modality. Definition. Examples.
Modality is about a speaker's or a writer's attitude towards the world. A speaker or writer can express certainty, possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity and ability by using modal words and expressions. Paula can't be home yet. It's impossible. She left 10 minutes after us.He must be her brother. They look so much alike.
80. Particle. Definition. Examples.
Particle. Definition. Examples. Particles - unchangeable words specifying some component in a phrase or the whole phrase (a sentence/clause). As to their morphological structure, particles in the contrasted languages may be: Simple: all, else, even, just, too, yet, not, а, і/й, так, ну, не, ж, еге and others; Derivative: alone, merely, scarcely, simply, нум, нумо, було, просто, все, воно, собі, та, те, це, оце, а, чи; Compound: almost, also (невже, якраз). the semantic groups of particles in both contrasted languages. Namely: 1. Particles of emphatic precision (емфатичного уточнення): absolutely, exactly, precisely, right, точно, справді, просто, прямо and others. 2. Demonstrative particles/вказівні: here, there, ось, от, це, оце, онде, ген, воно: "Here is the man". 3. Affirmative particles/стверджувальні: well, now, yes, так, гаразд, еге, еге ж, атож: "Well, now, tell me if I'm wrong". (H. E. Bates) 4. Intensifying particles / підсилювальні/ are rather numerous in English and Ukrainian: all, but, just, even, simply, yet, still, etc. і, й, та, таки, аж, навіть, вже, ж, бо, же, (a) and others: 5. Negative or form-building (заперечні й формотворні) particles: not, never, no, не, ні, ані. These particles are used for the following purposes: 6. Interrogative particles/запитальні частки: well, really, no, why, why not, га, ну, невже, хіба, та ну, що за, eg: "...This isn't the man". "No?" — Це не той чоловік — Ні? 7. Connecting or linking particles/приєднувальні частки: also, too (тож, також/теж, до того ж, ще й), eg: "Не also takes off his hat and coat over- Він також скидає капелюха й пальто." (В. Shaw)
90. Predicate. Definition. Examples.
Predicate. Definition. Examples. A predicate is the part of a sentence, or a clause, that tells what the subject is doing or what the subject is. As to its structure, the predicate may be in both languages : 1) Simple verbal (expressed by the synthetic or analytical form of the finite verb); 2) Simple nominal, which is very widely used in Ukrainian and much rarer in English. For example: "Splendid game, cricket". (Huxley) - Чудова гра крикет! My ideas obsolete!!!!!!! (B. Shaw) - Моя ідея застаріла!?! Yanosh is/was killed. "Яноша вбито!" (Гончар) Його звільнено з посади. Не is/has been fired. Це вони. Ми студенти, а не учні. Він завжди гарний приклад для інших підлітків. 3) phraseological predicates expressed by verbal set expressions. For example: Of all that Johny took no notice. (London) На все це Джонні не звертав уваги. Clare gave him a sweet look. (Galsworthy) Клер звела на нього ніжний погляд. There exists complete isomorphism in the nature, meaning and structural types of the compound predicate in the contrasted languages. Their subtypes are generally common too. Namely: 1. The Compound Verbal Modal Predicate which comprises a modal verb or its equivalent and the infinitive or gerund (the latter in English only). (Joyce) "We'd better go home." (Galsworthy) Ви повинні бути на роботі зараз. 2. The Compound Verbal Aspective Predicate consisting of verbs denoting the beginning, duration or cessation of an action/state plus the imperfective infinitive or gerund (in English). Eg: Her legs began to tire. (Dreiser) Я продовжуватиму терпіти/зносить свою долю... Не continued blinking his eyes and trying to smile... (Joyce) Він продовжував кліпати очима й намагався посміхатися... 3. The Compound Nominal Predicate consists in both languages of linking verbs which may have a vague lexical meaning (to be, to get) or preserve its lexical meaning (to remain, to become, to grow, to turn, to look, to seem, to feel), which have direct lexical equivalents in Ukrainian. 4. The Compound Nominal Double Predicate is common in both languages as well, eg: The sunlight sifted golden and heavy... (Cusack) Наталка прибігла сердита, захекана. (Гончар) Шлях лежить великий. (Довженко) 5. The mixed types of the compound predicate are of isomorphic nature in English and Ukrainian. They are : a) the compound modal nominal predicate: "It must have been one of the servants". (Maugham) The boy must be forty by now. (Galsworthy) Цьому хлопцеві має бути сорок років. b) the compound phrasal nominal predicate: The scared lad continued to remain silent. (Saroyan) Заляканий учень продовжував бути мовчазним/продовжував мовчати; с) the compound modal phrasal predicate: "You must stop pretending ignorance." (Maugham) "Ти мусиш кинути прикидатися невинною".
77. Preposition. Definition. Examples.
Preposition. Definition. Examples. Is A function word that typically combines with a noun phrase to form a phrase which usually expresses a modification or predication. Prepositions in English and Ukrainian are characterised by both isomorphic and allomorphic features. Isomorphism is clearly observed in the morphological structure of prepositions which can be in the contrasted languages as follows: Types of prepositions Prepositions indicate direction, time, location, and spatial relationships, as well as other abstract types of relationships. Direction: Look to the left and you'll see our destination. Time: We've been working since this morning. Location: We saw a movie at the theater. Space: The dog hid under the table. According to their meaning prepositions in the contrasted languages may express various syntactic relations, the main of which are as follows: 1. Agentive relations: the play written by Shakespeare бути /під чиєюсь високою рукою/під орудою. 2. Objective relations: to be angry/ satisfied with somebody сердитись на когось, помиритися з кимсь. 3. Attributive relations: birds of a feather, the man in question товариші по школі, друзі з Канади. 4. Various adverbial relations: a) temporal: to depart on Monday, to arrive in spring від'їжджати в понеділок, приїхати в березні/через півроку; b) local: in the cottage, behind the fence, in front of the house у хаті, за тином, під лісом с) of direction: into the room, go out of the room, he went to the door у кімнату/з кімнати, зайдіть до хати; d) of manner or comparison: to look in astonishment, the air came in a warm wave глянути з подивом; радощів у серці через край (Тичина); е) of attendant circumstances: Winter set in early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow. (Cronin) зима прийшла зі снігопадами; f) of cause: My dog pants, with the heat собака задихається від спеки. Троє діток на віспу вмерли. (Федькович); g) of concession: they continued their way despite the rain, he would do it in spite of the obstacles. Чорнявому зрадливому на лютеє горе... (Шевченко). Він приїде незважаючи на хворобу; h) of possession: books of his brother, the windows of the cottage. Стояв генерал... при всіх орденах (Яновський). Отже, будемо й ми при розумі. (Головко). 5. Various other relations as: a) Relations of resemblance: she is like her mother (він схожий на батька), b) Relations of subordination: to be secretary to the firm manager бути секретарем у посла, с) Relations of dissociation: to be devoid of suspicion бути вільним від підозри/бути поза підозрою, etc. Ukrainian prepositions may be used with nominals in a certain case form only, as for instance, in the genitive case (без, біля, від, для, до, and others) or with two cases, for example, with the accusative and instrumental case (над, під, перед), and sometimes with three cases (з, за, між, у): у житті, у відповідь, з горя/горем. Therefore, Ukrainian prepositions, unlike the English ones, help to express different syntactic relations through case forms of the subordinated nominal parts of speech in word-groups and utterances/sentences.
75. Statives. Definition. Examples.
Statives in English and Ukrainian are invariable notional words whose logico-grammatical function is to denote the physical state of persons, things or phenomena, the psychological state of persons, state in motion, etc. English statives have a characteristic prefix a- formerly added to the roots of nouns, adjectives or verbs (cf. Afire, aflame, alike, afloat). Ukrainian statives, on the contrary, are formed with the help of some suffixes, which are the following: -о: Романові стало і прикро і якось соромно (Минко); -а: Треба хазяїну на хутір... Шкода журитись, молодичко! (М. Вовчок); -е: Добре Statives in the contrasted languages rarely correlate lexically. Thus, English statives have mostly predicative verbs, adverbs or adjectives for their equivalents in Ukrainian. The combinability of English and Ukrainian statives is characterised by both isomorphism and allomorphism. Isomorphic are the following patterns of stative word-groups in English and Ukrainian: Stative + Vinf.: afraid to answer; треба працювати; (йому) соромно це згадувати; St. + prep. + N: ashamed of the deed/step; соромно за хлопця (йому соромно за свій вчинок); St. + prep. + I: afraid of this/of everything; соромно за неї/за всіх. St. + prep. + Q: afraid of the two/three; треба для /на двох; краще для обох. Among other isomorphic features one more should be pointed out: some statives may have grading. Cf. He is more dead than alive) Allomorphic for Ukrainian, however, is the function of the attribute, typical of the English language only. Cf. The child asleep, the house ablaze, the shore afar, etc. Pertaining only to English is the combinability of statives with the gerund (cf. Afraid of answering, ashamed of having said that). Allomorphism is also pertained to Ukrainian in which some statives may take instead a direct prepositionless nominal complement also other indirect case forms which is impossible in English.
73. The numeral: fractional, cardinal, ordinal. Definition. Examples.
The Numeral in the contrasted languages has a common implicit lexico-grammatical meaning expressing quantity (two, ten, twenty-one, два, десять, двадцять один). It may denote a part of an object (one-third, two-fifths, одна третя, дві п'ятих) or order of some objects (the first, the tenth - перший, десятий). The syntagmatic properties of numerals are characterised in the contrasted languages by the identical combinability of numerals a) with nouns (four days, the first step; чотири дні, перший крок); b) with pronouns (all three, some five or so; всі три, якихось п'ятеро з них); с) with numerals (two from ten, one of the first, the second of the ten; два від п'яти, один із перших, другий з-поміж п'яти); d) with adverbs (the two below/ahead, двоє спереду); е) with the infinitive (the first to соте/to read; перша співати, другий відповідати), etc. Cardinal (кількісні) numerals in both languages denote number: three, five, ten, twenty-one, etc. Три, п'ять, десять, двадцять один. Ordinal (порядкові) numerals denote order of persons or objects and are used in English speech with the definite article: the third, the fifth, the tenth.перший, третій A fractional is numerical value that is a part of a whole. It is evaluated by dividing a whole into number of parts. Numerals in English and Ukrainian may be of isomorphic and allomorphic structure. Namely: 1) Simple (one, two, ten, eleven; один, п'ять, десять, десятеро, двійко, мало, багато, etc). 2) Derivative numerals, pertaining to English only (cf. Thirteen, fourteen... nineteen, twenty, thirty, fifty... ninety) 3) Compound numerals in English are all from twenty-one (twenty-two, etc.) to ninety-nine. In Ukrainian compound are numerals in -надцять (from одинадцять to дев'ятнадцять), and in tens (from двадцять to дев'яносто), except сто. Compound are also fractionals півтора, півтораста; the indefinite cardinals кількадесят, кільканадцять, кількасот, стонадцять, and all ordinals derived from compound cardinals (одинадцятий, дванадцятий, дев'яностий, двохсотий). 4) Composite in the contrasted languages are numerals consisting of compound/composite + simple numerals or vice versa, eg: one hundred and twenty, twenty-two thousand, five hundred and thirty-one; сто два.
72. The adjective. Definition. Examples. into three far from equal by their number groups: Grading of Adjectives in English and Ukrainian
The adjective. Definition. Examples. An adjective is a word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. As to the structure of adjectives they fall in English and Ukrainian into three far from equal by their number groups: 1. Base (simple) adjectives, which are regular root words (cf. Big, bold, clean, high, old, Such base adjectives are few though structurally regular stems in Ukrainian. Винен, годен/згоден, давен, дивен, зелен, певен, ладен. Regular base adjectives, like those in English, are rather rare a few in Ukrainian. They are: варт, рад, жив (і здоров). 2. Derivative adjectives which are in English regular stems: boy ish, capable, grammatical, urban, English, Germanic, beautiful, etc. The Ukrainian language has many derivative adjectives though almost all of them are structurally non-stem adjectives. They are formed with the help of different suffixes, the main of which are as follows: -н-, -езн-, -ськ-/-зьк, -цьк- (товариський, паризький, бузький, козацький); -ан-/-ян-, -ов-/-ев, -ев (гречаний, кропив'яний, березовий, грушевий, баєвий); Та інші Derivative adjectives are formed in English with the help of the following suffixes: -al/-ial (annual, bacterial); -able/-ible (capable, sensible); -ary/-ory (contrary, advisory); -an/-ian: (urban, Ukrainian); -ant/-ent (defiant, divergent); Та інші 3. Compound adjectives may sometimes not correlate in English and Ukranian semantically. For example, the English compound adjective breast-high can have in Ukrainian only a phrase equivalent занурений до грудей/що дістає до грудей; ice-cold is холодний як лід/ крига. Grading of Adjectives in English and Ukrainian Adjectives in English and Ukrainian can be graded to show different levels of the quality they describe. This is done by adding markers to the positive form of the adjective to create the comparative and superlative degrees. English mostly uses a synthetic way of grading for base adjectives (big, bigger, biggest), but also uses analytical forms for other adjectives (important, more/less important, the most/the least important). Ukrainian mostly uses a synthetic way of grading with suffixes and prefixes (добрий, добріший, найдобріший / якнайдобріший), and sometimes changes the stem of the word to form the comparative and superlative degrees. Some groups of adjectives in both languages cannot be graded, including those describing a constant feature (blind, deaf), those describing color (lilac, lemon), those describing hair or eye color (dun, raven-black), and those with special suffixes or prefixes (bluish, reddish).
80. Modals. Definition. Examples.
The lexical units belonging to this part of speech are characterised in both languages by their meaning of "modality". They are used to express the speaker's judgement concerning the action/event or object in the utterance/ sentence. These words/phrases in English and Ukrainian are as follows: certainly, indeed, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, of course, no doubt - певне, напевне, звичайно, може, можливо, безумовно, безсумнівно and others. в книзі ще є класифікація ... та чи потрібна вона? Modals are traditionally classified as follows: 1. Modal words/phrases expressing various shades of certainty: cer tainly, of course, surely, no doubt, assuredly, indeed, undoubtedly, really (певне, напевне, звичайно, безсумнівно, безперечно, безумовно, зрозуміло, правда) 2. Modal words expressing various degrees of probability: maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably (може, можливо, мабуть, ймовірно, видно, здається) 3. Modal words expressing various shades of desirability (fortunate ly, unfortunately), which have a restricted number of semantic equiva lents in Ukrainian (на щастя, на жаль, шкода) 4. Modal words expressing doubt, uncertainty and coinciding in form with the modal words denoting probability (maybe, perhaps, proba bly — може, можливо, мабуть)
67. The noun: сommon, proper, life, inanimate; gender, number, case etc. Definition. Examples.
The noun as a part of speech is characterised in English and Ukrainian by a common lexico-grammatical nature of substantivity or "thingness" Common nouns Concrete nouns - arrow, cap, carp, doll, tree, house, стріла, дерево, кашкетAbstract nouns - fear, hatred, knowledge, news; страх, ненависть, Collective nouns - cattle, crew, family, militia, government, poultry; худоба, Names of materials - air, flour, iron, salt, snow; повітря, цукор, борошно Class nouns - bird, desk, book, cat, flower, glove, kite; птах Proper nouns Names/Nicknames of people(s), nationals - Ann, Yankeys, English, Michael, the Dutch, Nelly, Ukrainians, Oscar — англійці, Ганна, Данило, Михайло, Леся, українці, Надія, Ярослав Мудрий Family names - Adams, Byron, McDonald, Newton, Smith, Shakespeare - Аврамчук, Лукаш, Сміт, Довженко, Винник, Кизима, Шумило, Петлюра, Коновалець, Мельник, Каденюк. Geographical names - Alaska, Chicago, Leeds, Ottawa, the Black Sea, the North Sea, the Buh, Аляска, Вінниця, Київ, Моринці, Чорне море, Північне море, Буг. Names of companies, newspapers, journals, etc.- Ford, Standard Oil, Rolls-Royce, Volkswagen, The Daily Telegraph — "Світоч", фірма "Світанок", "Форд", "Прогрес", "Всесвіт", "Дзвін" Isomorphism is equally observed in the existence of some other grammatically and typologically relevant groups of nouns in English and Ukrainian. Among these are, first of all, life nouns (boy, girl, cat, cock, goat, wolf — хлопець, дівчина, кіт, півень, цап, вовк); inanimate nouns (atom, bell, door, stone — атом, дзвін, двері, шлях); count nouns (pen, star, tree, wall — ручка, зірка, дерево, стіна), and noncount nouns (air, honesty, slavery — повітря, чесність, рабство), etc. When we use a noun, we have to take into consideration three things: Its number-singular or plural. Its gender-masculine, feminine or neuter. Its case-how it's used in the sentence.
94. Sentences. Definition. Examples. declarative, exclamatory, affirmative, negative, interrogative extended composite compound complex subordinate clauses The principal distinguishing features characterising the sentence as a universal language unit are as follows: five common semantic types: A declarative sentence An exclamatory sentence Interrogative Sentence An affirmative sentence negative sentence
The principal distinguishing features characterising the sentence as a universal language unit are as follows: 1) the sentence is the main language unit; 2) it is the main syntactic unit and 3) it is the main integral part of speech, in other words - the principal communicative unit. all sentences in the contrasted languages fall into the following five common semantic types: 1) declarative sentences (statements); 2) interrogative sentences; 3) imperative and inducive sentences; 4) sentences of hypothetic modality; 5) exclamatory sentences. 1. A declarative sentence is generally a simple statement that is used to provide information about something or state a fact. Simple sentence: A simple sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and nothing more. The sky looks blue. Compound sentence: A compound sentence is a sentence with two or more independent clauses. The sky looks blue, and the clouds look gray. Complex sentence: A complex sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and any number of subordinate clauses. If I wear my glasses, the sky looks blue. 2)An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses sudden or strong emotions and feelings. It begins with a capital letter and ends with an exclamation mark. Here are some examples of exclamatory sentences: You were meant to be back yesterday! We won! You're adorable! 3) Interrogative Sentence An interrogative sentence asks a question. It ends with question mark (?). For example: Will you stop trying to fish in my water? 4) An affirmative sentence is any sentence that is positive. Examples: They play cricket. I like chocolates a lot. 5)A negative sentence is a sentence that represents a negative thought, action or opinion. He wasn't eating white rice. We were not sad when he moved away. They don't practice yoga.
89. Subject. Definition. Examples.
The subject acts as the 'doer' or agent of an action. Subjects are typically noun phrases (e.g. a noun or pronoun and any dependent words before or after it): The teacher told the class to sit down. (determiner + noun) Doesn't he eat meat? (pronoun) These functions are common in both languages:1. That of the agent of the action in relation to the predicate. Cf. Dr. Mackrhail sighed faintly. (Maugham) They went upstairs to pack... 2. That of the patient of the action expressed by the predicate: The expense of the election was borne by the party. (Maugham) His thoughts were broken by the Viscount taxiing in. (Hailey) Витрати за вибори сплачувалися партією. Хід його думок був поруше ний підрулюючим літаком "Вайткаунт". 3. The experiencer of an action in relation to the predicate: She didn't like his wife. (Maugham) He had first heard about the pride... at high school. (Hailey) Вона недолюблювала його дружину. Він уперше почув про гордість у коледжі. 4. The recipient of an action in relation to the predicate: The year before he had won the tennis championship. (Maugham) Торік він виграв чемпіонат з тенісу/ став чемпіоном з тенісу. 5. The instrument in relation to the predicate: The engine chuk chuked, the leather belt klupped, the bolts jigjiged... (M. R. Anand) Мотор чахкотів, ремінний пас сичав, тіпалися сита... 6. The eventive function of the subject in relation to the action ex pressed by the predicate: All that had happened was his own fault. (Maugham) Все, що трапилося, було з його власної вини.
70. Person, number, mood (imperative, indicative, subjunctive), tense, aspect, voice. Definition. Examples.
The verb has three persons. These refer to whether the person(s) referred to are speaking, being spoken to or being spoken about.According, the verb is in First Person - I speak. We listen. Second Person - You write. Third Person. - He speaks to me. They listen to me. Number refers to whether the subject is singular (being counted as one) or plural (being counted as more than one). The verb must agree in number with the subject of the sentence. Singular Verbs - He speaks. She listens. Plural Verb - They speak. We listen. The mood (or mode) of a verb shows the manner in which a statement is made. The Indicative Mood is the mood of fact. It is a statement presented as a fact, or a question of a fact. "Rum is an alcoholic liquor". "Is rum an alcoholic liquor"? The Imperative Mood is the mood of command or request. "Close the door". (command) "Please be here on time". (request) The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of doubt, condition, wish, imagination, and the like. "I wish you were here". (But you are not) "If I were you, I would take the chance". (But I'm not you) Tense is the expression of location in time of an action or state. Grammatical tense only roughly relates to time. English has only two verb tenses: present and past. Despite popular belief, English does not have a future tense. Futurity is, instead, expressed through modal verbs, specifically will and shall. For more information on the English modal system, please read the article English Modal Verbs Aspect is the expression of the temporal structure of an action or state. Aspect in English expresses ongoing actions or states with or without distinct end points. English has four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect-progressive. The Voice of a verb shows whether the subject is active or passive. The verb is active if the subject performs an action, and passive if the subject receives an action. "A misinformed electorate put him into office." (active) "He was put into office by a misinformed electorate." (passive)
84. Syntactic relations: attributive, objective, predicative, adverbial. Definition. Examples. (складна тема)
There exist four types of syntactic relations that are also realised in different languages partly via different means. These are: 1) predicative relations; I. Primary predication is universal. It finds its realisation between the subject and predicate in any two-member sentence of any paradigmatic form or structural type. Consequently, primary predication presents a grammatical/syntactic and logico-semantic relation on the Subject-Predicate axis. Eg: "I never said I was a beauty". - Я ніколи не казав, що я є красенем. - he laughed. (Maugham) сказав, усміхнувшись, він. In this quotation three predicates of two types are realised: two simple verbal predicates (/ said, he laughed] and one compound nominal predicate (I was a beauty). These types of predicate are presented in Ukrainian as well. Cf. Я не казав, усміхнувся він, and Я є красенем. Consequently, predication of these sentences in both contrasted languages has an identical expression II Secondary predicative relation is formed in English by verbals in connection with other nominal parts of speech. The secondary predication constructions are formed in English by the so-called infinitival, participial and gerundial complexes, which function as various parts of the sentence. He stood by the creek and heard it ripple over the stones. (Cusack) Він стояв біля струмка і чув як він (струмок) хлюпоче по камінцях. He stood watching the red dawn break in the east. (Caldwell) Він стояв і спостерігав, як народжується (червоний) світанок на сході. 2) objective relations; These, like the predicative, attributive and adverbial relations are undoubtedly pertained to all languages without exception. They are directed by the action of the transitive verb on some object, which may be either a life or lifeless component. Hence, the notions of seeing/hearing somebody or something of being given smth. by somebody, etc. are pertained to each single language and to all lan guages of the world irrespective of their structural/typological differenc es. Hence, depending on the concrete language, these relations may have different/unlike forms of expression i.e. realisation. Thus, the notion to giving something to somebody can be expressed as follows: 3) attributive relations These are formed in all languages between adjuncts and head words (subordinating parts) of nominal word-groups. This can be seen, for example, in the following English sentence and its Ukrainian counterpart: The young man was still fresh, with jaunty fair hair and alert eyes. (D. Lessing) Молодий шахтар ще був свіжим новачком з неслухняною світлою чуприною і жвавими очима 4) various adverbial relations. Adverbial relations in the contrasted languages are created both in co-ordinate and in subordinate word-groups to express different adverbial meanings. The latter may find their realisation in isomorphic by syntactic connection and componental structure coordinate or subordinate word-groups. Subordinate word-groups can be in all European languages substantival, verbal, adverbial and others. Co-ordinate word-groups expressing adverbial relations may be a) substantival: in winter and/or in summer (time) зимою та/чи літом; by hook or by crook усіма правдами і неправдами (manner), b) adverbial, i.e. consisting of adverbial components: quickly and well швидко й добре (manner or attendant circumstances); neither seldom nor often ні часто ні рідко (time or frequency), etc.
69. The verb: аuxiliary, notional, linking. Definition. Examples.
This part of speech in English and Ukrainian has the largest number of features in common. They include first of all the general implicit meaning (the lexico-grammatical nature) of the verb which serves to convey verbiality 1. Auxiliary verbs (to be, to do, to have, shall/will), a) the continuous aspect, i. e. the present, the past and future continuous/progressive tenses (/ am/ was, shall be reading); b) the interrogative and negative or future tense forms of the Indefinite group of tenses (Does he speak English? He did not know me. Will he come soon?); c) the imperative mood/imperative and incentive meanings: Do it now! Do come, please! d) The perfect aspect forms of the verb: I have done it. He had had his dinner by then already. We shall have translated the text by then. e) To express the socalled subjunctive form of the verb: He ordered that everybody be present. Whoever you be you have no right to offend him. f) To express other subjunctive mood forms: His aunt would not give the photograph. (Hardy) I suggest we should meet here. (Snow) I wish / were fifteen. (Maugham) "If they could be answered, surely they'd have been answered by now." (Ibid). Auxiliary verbs in Ukrainian are restricted only to one verb бути, which is polyfunctional and is used to form some categorial meanings: a) the passive voice (текст був перекладений); b) the analytical future tense form (текст буде перекладений); с) some subjunctive mood forms (якби я був знав, я був би прийшов); d) the pluperfect tense form, which fully corresponds to the English past perfect. (Cf. Ніби й задрімав був зразу, але щось приверзлося, то й проснувся. (Головко) Я заходив був до вас якось улітку, але вас не застав тоді вдома). 2. Notionals Semantically verbs divide into: notional/action (with independent lexical meaning) I speak English. semi-notional (with contextualized lexical meaning - modal, aspective, and link verbs) We can speak English. helping/auxiliary (no lexical meaning) Do you speak English? 3. Linking verbs (дієслова-зв'язки) in both contrasted languages form a verbal, nominal or mixed-type compound predicate. They fall into three main groups: 1. Linking verbs of being, which do not always have direct equiv alents in English and Ukrainian. Cf. to be, to feel, to look, to seem, to taste, to smell — бути, виявлятися, зватися, вважатися, доводитися (Не looks young/tired) or in Ukrainian: Це зветься роботою. Це здається правдою). 2. Linking verbs of becoming (not all of which have equiva lents in Ukrainian): to become, to get, to grow, to turn — ставати, робитися (They grew stronger/Вони стали міцнішими. Ліс зробився рудим.). Не became a teacher — Він став учителем. But: He turned gray/ Він посивів. Вона постаріла. She grew older. 3. Linking verbs of remaining (to remain, to keep, to stay, to continue): He remained silent/satisfied. Він зостався задоволений. The winter continued damp and wet. (Cronin) The weather kept obstinately hot and dry. (Wells) Погода вперто стояла жаркою і сухою.
74. Verbals. Definition. Examples.
Those are Non-Finite Forms of the Verb. There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: · the infinitive ( progressive , non-progressive) - (to write,), · the gerund - (writing), · participle I - (writing), · participle II - (written). The English infinitive is always distinguished by its identifier «to» (to come, to be asked, to be doing), whereas the Ukrainian infinitive is characterised by the suffixes -ти, -ть, -тись, -тися. Specifically Ukrainian, as was pointed out, is the diminutive infinitive formed by combined suffixes: спатки, спатоньки A non-finite verb is most often not the main verb in the sentence. Unlike finite verbs, non-finite verbs do not include main verbs and do not show any tense. The gerund and the diyepryslivnyk present allomorphic verbals in English and Ukrainian respectively. As a result, they can not be contrasted in any way. The gerund has both verbal and noun characteristics, The Ukrainian diyepryslivnyk, whether active or passive or non-perfective present and perfective past, remains an indeclinable verbal form.
85. Agreement (coordination). Definition. Examples.
agreement is the correspondence of a verb with its subject in person and number, and of a pronoun with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. Another term for grammatical agreement is concord. Any speaker committed to using it has to keep track of four details in every sentence uttered: whether the subject is in the third person or not: He walks versus I walk. whether the subject is singular or plural: He walks versus They walk. whether the action is present tense or not: He walks versus He walked. whether the action is habitual or going on at the moment of speaking (its "aspect"): He walks to school versus He is walking to school.
86. Government (subordination). Definition. Examples. Дивна тема
government - the use of certain form of subordinate word required by its head word but not coinciding with the form of the head word. Only case in ENG - personal pronouns // invite him Synthetic government in English can be observed only in verbalword-groups having the following structural patterns: 1) the Vmf +Iobj or 2) Ving+ Iobj with the pronoun in the objective case form, eg: to see him (her, them, whom), seeing him (her, them, etc.). The analytical and synthetic connection is observed in all other kinds of English word-groups with these same objective case pronouns, eg: reference to him, four of them, none of whom, much for me, depend on her, afraid of them/us. As to synthetic agreement/concord, its use is restricted in present-day English, as was mentioned, to six patterns of substantival word-groups, in which adjuncts are the demonstrative pronouns this/that -these/those, such a/such + Nsing. — Nplur.: this/that book —these/those books, such a case/such cases; many a girl — many girls(of this age).
82. Substantivity. Definition. Examples.
substantivity or "thingness" finds its realisation not only in concrete nouns (book, boy, house, tree, fish, meat, etc.) but also in abstract nouns (love, hatefulness, business, information, etc.). A substantive is a broad classification of words that includes nouns and nominals. Here is an example of the substantive noun being used correctly within the context of a sentence. "On his walk home from his job, the man decided to stop by at the regular and order a hearty Southern dinner." In this sentence, the term "regular" is an adjective being used as a substantive noun.
