Kaplan video notes cards

Zimbardo Prison Study - the Stanford Prison Experiment

- Final of three studies on conformity/obedience: to study how social norms/conventions can influence behaviors of participants playing the roles of prisoners/guards. - Study was conducted in 1971 - Purpose: how conformity/obedience can result in acts different from usual (on their own) or even contrary to how they think they would act. The answer is complicated (not only bad people do bad things). In certain situations can make otherwise ordinary people behave in strange ways. - Goal: How social norms/conventions can influence behaviors of participants playing the roles of prisoners/guards. (see card in the other set)

mirror neurons

- Found in areas of brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premotor cortex (frontal lobe), and somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) - when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person

Anomia /anomic aphasia

- inability to name things - characterized by problems difficulties in naming objects or in retrieving words.

Lexicon

A set of vocabulary items. entire set of morphemes in a language In ASL, that would mean the total combinations of hand movements, locations, facial expressions, and body language that help them to form meaningful words.

ANS - sympathetic

FIGHT OR FLIGHT - Increase adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine - pupils dilate (want to be able to see better/bring in more light) - Decrease in salivation (nervous when you are doing public speaking) - increase respiration rate (more O2) - increase heart rate (more O2) - increase glucose release (more energy) - Decrease in digestion (takes too much energy, want to divert energy to other areas)

Linguistic determinism

Language has an influence on thought. - two components, based on how much language is thought to influence thoughts/cognition 1. Weak Hypothesis (Weak Linguistic Determinism/relativism) 2. Strong hypothesis (Strong Linguistic Determinism/ Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis)

strong self-efficacy

People with strong self-efficacy recover quickly from setbacks, have strong/deep interest, strong sense of commitment to activities, and enjoy challenging tasks (Acronym: RISE. R=Recover, I= Interest, S=Strong sense of commitment, E = Enjoy challenging tasks)

weak self-efficacy

People with weak self-efficacy focus on personal failures/negative outcomes, avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in personal abilities, and believe they lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations (Acronym: FALL, F= failures, A= Avoid challenging tasks, L=lose confidence, L=Lack ability to take on complex tasks)

Language has 5 components

Phonology (smallest unit = phoneme) Morphology (small unit = morphemes) Semantics Syntax pragmatics

Written rules and regulations

Pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go) Con - stiffens creativity, and if too much structure discourage employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules obedience become more important than goals of organization)

ANS - parasympathetic

REST AND DIGEST: opposite effects of sympathetic nervous system • Pupils constrict • Increased Salvation • Decrease respiratory rate/decreased heart rate (back to normal) • Increase glucose storage (digesting food) • Decrease in adrenalin • Increase digestion.

Socialization

a life-long process where we learn how to interact with others. Everything we consider to be normal is actually learned through socialization - how we learn to walk/talk/feed ourselves, and how we learn behavioural norms that help us fit in

External locus of control

attribute events to environmental events/causes - the control is not at their hands Ex. If someone with external locus of control does bad on a test they attribute to hard test questions, or unfair instructors and if they do well on a test they attribute it to the teacher being lenient/they were lucky.

Aphasia

disorder that involves language. Aphasia is a communication disorder that causes problems with language, like speaking, listening reading, and writing

Behaviorist view of language

empiricist, believe language is just conditioned behavior - Language is learned through association, specifically operant conditioning - children aren't born with anything, they only acquire language through operant conditioning - Child learns to say "mama" because every time they say that, mom reinforces child. But doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before or unique sentences - Associated with BF Skinner.

Laws

established standards of behavior that are written down and have very clear consequences

Syntax

how words are arranged to create grammatically correct sentences In ASL, this would mean combining multiple signs, gestures, and body movements to communicate effectively. - All languages have some form of syntax.

Internalization

idea/belief/behavior has been integrated into our own values- we conform to the belief privately (genuinely believe those ideas now) - Stronger than other types of conformity Ex: start going to gym to comply with friends, but then might internalize that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior refers to the normal process where children learn and absorb (internalize) knowledge and rules about the world from social context, rather than through being specifically told. This is how children learn how to alter their behavior in response to the situation that they are in (home, school, church, playground, etc.)

Xenocentrism

judging another culture as superior to one's own culture (~opposite of ethnocentrism)

Materialist view of language

look at what happens in brain when people think/speak/write

Phonology

phonetic component, actual sound of a language. "a sound system": Phono- = sound - 40 phonemes (smallest unit of sound) in English language - Distinction between sounds: categorical perception. Children must learn to do this! • In ASL - hand movements and locations are analogous to sound in spoken language, they are classified as phonemes (smallest unit of language)

Universalism (for language)

thought determines language completely. Your thought dictates language. • A Universalist believes that human cognition shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions Ex: The New Guinea people only think about dark and light. If they had other thoughts, they would develop words for them. country in New Guinea that has only two words for color "mola" meaning dark and "mili" meaning light

Internal locus of control

when person believes he or she can influence events/outcomes; the control is inside them, in their hands - Events/Results come primarily from their own actions. Ex.) If someone w/ internal locus of control did bad on a test, they attribute outcome to not studying or if they did well based on their ability to study. - People w/ internal locus of control feel like they control their own destiny. - Tend to be happier, less depressed, less stressed.

False consensus

when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not

Prejudice vs. Discrimination

• Prejudice = "attitudes" that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. Ex. CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team. • Discrimination = differential treatment and harmful actions (THE BEHAVIOR, perhaps as a result of attitude) against minorities. ACTIONS ARE BEING TAKEN on negative-attitude (going a step further from prejudice) Ex. say there's a woman who's very good at the job, but doesn't promote her/let her run a team just because she's a woman *Prejudice (cognitive, attitude) --> Discrimination (behavior, action)

Stereotype threat

(negative consequence of stereotyping) - self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype - exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually cause decrease in the performance of an individual performing the task - Stereotype threatens performance Ex. Blue and red students, both perform equally. Next time, implement negative stereotype about blue students, such as saying negative comments that use a characteristic of the blue student to criticize him/her through stereotyping/overgeneralizing, blue students perform worse because blue student fears being stereotyped next time when he/she performs task

Nativists view of language

"native, innate"; - innatist, language must be innate: children are born with ability to learn language - associated with Noam Chomsky: thought humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language - Idea that this ability exists - all languages shared universal grammar (same basic elements like nouns, verb, etc). So LAD enables child to pick up on understand/pick up on those elements of language and their organization within a sentence for any language. - there's a "critical period" (also called sensitive period), thought to be from birth to age 8-9, the period of time a child is most able to learn a language. After that, becomes harder because LAD only operates in that critical period. Once you start using it, LAD starts specializing for your language and unable to detect others.

Conformity

"peer pressure", tendency for people to bring behavior/cognition in line with group norms - Powerful in social situations - We use social situations (especially ones with peers) to determine what is acceptable, when to question authorities, and get feedback on behavior - This is why it is important for people to have positive peers. If group behavior is positive, then there will be peace, harmony, happiness - Negative peers = negative behaviors, which can be catastrophic conformity can lead to positive outcome: Ex: If you see a bunch of people running out of a building, that you are just about to enter, you would probably conform to this behavior and run away as well Can lead to negative behavior. Ex. In teenagers peer pressure can lead to negative behaviors. "If your friend jumped of a bridge, would you too" people still conform to others around them even the behavior is negative. why? ex. Imagine you are part of a group asked to train a dog. Group decides to train it with a shock color and you agree. Why would you agree? reasons: two types of social influence can cause you to confirm/agree - informative influence/informative social influence - normative influence/normative social influence

OUT group

- Group we're not associated with: "THEM" - group of people who we do not feel connected too

Oligarchy

- a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution

Imitation

- a type of individual social influence, one of most basic forms of social behavior - Begins with understanding there's difference between others and our self

Semantics

- association of meaning with a word - Semantics are the broad meanings of each word, phrase, sentence, or text

Broca's aphasia

- can't produce speech = expressive aphasia A type of nonfluent aphasia, so called because speech production is halting and effortful. Damage is typically in the anterior portion of the left hemisphere. The dominant feature is agrammatism (impaired syntax). Content words (nouns, verbs) may be preserved but sentences are difficult to produce due to the problems with grammar, resulting in "telegraphic speech." In its more severe form, spoken utterances may be reduced to single words. Comprehension is typically only mildly to moderately impaired, and impairments are primarily due to difficulty understanding complex grammar. Repetition of words and sentences is usually poor.

Coercive Organization

- members don't have choice about membership ex. people in a prison, or the military (you need to be discharged to leave) - Usually highly structured and have very strict rules

3 types of conformity

- publicly conform (Compliance) - Identification - privately conform (Internalization)

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - Robert Sternberg

3 independent intelligence; based on real world success: - analytical (problem solving ability) - creative intelligence (adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas and adapt) - practical intelligence (solve ill-defined practical problems, such as moving a heavy bookcase up a curvy staircase) Acronym: 3 iceBERGS good point: Reliable—easy to study by research. bad point: Research shows that scores of all intelligences vary together. Are these 3 sides of the same coin? maybe these three are all actually based on the same underlying intelligence?

preparatory stage

* interaction through imitation ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words) - at this stage, still can't take perspective of others *we learn to imitate the roles of others around us, or role-play. This includes teachers, parents and close relatives By taking on the roles of those adults who are closest to them, children develop a better understanding of adult social roles. For example, a 4-year-old boy might put on his father's hat and pretend to be his father

Limbic system

- A set of structures in the brain, and many structures play an important role in regulating emotions - Responsible for storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions. • Structures of the limbic system: Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, and Hippocampus (memory storage, in this case associates with limbic, to store memory along with associated emotions at the time it was encoded) Acronym: hippo wearing a HAT (HAT Hippo) - Hypothalamus (regulate ANS, both sympathetic and parasympathetic) - Amygdala (activated when person feels anger, fear; also activated when see anger or fear on other people's faces: *in patient SM who naturally lacks amygdala, can't detect anger or fear on people's face) - Thalamus - HIPPOcampus

Bystander Effect

- Bystander effect: Individual may feel less inclined to take action because of presence of others in the group. The bystander effect refers to a group process in which individuals observe an injustice or a crime being perpetuated and do not intervene. - Small group = less bystander effect. Large group = more bystander effect (leads to no one does anything to help and people might not even call 911) famous story: story of Kitty Genovese - 28 year old women living in NYC who was stabbed, raped, and robbed while 38 people were in vicinity (witnesses). Horrific attack spanned over half an hour. Kitty was pleading for help and the attacker later returned to kill her. 38 witnesses didn't take action because there were so many other people present in the vicinity. reasons explaining bystander effect: - diffusion of responsibility theory

Socialization

- Charles Cooley and George Herbert Mead both thought others could play a significant role in how we view ourselves, however, they differed in how they thought this would happen --> Cooley thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity --> Mead thought this was more restricted - only certain people can and only in certain periods of life. Mead also thought that the way others influence us changes across the lifespan; also thought that the way others influence us changes across the lifespan *Cooley's definition is broader ("cool", chill, less restricted definition)

Dramaturgical Approach/Theory

- Concepts of front stage self, back stage self, impression management, and communication are all relevant to the dramaturgical approach to social interactions. - Erving Goffman (1940) studied nature of people's interactions. He noticed people planned their conduct, people want to guide and control how they're seen, and act differently alone than in public. They put the best presentation of themselves that they can. - Says people do all these things through process of "dramaturgy" - uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions. When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience 2 main parts of dramaturgy: - front stage - back stage *Both help us explain how humans behave in a social setting

Primary group vs. Secondary group

Example: wedding. • Bride and groom sit with close friends known for a long time/close family (bridal party). • Primary group: Groom played football in college. His teammates are in his primary group because they know each other well (countless hours practicing with each other) • Neighborhood of bride really were close to each other. Went to the beach, had cookouts, and the neighborhood was a giant community. This would be a primary group of the wife. • Secondary group: parents work friends, distant family, acquaintances (guests there to keep strong relationships in the future. Distant family there to avoid future family drama due to not being invited etc /avoid hurting people's feelings)

bureaucracy

Organizations achieve maximum efficiency through bureaucracy - the rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations. (DOES NOT mean something negative, lines, or red tape)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to explain someone's behavior based on internal factors, such as personality or disposition, and to underestimate the influence that external factors, such as situational influences, have on another person's behavior. ex.) We explain the fact that someone is unemployed based on his character, and blame him for his plight ("he just didn't want to study in school, he was lazy to find a job etc.) when in fact he was recently laid off due to a sluggish economy or his boss was mean Of course, there are times when we're correct about our assumptions, but the fundamental attribution error is our tendency to explain the behavior of others based on character or disposition (internal characteristics). This is particularly true when what we see is negative

In-Group favoritism

we favor/friendly to people in our own group, but those in out-group we are neutral - we don't give them favors as we do to our in-group

Factors for OBEDIENCE

- Depends on type of authority giving orders. - Our closeness to authority giving orders- more likely to accept orders from someone we respect - Physical proximity - more likely to comply with someone we are close to. In Milgram when authority standing close by/behind the experimenter (the teacher) they are more likely to obey. - Legitimacy of authority - if wearing labcoat/carry a clipboard we are more likely to obey. Shown in Milgram study. - institutional authority - well-respected university. Expectation that these places won't give you a harmful command. Can also be physical or symbolic (ex. police/government). - Victim distance - in original Milgram study, teacher couldn't see learner (victim). If could see the student, reduced likelihood participant (teacher) would obey experimenter. But still didn't stop everyone (30% of participants gave all shocks) - Depersonalization - when learner/student is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them; this can go both ways, depersonalization can also happen when the participant feels he/she is not acting within own body, instead stepped outside self and watching self act. - Depersonalization is a symptom of serious mental illness (although it can happen to anyone, repeated instances are suggestive of a dissociative disorder) in which a person feels like she has stepped outside of herself and is watching herself act, with no sense of control over her behavior. - Role models for defiance - more likely to disobey orders when we see others disobeying/defying. - we can't say there is one personality that's more likely to conform or obey because moods, culture, SES etc. can all influence our behavior: ex. on a rough day, we are less likely to conform etc.

Global aphasia

- Global Aphasia -Both Broca's Aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia are damaged - Global aphasia is a combination of impaired comprehension and production of speech. Acronym: Globally affects language. A type of nonfluent aphasia with severe impairment of both expressive and receptive skills. Usually associated with a large left hemisphere lesion. People are often alert and may be able to express themselves through facial expressions, intonation, and gestures.

Group polarization

- Group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want - decisions and opinions of people in a group setting become more extreme than their actual, individual held beliefs - the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members - This can turbo charge the group's viewpoints

Factors for CONFORMITY

- Group size - more likely to conform in groups of 3-5. - Unanimity - whether everyone in the group agrees (unanimity) or when unanimity breaks (disagreement appears): lack of unanimity leads to reduced normative conformity In another variation of the original experiment Asch broke up the unanimity (total agreement) of the group by introduced a dissenting confederate. Asch (1956) found that even the presence of just one confederate that goes against the majority choice can reduce conformity as much as 80%. For example, in the original experiment 32% of participants conformed on the critical trials, whereas when one confederate gave the correct answer on all the critical trials this conformity dropped to 5%. This was supported in a study by Allen & Levine (1968). In their version of the experiment they introduced a dissenting (disagreeing) confederate wearing thick-rimmed glasses - thus suggesting he was slightly visually impaired. Even with this seemingly incompetent dissenter conformity dropped from 97% to 64%. Clearly the presence of an ally decreases conformity. The absence of group unanimity lowers overall conformity as participant feel less need for social approval of the group (re: normative conformity). - Group status - why children more likely to go along with popular group. Why we trust four doctors over four gardeners about our health. - Group cohesion- if we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with that group. - Observed behavior - whether we believe our behavior is observed. In Ash experiment, when the participant came in late, they said his response would be recorded on paper and not shared with the group. If response in Asch line was not shared with group, the experimenter was much less likely to conform. - Public response - if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. (happy to conform if we will be met with shunning when we disagree, but will happily not conform if we think we will be met with acceptance) - Internal factors: --> prior commitments - if we say something earlier that goes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are more likely to say something different again later. If we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformity because we will say the same thing now. We are not likely to change what we say. --> feelings of insecurity makes us more likely to follow judgements of others (conformity)

Factors in attraction

- How similar someone is to us is huge predictor of attraction - Close friends and couples are more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, interests, and values. We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion, and economic status/educational level. We like people who are like ourselves in looks - We like people like us (same interests/attitudes) as well people like us who are similar to us on any level (like sharing same physical features

Individual discrimination

- Individual person acting to discriminate based on something (sex, religion, race, age etc) ex. a science professor who doesn't let women into his class. (in this example sex discrimination)

Sexual response cycle/Sex - motivational factors

- Investigated by Master & Johnson (Acronym: MJ loved Sex) - They studied 100s of male and female volunteers during sexual activity - measured the physiological indicators and they turned the results into the Sexual response cycle. 1. First part of cycle is excitement phase, marked by increased heart rate, muscle tension, BP, etc. 2. Second is plateau. 3. orgasm. 4. is resolution/refractory period. Biological factors: * sexual drive/activity was related to testosterone for women and men (sexual activities increased testosterone which in turn increased the sex drive). *Also have genetic predisposition to sexuality, and found by looking this by studying at homosexuality * Hormones involved: - Prolactin is related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm. - Endorphins produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure, and are released post-orgasm. - Oxytocin is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners. Socio-cultural motivation factors/drives: - varied sexual response due too: age, cultural background (certain practices acceptable in certain cultures but not others) - stimulus (determined by how responsive we are to visual/tactile stimuli) - emotions (psychological influence), and desires (to procreate or not).

Kohlberg - Moral Development

- Moral theory of development, different from previous 3, but based on cognitive development (so this is similar to Vygotsy) - Looked at how people developed their morals, and the way moral reasoning changes as people grow (instead of emotional/physical development) studied children: - He told stories to children and gauged their response. • Most famous story was the Heinz Dilemma, his wife was dying from cancer and drug was made by local chemist that could save her. Chemist charged 10x the price it took to make the drug, and more than Heinz could afford. After asking family, he only had half the money, and explained to chemist his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug for cheaper/pay the chemist at a later date. Chemist refused. Heinz, desperate to save his wife, then broke into chemist's office at night and stole the drug. - Asked children questions like what if Heinz didn't love his wife, or if person dying was a stranger, should he have stolen it, and should police arrest chemist for murder if woman died. - After analyzing these, he came up with 3 moral stages, each split into 2 sub ones --> total of 6 stages.

devil effect/reverse halo effect

- Now imagine someone who we think is overall very poor. Even if baseline skills are same, we perceive them to all be lower - Can carry over into how we see other attributes about the person. Happens if overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative. ex. continuing Jim, bad first impression, then from being good at accounting we can perceive them as being mediocre, we can perceive someone as being awful at sales (even though they are great). We can see them as having terrible leadership (instead of being moderately good). The reduction of our perception depends on the situation.

Just world hypothesis (social perception, also see Migram experiment on Obedience)

- Predictable result as a consequence for our actions: Noble actions performed/good deeds by an individual are rewarded, while evil acts/deeds are always punished - "You got what you deserve". "you got what was coming to you" Ex: our college Tom does a noble-act (helps an old lady cross the road. We would expect a predictable appropriate consequence such as a reward. Ex: Tom performs an evil act, he gets punished. - as if there is some kind of special force, "cosmic justice" at play. - Reason people think in this way because it helps individuals rationalize their or others good/fortune or misfortune. - Also allows people to feel like they can influence/take control of their world - easier to engage in goal oriented behavior and plan for the future. Ex. if I go to school I will be rewarded in life. If I work hard, I will get what I want. If I do the right thing, I will get rewarded. - However, just-world doesn't always hold true - people are not always rewarded for their actions and punished for their evil deeds. Ex. Using this just-world hypothesis we may blame people in poverty for being poor because they deserve it. Or victims of domestic violence for being victims because they deserved it

Charles Cooley

- Socialization: describes the process by which people learn the attitudes, behaviors, and values expected by their culture/community. Socialization learning occurs through observation of/interaction with people- those close to us and everyone else (ex. parents, peers, person at supermarket, celebrity, etc.) --> Everyone has something to teach us on how we should act in our community (broader than Mead, Mead says we are influenced by the perceptions of only those who are significant to us) "looking glass self": idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others; Socialization also shapes our self-image and self-concept - this process happens in three steps: 1) How do I appear to others? 2) What must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, or awkward) 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations). **key part: Cooley believed we are not exactly being influenced by the actual opinions of others, but instead what we imagine/believe the opinions of other people to be about me Ex. Say we have teacher grading paper harshly, and doing it because they think that student has a lot of potential. But student gets paper back, think the teacher did so because student is not very intelligent, and came to conclusion they're not very good at literary analysis. Might result in student putting less effort into the class. Student is acting on incorrect perception on what teacher's actual opinions are. Since attitude influences behaviors, we can put less effort into this class instead of more. - But can also be influenced by future interactions - student might talk to teacher, and student was able to revise their incorrect perceptions and develop a different self- perspective.

game stage

- Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other" (society as a whole) - With this comes whole new understanding of society - Children start to realize that people perform in ways not only on what they personally believe but what also in the ways society more broadly expects of them. - they understand that people can take on multiple roles (people can be more than just moms, doctors, or teachers - they can be multiple things @ once) - Also realize others have opinions about them and those perceptions others have are based on how they act and what they say - They begin to be influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do - Through understanding the generalized other, they are able to predict the consequences of their behaviors and how they will affect others. - They also can anticipate the actions of others But don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (people with important relationships to individual, ex. parents/teachers/close peers). - Believe this last stage led to development of the "I" and "me"

Vygotsky- Sociocultural Cognitive development theory

- Studied the role social interaction plays in development of cognition. - Focused on social interactions between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of cognition-higher order learning. - Said babies have 4 elementary mental functions: Attention, sensation, perception, and memory These elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes -" higher mental functions"= Independent learning and thinking Higher mental functions cultivated by "tutor" (a model) from whom we model our behavior. Tutor = model, (parent, teacher etc) and child tries to understand instructions/actions provided by tutor and they internalize it ex.) solving a puzzle as a kid. You have a hard time as a kid, but a parent (the model, "tutor") gives tips and strategies to solve the puzzle and the second time you can internalize these ideas and do it on your own (became independent thinking = developed into higher mental functions).

(social) Interactionist (view of language)

- Vyogotsky - believed biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language - Children's desire to communicate with others - such as adults in their life, makes them motivated to learn language

(social) Role exit

- When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity. Ex. When an individual retires from a long career and must transition from the role of worker with deadlines and responsibilities to a leisurely life or when an individual becomes a parent and has to change their lifestyle.

recency bias (under social perception)

- Your most recent actions are also very important; people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before Ex: you're only as good as your last game, last match

Zimbardo prison study III - problems

- Zimbardo himself played role of prison warden (to observe behaviors of input), but by doing so he compromised his objectivity (not a neutral observer). He was so involved that he passively allowed a lot of unethical behavior. Why didn't stop? He himself thought they were faking it to get released.. - Also, according to scientific methodology, this wasn't a good experiment. What were the operational definitions of dependent/independent variables? What was being manipulated, what was being measured, where were controls, etc.? Also small sample size? Different results if other people were involved? (Cant replicate so hard to know!) Also good example of demand characteristics (how much of behavior was influenced by how they thought experimenter wanted them to behave consciously or unconsciously). - Possible that all participants were acting the way that Zimbardo wanted them to act. (maybe Hawthorne effect? the participants were aware they were being observed by experimenter, so could change their behavior because of this awareness - Zimbardo) - Also could have been affected by "selection bias" - no deception in study, so what kind of student willingly signs up to be in prison for 2 weeks? So, was this really random sample? • Overall: these criticisms don't discredit its results. The results of the study line up with other studies of conformity and obedience with stricter methodologies

arcuate fasciculus

- a bundle of nerve fibers connecting Broca's region and Wernicke's region - also found in deaf people who know sign language. Not specific to spoken language (brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication) when articulate fasiculus is damaged --> conduction/ associative aphasia: difficulty repeating what he/she heard - ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted

Status / Social Status

- a person's social position in society - Each person has many statuses ex. One individual can be a Son, student, and friend, etc. - They affect the type of interactions we have - some situations people are equal (ex. you and your friend, you feel comfortable talking things out) some not - you hold an inferior (ex. with professor - you are submissive/respectful, and less negotiate) or superior to the other (ex. President of an organization. You have control over your members. Your members respect you more so).

conduction/associative aphasia

- ability to conduct between listening/understanding speech (wernicke's) and speaking (Broca's) is disrupted - connection between wernicke's and broca's disrupted A type of fluent aphasia with a prominent impairment with repetition. Damage typically involves the arcuate fasciculus and the left parietal region. The patient may be able to express him- or herself fairly well, with some word-finding issues, and comprehension can be functional. However, the patient will show significant difficulty repeating phrases, particularly as the phrases increase in length and complexity and as they stumble over words they are attempting to pronounce. This type of aphasia is rare. *Think of broca's as more about having difficulty producing speech, say the person wants to initiate conversation by producing speech, but can't. ("just the speaking part") *Conduction affects connection between broca's and wernicke's, so can't connect between what they heard and the production part = can't repeat words, sentences even if they understand what they heard ("the speaking part after listening")

Deindividuation

- another phenomenon of big crowd those in group are more likely to act inappropriately, such as commit violent acts, act impulsively, perform antisocial behavior, because crowd conceals person's identity = deindividualize Ex.) behavior of some on Black Friday. Presence of large group causes more violence (shoppers trample employees, shot shoppers, stolen goods from stores). Presence of large group decreases their inhibition/guilt, hence increases antisocial/deviant behavior. Ex.) internet - anonymous platform causes people to express opinions they typically would not express. (ex. Youtube comments people are nasty, cyber bullying)

Aggression

- any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy. Ex. Physical, verbal, or spreading a malicious rumor - often stems from a combination of all 3 below components together: 1. Biology: Genes, brain structures (amygdala-fear, anger; frontal lobe - control); testosterone level, high correlates with more aggression 2. Psychological: "Frustration-aggression principle": idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration. Ex. Physical pain or presence of crowd. Higher temperatures can also lead to frustration.(more violent crimes when the weather is hot) "Reinforcement-modeling" can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future. - Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too (parents can model aggressive behavior - child can observe and pick up behavior of parents). 3. Socio-cultural: - People act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots) - deindividuation - you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people. If people around individual act poorly, individual might act poorly too. This also explains why there is poor behavior on the internet (they are anonymous here, and those around them model poor behavior). - "Social scripts" - when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on how to act. Ex. violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act. (especially for children or teenager who have not had much of their own experience in real society, follow models in video games, may believe violent or aggressive acts are the right ways to behave)

halo effect (social perception)

- as if someone has a halo over their head: If we have an overall positive first impression, we start to analyze all their skills based on our overall first impression rather than just skills - They get an overall boost in each of their skills because of our impression Ex. Jim, our initial overall impression is in the middle. His accounting rating/skills is very high, sales are negative, and leadership is moderately good. Now imagine, he gives an overall very good impression, even though he has the same actual skill set. We would perceive that the person is much better at other skills not demonstrated. Regardless of evidence, We may perceive he's actually pretty good at sales instead of below average, We may say he is extra-ordinary in leadership and accounting instead of just good. Halo effect often happens with celebrities, and greater attractiveness. Ex. we think attractive people are kind, good leaders, hospitable without actual evidence.

Social facilitation

- audience effect - another phenomenon that results from working in groups but can be positive or negative. It is the tendency of the presence of others to affect how well we perform a task - the tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others than when alone. Compared to their performance when alone, when in the presence of others, they tend to perform better on simple or well-rehearsed tasks and worse on complex or new ones why does this happen? o Presence of others increases your arousal - your general physiological or psychological excitement (Increased HR, faster breathing, activation of autonomic nervous system) and is known as nervous energy. Increased energy/arousal increases likelihood of dominant response occurring. What the dominance response will display as depends on how easy the task is, and how well you've learned it/rehearsed it. - if you are familiar with the task or the task is easy, then that arousal will stimulate you in a good way (optimal stimulation/arousal), help you to perform better - if you are unfamiliar with the task or the task is very complex, then that arousal will make you nervous, anxious (too much stimulation/arousal, the right end of graph), and you will perform more poorly in the presence of other people than when performing alone Summary: Social facilitation- Presence of others improves performance (helps) on simple tasks/well-practiced tasks, and hinders it on difficult tasks/unpracticed/new tasks. (This is known as Yerkes-Dodson Law (inverted U) - performance is the best only when the arousal is at optimal level, not too little, not too much which makes you more nervous and interferes your performance) Also, if the person knows he/she is evaluated, this increases arousal also. Increases effect of social facilitation? Ex: if you are giving a presentation to close friends who are not evaluating you, you may not have any nervous energy, because you feel comfortable around them

Self-efficacy

- belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation / to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation - Self-efficacy is a more specific than self-esteem. Can have an impact on everything from psychological states, to behavior and motivation - All people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they want to achieve. Most people realize that putting plans into action is not so simple. So how is this challenge approached depends on one's self-efficacy --> Self-efficacy plays a role in how individual goals, challenges are approached. 2 types: -strong -weak

Asch Conformity Studies (Asch Line Studies)

- by Solomon Asch, part of the group known as Gestalt Psychologists - believed not possible to understand human behavior by breaking down into parts, people must be understood as whole; social setting matters, influence behavior Imagine yourself in the following situation: You sign up for a psychology experiment, and on a specified date you and seven others whom you think are also participants arrive and are seated at a table in a small room. You don't know it at the time, but the others are actually associates of the experimenter (= confederates), and their behavior has been carefully scripted. You're the only real participant. The experimenter arrives and tells you that the study in which you are about to participate concerns people's visual judgments. She places two cards before you. The card on the left contains one vertical line. The card on the right displays three lines of varying length. The experimenter asks all of you, one at a time, to choose which of the three lines on the right card matches the length of the line on the left card. The task is repeated several times with different cards. On some occasions the other "participants" unanimously choose the wrong line. It is clear to you that they are wrong, but they have all given the same answer. What would you do? Would you go along with the majority opinion, or would you "stick to your guns" and trust your own eyes? Aim: Solomon Asch (1951) conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. Procedure: Asch used a lab experiment to study conformity, whereby 50 male students from Swarthmore College in the USA participated in a 'vision test'. Using a line judgment task, Asch put a naive participant in a room with seven confederates. The confederates had agreed in advance what their responses would be when presented with the line task. The real participant did not know this and was led to believe that the other seven participants were also real participants like themselves. Each person in the room had to state aloud which comparison line (A, B or C) was most like the target line. The answer was always obvious. The real participant sat at the end of the row and gave his or her answer last. There were 18 trials in total and the confederates gave the wrong answer on 12 trails (called the critical trials). Asch was interested to see if the real participant would conform to the majority view. Asch's experiment also had a control condition where there were no confederates, only a "real participant". Results: Asch measured the number of times each participant conformed to the majority view. On average, about one third (32%) of the participants who were placed in this situation went along and conformed with the clearly incorrect majority on the critical trials. Over the 12 critical trials about 75% of participants conformed at least once, and 25% of participant never conformed. In the control group, with no pressure to conform to confederates, less than 1% of participants gave the wrong answer. Conclusion: Why did the participants conform so readily? When they were interviewed after the experiment, most of them said that they did not really believe their conforming answers, but had gone along with the group for fear of being ridiculed or thought "peculiar". A few of them said that they really did believe the group's answers were correct. Apparently, people conform for two main reasons: - they want to fit in with the group (normative influence) - they doubted their own answers and believed the others in the group is better informed than they are (informational influence) - some participants made a "perceptual error" - truly believed answer given by others were correct. They were never consciously aware of any dissonance of the judgements *notice this experiment in fact has no actual "peer pressure", just random "college students" that you don't feel pressured to agree with can assume that if with authority figures or there is a stronger reward/punishment, this conformity will be even more

Wernicke's aphasia

- can't understand speech = receptive aphasia Persons with Wernicke's aphasia can produce many words and they often speak using grammatically correct sentences with normal rate and prosody. However, often what they say doesn't make a lot of sense or they pepper their sentences with non-existent or irrelevant words. They may fail to realize that they are using the wrong words or using a non-existent word and often they are not fully aware that what they say doesn't make sense. (fluent gibberish - yes, can still produce speech, but content of speech may not make sense) A type of fluent aphasia. Damage is typically in the posterior portion of the left hemisphere. Comprehension is poor and the person often produces jargon, or nonsensical words and phrases when attempting to speak. These utterances typically retain sentence structure but lack meaning. The person is usually unaware of how they are speaking and may continue to talk even when they should pause to allow others to speak; this is often referred to as "press of speech." Repetition of words and sentences is poor.

Altruism

- care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them - beneficial to society and also individuals Types of altruistic behavior: 1) Kin selection - people act more altruistically to close/kin than distant/non-kin people. - same when people share last names, especially true if people have rare last names. - morphing faces (morphing subject's own face on a digital face so that the final produced face image resembles the subject's own) trust we have in other person. - Is this behavior altruistic if it gives us an evolutionary advantage, to pass on our genes (the genes of those closest to us)? Is it really altruism if we are helping select for genes of our kin? 2) Reciprocal altruism - People are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. Giving with expectation of future reward. - We feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us. - This is why charities send out small gifts. By helping you out now, they hope you respond by giving them a larger gift in the future. 3) Costly signaling - People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past, so the altruistic individual gains more trust from other people. - Signals that the person is open to cooperation.

The Generalized Other

- children are able to not only take on the roles of others, but also take into account the attitudes and perspectives of others in their social group. - The emergence of the generalized other requires the presence of some type of organized community or social system, whether it be a baseball team or an organized family system. - The generalized other gives children a sense of self and helps them to view themselves in relation to the groups to which they belong. - Through understanding the generalized other, they are able to predict the consequences of their behaviors and how they will affect others. - They also can anticipate the actions of others.

Primary groups

- closest members of the group to you. Close intimate long-term relationships. ex. in a wedding the bridesmaids/groomsmen (usually close friends and family members). - - Primary groups give a sense of belonging and shared identity. You have a sense of loyalty to each of the group members (group members care about you and you care about them as well). - The value of the group is just being part of it itself, not in it for some sort of goal. - Primary groups provide an anchor point. You are born into a primary group - your family. You often meet with those of your primary group face to face and you know a lot about their lives. - These close relationships w/ primary group is often seen as a source of close human feeling/emotion (love, cooperation, and concern) *Primary Group vs InGroup: - Primary group the is your core social group. Parents, close friends from childhood. Long term relationships formed which have a great social impact on the individual. - In group- a group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.

Role conflict

- conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different status compete for someone's time. Ex. someone who's is a parent, friend, husband, and worker. Ex; as a husband he has an anniversary and a friend is calling for their monthly get-together. ex. as a student paper due for school and as a mother, son is injured and at hospital. ex. as a worker has to go to work and as a husband wife wants him to clean the garage.

George Herbert Mead

- developed the idea of social behaviorism, the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism) - when we were infants, we only imitate others but they don't influence how we perceive things; Lack ability to take perspective of another person - related to Piaget's concept of egocentrism As we grow up, our belief on how others perceive us is more important, this happens through 3 stages: preparatory, play stage, and game stage. These occur overtime as a child grows. 1) preparatory stage 2) play stage 3) game stage

Discrimination

- differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. Can be based on different factors including race, age, religion, etc. - Can occur at individual or at the organizational/institutional level

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation

- done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. - This research focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregiver ones). secure attachment: - When parent left, child became really distressed/upset - when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy (Reunion) Insecure attachment: When mother left became upset/distress - distress did not go away when she came back. (Reunion) - Others were avoidant (or neglected) - were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned. (Reunion) *due to different styles of parenting

Hierarchy of organization

- each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. Pro - clarify who's in command Con - deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) - shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders") - Also allows individuals to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members so can't know exact story)

Iron rule of oligarchy

- even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few - Why? Conflict theory explains it. Once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up. (those with power have vested interest in keeping it, so they keep making policies or rules trying to govern or regulate it) -Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable.

Diffusion of responsibility theory

- explains bystander effect. When individuals are in presence of others where help is needed, feel less personal responsibility and less likely to take action when needed; "there are so many people around, someone will do something for sure, I don't have to intervene, besides I have no experience of dealing with this kind of situation, others will be better at this". - but In a small group you don't diffuse the responsibility. You are more likely to feel personal responsibility to intervene. Ex. In a small group you might realize that you are only one who has practiced CPR.

stigma

- extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person - Typically, a culture (or sub-culture) will stigmatize a person based on: --> overt physical deformations (physical disability) --> deviant personal traits (drug addiction) --> deviation from accepted norms of the ethnic group (being a "loose" woman in a traditional Latino subculture)

primary bias (under social perception - how you perceive stuff in social situation)

- first impression is more important than later data - First impressions count! 1) long (lasts a long time) 2) strong (tough to overcome) 3) easily built upon (people put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression, and not info that doesn't ex. you are a messy person, people will look at your messy room instead of your tidy desk

Secondary groups

- formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. - Do a few goal-directed activities with these people ex. You do things like attending a lunch meeting to talk business. - You are only part of the group to accomplish a task or for example, earn money (means to an end) - "formal impersonal groups"

Employment based on technical qualifications

- hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favoritism/personal rivalries Pro - decrease discrimination Con - decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more). - Leads to "Peter Principle": where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the more advanced job to get promoted any further) The "Peter principle" is a concept in management theory formulated by Laurence J. Peter and published in 1969. It states that the selection of a candidate for a position is based on the candidate's performance in their current role, rather than on abilities relevant to the intended role. - an observation that the tendency in most organizational hierarchies, such as that of a corporation, is for every employee to rise in the hierarchy through promotion until they reach the levels of their respective incompetence.

Unintentional discrimination

- how policies can discriminate unintentionally "Side-effect discrimination" - talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively. (Institutions - economics, politics, law, medicine, business and are all interrelated, and discrimination in one area can effect another- it is an side effect). Ex. a small town where African American always accept unfair verdict of guilty because they didn't think they could get off on a fair verdict (so they take/accept verdict of lesser crime even if maybe they didn't commit any crime at all), and then served the "lighter" sentence . Then while applying to a job later, don't get the job because of criminal record. Criminal justice reached unfair verdict (institutional discrimination), and potential employers are swayed too (employer is swayed and unjustly discriminates unintentionally because of another institution - in this case the court system).

Past-In-Present discrimination

- how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present Ex. After Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom. (Negative attitude of the past coming forward to the present and causes minority to be continued discriminated against unfairly)

Culture and socialization

- important contributions of society to our personal development, emphasizes interaction between the people and culture in which we live - Everyone around us (teachers, coworkers) influence our social-identity development and on a larger scale the country which we live, communities, language, attitudes of groups we belong too.

Utilitarian Organizations

- members are paid/rewarded for their efforts ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time)

Normative Organizations

- members come together through shared goals ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving - Positive sense of unity and purpose.

play stage

- more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others like firefighters, doctors, etc. Focused on role-taking: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that perceived viewpoint. *the second stage in childhood development, in which children begin to play complex games that require them to not only know and understand their own roles, but also the roles of others involved in the game and the relationships between these roles - Way beyond imitation. They create social-interactions (not just mimicking) - Children consider attitudes, belief, and behaviors of individuals closest to them For example, imagine you're a child who's picked to play quarterback in a football game. You not only need to know the expectations and requirements of being a quarterback, but also what positions your teammates play and how those positions relate to yours. For example, you'll need to know that the center is the player who will snap the football to you

Back stage

- more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself. You can do what you feel makes you comfortable. - Private area of your life. - Some things in backstage maybe nobody knows about, few people who are close to you might know about some things in your backstage Ex. guy who said he loved baseball might come home and like watching cooking shows, cooking nice meals, hanging out with his cat. Nobody knows this about him. - things we do behind stage. Ex; putting on makeup! Things we do to prepare for front-stage when nobody is around. - Some people are crossing over from back stage to front stage due to social media - putting on a front in their backstage to make a good impression. "faking" backstage

Geographical proximity

- most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships. --> People date, like, marry people of the same neighborhood or those that sit next to in class or work in the same office --> Mating starts with a meeting - Why is proximity so powerful for relationship formation? We aren't going to fall in love with someone we don't meet. You can't start a relationship/befriend those who live far away. Even with social media, and easy travel/connection with individuals far away - rule of proximity is still true (even if you take internet dating into account).

Parenting style

- mothers who are sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments. - Insensitive parenting does not mean child abuse/neglect - Early attachment style forms basis of adult relationships later in life, especially with comfort with intimacy/relationships, such as with future partners or with their own children later in life - Parenting styles can be authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative (best). (if needed, see Psych 131 Notes) (also neglect, not mentioned here) - Authoritarian parenting: very strict, break will of child. Punishment. - Authoritative: also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. - Permissive parenting/Indulgent parenting: non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.

Institutional discrimination

- organization discriminating - including governments, banks, schools etc. Example: Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said these schools aren't equal, and Africans were being mistreated.

Impression management

- our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. Do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way. - There are multiple social situations which require different scripts from you as an actor and hence there are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different front stage role every time in a different social situation. - We manage our sense of self in different social interactions Ex. All front stages - football team captain (he had to get people fired up!) and perhaps on the weekends he volunteers at the hospital (very different front stage, his role is be there for the patient and offer them help as a volunteer - kind, softer image) and then perhaps he goes to school and in chem-class he needs to get a rec letter from his chem-teacher to get into grad school (he pretends to be interested in professors research and gives impression he is a curious student) - Backstage - where you work on impression management. Ex. put on makeup, look in mirror and try different outfits (training area for impression management)

perceived similarity

- over time interests/beliefs are more aligned. Become similar as time goes on. Perceived similarity can be just perceived - they think the other person is similar to them (but actually aren't) - Individuals are more inclined to trust a person they perceive as similar to themselves - Could result in a similarity bias - implies we will not befriend people different from us, or at least those who we perceive that are different from us

Ethnocentric

- own culture is better - judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture: Viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others - Can lead to cultural bias and prejudice - Using one's own cultural standards, such as norms and values, to make judgements about another culture.

Division of labor

- people are trained to do specific tasks Pro - people are better at specialized tasks, and increased efficiency Con - increase alienation in workers, separating them from other works (conflict theory), and they don't see work from beginning to end. --> Can lead to less satisfaction which leads to less productivity --> Also can lead to "trained incapacity": where workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with overall picture. Ex. Administrators don't teach classes at university and professors are not responsible for building maintenance.

McDonaldization

- policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. - Primarily: Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity and control - These principles have come to dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment ex. movie theatres all look and work similarly, with same concession stands look same, carry same brands and same popular movies, with same seating arrangements, look the same, and #of screens is the same. All ticket systems now the same (especially online). Same pre-show entertainment. - Not necessarily a bad thing. Pervasive throughout society.

Bureaucratization

- process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you

Andrew Meltzoff

- published study that questioned theory that understanding between self and others happens soon after birth - In his experiment he suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others: • A baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Baby imitating experimenter. - experimenter opening mouth, baby should also open mouth. Had to ensure it wasn't a reflex or conditioning either. When baby had pacified in mouth, and experimental stuck out tongue, baby imitated them after the pacifier was taken out. - Suggests we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others. Built in social mechanism which is critical for our species to learn through others. - Evidence suggests we have mirror neurons, when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person. (Found in areas of brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premotor cortex (frontal lobe), and somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe). - Can be helpful in understanding Imitation further.

Mere exposure effect

- repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. - More often we see something, more often we like it. - Applies to everything - music, nonsense syllabus, numbers, objects, etc - Advertisers know this effect. They depend on the mere exposure effect to sell you different products. More times we see a brand more likely we are to form a positive opinion about it

(Sociology) individual and society

- self-concept development includes existential self and categorical self - humanistic view on personality development, by Carl Rogers: focused on healthy personality development of individual believed self-concept had 3 different components (goal is to reach self-actualization) 1. Self-image: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves. 2. Self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves 3. Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self-concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is incongruity. (see old flashcard on humanistic perspective on personality) - social identity theory: develops concept of "self-concept" even further --> personal identity --> social identity

Vygotsky (language)

- social interactionist view: language and thought are both independent (developed separately), but converge through development Eventually learn to use them at same time via socialization - Believed children developed language through social interaction with adults who already knew the language. Through the interaction, they learnt to connect the thoughts and the language they eventually learn.

universally attractive

- some things are same across different cultures, attractive across cultural backgrounds. - Things like youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. For women, low waist-hip ratio and full breasts. For men, muscular chest and V-shaped torso (broad shoulders, narrow wastes) - Facial attraction is more important than body attraction. For women, high forehead/small chin and nose/full lips/high cheekbone are attractive. For men, strong chin, jaw, cheekbones, and long lower face - Both men and women are attracted to high level sexual dimorphism - the degree of difference between male and female anatomical traits. [We are attracted to strong facial features of opposite gender]

Norms

- standards for what behaviors set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not - Rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people - and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group. - Provide structure and standards of how people can behave. - vary/are dependent on context, physical locations, culture and by country. Can change with time as individual's attitudes shift or circumstances change to allow certain types of behaviors to be valued. 4 categories of norms: (based on the "seriousness" of norms --> how severe is the consequence if the norms are violated) - folkways - mores - laws - taboos Norms are reinforced by "sanctions": reward/punishment to individual to encourage conformity of norms and punishment to discourage violation of norms • Positive sanction - a reward for conforming to norms. • Negative sanction - a punishment for violating norms. • Formal sanction - officially recognized and enforced: written down (more like policies, laws), • Informal sanction - unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment: understood but less precise and have no specific punishments (common sense, "unsaid rules").

Achieved status

- status you earn yourself after working for it, ex. Olympic athlete - a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects both personal ability and merit. An individual's occupation tends to fall under the category of an achieved status Ex. a teacher or a firefighter

Ascribed statuses

- statuses you can't change, given from birth ex. Prince of royal family The practice of assigning such statuses to individuals exists cross-culturally within all societies and is based on gender, race, family origins, and ethnic backgrounds Ex. a person born into a wealthy family has a high ascribed status based solely on the social networks and economic advantages that one gains from being born into a family with more resources than others. Ex. Caste System: a class structure that is determined by birth. Loosely, it means that in some societies, if your parents are poor, you're going to be poor, too. Same goes for being rich.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

- suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy - High empathy = high in altruistic behaviors. Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic - Early developmental trajectory - Helping behaviors begin early. --> Some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies distress). - Helping behavior begins around age 2, children share toys and play act helping/altruism. Age 4 begin actually begin helping. *Says that altruism might be a normal human behavior because it occurs at such a young age. We have a tendency to help other people without an alternative motive

Master Status

- supersedes other identifying traits Ex. if a woman feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a woman, a daughter, etc., she is more likely to identify herself as a mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such

Cultural imperialism

- the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture

Fundamental attributional error - cultural factor

- the fundamental attribution error (attribute more to internal, personal rather than situational) occurs more in individualistic societies who place an emphasis on individual achievement (NA and Europe - cultures) Also, cultures have different ways they explain success and failure: - In individualistic cultures (Western - Europe/America), success is over-attributed to internal and failure is over-attributed to external/situational factors. --> Self-serving bias: mechanism of preserving our self-esteem, more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed it's due to our internal/personal qualities, but if we fail, no hit on self-esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control; Individualistic societies tend to demonstrate a great degree of self-serving bias. More important in individual societies because of their emphasis on achievements and success. (success - individual achievement, failure - not personal) - In collectivist cultures (Eastern - Africa/Asia), success is attributed to external and failure to internal factors (success - teamwork, failure - individual fault)

Reference groups

- the group to which people refer in evaluating and identifying themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors - groups that people refer to when evaluating their [own] qualities, circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviors; also the group people wish to join - These groups influences our social decisions - our own beliefs, attitudes and behaviors; involves in our identify formation - we constantly looking for external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviors ex. - when we decide what political party to vote for in an election, we refer to a social-science student reference group - referring to feminist reference group when deciding whether to change name after marriage if we are female.

IN group

- the one we are connected with. "Us". - Stronger interactions with those in the "in-group: than those in the out-group - Interactions are more common and more influential as well within In-group - People within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to politics/culture/spirituality

Cultural relativism

- the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture. - Judge and understand another culture from within their culture, from their perspective - Refers to an awareness of differences across cultures in norms, values, and other elements of culture

"I"

- the response of the individual to the "me". I thinks about what those things mean. The spontaneous, less socialized component of the Self. - The "I", the nonconforming, the non-socialized person, the one who make dick moves all the time. "individual identity (personal response to what society thinks") Ex. I = is it best for me to go to college from HS, or work first or travel for a few years. * the response of the individual to the "me". I thinks about what those things mean. The spontaneous, less socialized component of the Self. Way to remember: The "I", the nonconforming, the non-socialized person, the one who make dick moves all the time. "individual identity (personal response to what society thinks") Ex. I = is it best for me to go to college from HS, or work first or travel for a few years.

Ethnography

- the study of particular people and places - more of an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures - Good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and peoples studied; involves the extended, systematic observation of a complete social environment

"Me"

- what we learn through interactions with others. - How we believe the generalized other perceives us, the social self, and learned through interactions with others. Socialized and conforming aspect of self - The conforming, socialized person, who tries to not do any dick moves, "Societies View" ex. me thinks about people go from high school to college in US

Front stage

- when people are in a social setting Ex. someone watches baseball with friends or business partners even if he doesn't like baseball. - Manipulating how he's seen to gain/make friends. "Putting on a front and acting for an audience" perhaps use this to your advantage one day. Ex. Say "oh I love baseball" even though you don't really like baseball, for the sake of forming good work relationships etc.

Role strain

- when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status - Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, ex. a student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week

4 sources can affect self-efficacy

1. Mastery of experience - strengthens self-efficacy 2. Social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy 3. Social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt. 4. Psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve self-efficacy A person with low self-esteem can have high self-efficacy, and vice versa. Ex.) a perfectionist can have low self-esteem (critical about themselves) but high self-efficacy (still see themselves as capable of doing tasks). Competent at tasks with clear guidelines and lose confidence where there are no clear rules

3 stages of development - Mead

1. preparatory/imitation stage: Mead's first stage of development.The period from birth to age 2. The stage at which children merely copy the behaviors of those around them. 2. Play stage: Mead's second stage of development. Occurs about ages 2-4. During this stage children play roles and begin to take on the characteristics of important people in their world. 3. Game stage: Mead's third stage of development. Never truly ends.The stage at which we begin to understand that others have expectations and demands places upon them. *Our sense of others

covariation model of attribution

3 cues of Kelley's covariation model: consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), consensus (people): A) Ex. Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels on us. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, the next time he/she is late, even if it may not be his/her fault ex. traffic is bad, bus is not available, we are more likely to attribute their flakiness to their actual personal qualities rather than considering maybe certain external factors in environment is preventing them from getting on time --> When consistency is high = attribution to internal factors B) Ex. Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to the environment. Distinctiveness = situational. --> Distinctiveness of a situation, unusual/"rare" = attribution to external factors C) ex. Third factor in covariation model - "group lateness" - if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause. --> Consensus of people = attribution of external factors

6 universal emotions - Paul Ekman

6 main universal emotions, can be identified by everyone around the world - happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger and surprise. -- Consistent facial expressions across culture and easily recognizable. (acronym: 6 universal emotions are: FAHDSS) o Happiness: represented by, raised cheeks, elevated corners of mouth (sometimes: wrinkles on outer corner of the eyes, and teeth exposed) o Sadness: represented by, uplifted inner corner of eyebrows, downturned lips o Surprise: raised eyebrows, eyes open wise, jaws dropped/open mouth and teeth parted, horizontal wrinkles across forehead, upper lip raised, lower lid drawn down, o Fear: eyebrows raised and drawn together, wrinkles in middle of forehead, eyes open intense, mouth open, lips drawn back slightly. o Disgust: raised cheeks, wrinkled cheeks, eyebrows are lowered. o Anger: penetrating stare, eyelids tense, lips pressed together. Darwin hypothesized ability to understand and express emotion is an innate ability that allowed them to act in ways that gave them a better chance of survival, ex. understanding others and surroundings better, associate emotions with different events, interactions, situations so that next time know better to seek for pleasant ones rather than ones inducing fear. Emotions have an adaptive value and emotions are innate. o Newborn baby react same way/have same emotions as grownups. o Blind individuals have same facial expressions as those who can see.

Theory of Primary Mental Abilities-L.L. Thurnstone

7 factors of intelligence: - word fluency - verbal comprehension - spatial reasoning - perceptual speed - numerical ability - inductive reasoning - memory Acronym: 7 Stones, relative similar. good point: - breakdown seems intuitive. Ex. Possible to have high Inductive skills is possible w/o high verbal comprehension. bad point - how come scores vary together statistically (which suggests underlying intelligence factor) -limited in what it considers to be intelligence

Attribution theory

Attribution theory states that we have a tendency to explain someone's behavior by attributing a cause to his/her behavior - In our effort to try to understand the behavior of others, we either explain their behavior in terms of their personality and disposition (internal) - or we explain their behavior in terms of the situation or environment (external). ex.) you can explain your professor's harsh words about class performance as being the result of his angry personality type, or you might attribute it to his disappointment with the overall class performance. If you attribute his harsh words to the angry personality type, then you have made the "fundamental attribution error"

Asch Conformity Studies (Asch Line Studies) - flaws

Criticisms/Problems with study: - All participants came from the same population (all male undergrads from same culture) - women, individuals from minority groups, individuals from different cultures or age ranges might have reacted differently - Participants knew they were coming in for a study. Participant were suspicious of the study. Perhaps individuals would conform once just to see what would happen; or they won't conform, because they already suspect the others are giving wrong answers on purpose - Ecological validity - do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world. If they don't, we can only make limited conclusions. A line in lab (in this experiment) is not same as conformity in the real world - Demand characteristics - describes how participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter. Conformed because that's what experimenter wanted them to do. Still, 75% of individuals confirmed with no pressure. How much more powerful would experiment be with a pressure/reward/punishment or if your friends/professors/teachers were the confederates (rather than random college students).

Pragmatics

Dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. • Pragmatics are affected by prosody - the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices. ex. children may have not mastered the pragmatics of language: You have invited your friend over for dinner. Your child sees your friend reach for some cookies and says, "Better not take those, or you'll get even bigger." You're embarrassed that your child could speak so rudely. However, you should consider that your child may not know how to use language appropriately in social situations and did not mean harm by the comment. An individual may say words clearly and use long, complex sentences with correct grammar, but still have a communication problem - if he or she has not mastered the rules for social language known as pragmatics. Adults may also have difficulty with pragmatics, for example, as a result of a brain injury or stroke.

Theory of Multiple Intelligence-Howard Gardner

Expanded ideas of what can be included in intelligence. Gardner divided into 7 then 9 independent intelligence (they don't depend on each other and hence intelligence in 1 area does not predict intelligence in another): - logical-mathematical intelligence - verbal-linguistic - spatial-visual - bodily-kinesthetic - interpersonal - intrapersonal - musical. Later 2 added: naturalist, and existential intelligence. Acronym: 7-9 Very Different Personality Gardner's Good point: -You can have different strengths independently. -Intelligence is more than just "book smarts" bad point: -No way to test this theory (not supported by research) - Intelligence vs. talents/abilities (but maybe this is just a labeling issue)

Social stigma

Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society - two types: 1) social stigma: fueled or associated with several other key concepts: stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination (progression along ABC model) (see p. 215 picture of word doc.) - Derived from symbolic interactionist perspective ex. Social stigma against mental health: (ABC model) stereotype is mentally ill are violent (cognition) --> become scared of mentally ill (affect, prejudice) --> so may not want to live with them or hire them (behavior, discrimination) 2) Self-Stigma: when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may begin to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society Ex. someone who has HIV/AIDS and feels the social-stigma may go into denial that they have the condition, experiences hits from self-esteem and suffer from depression (negative mental health), and display behaviors that isolate themselves from society and stop them from taking part in vocation/education/other social activities for example (further isolating them) *media, society, family, self all could involve in influencing in developing the stigma notice each of these can be a circle, with self being the smallest circle) --> family --> society --> media (biggest circle) (see picture on p.216 word doc.)

Alfred -Binet

First to develop an intelligence test, but wasn't intending to. He developed a test in order to establish a child's mental age and measure a child's intellectual development and predict how well they will do in school later on. Was designed for French children • Binet's idea of mental age - how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years.

Kelley's Covariation Model of attribution II

For example, imagine that you and your friend are eating breakfast together at a restaurant. Your friend has ordered three stacks of pancakes and is ready to dig in. The question is, why is your friend eating three stacks of pancakes Kelley proposes that we use our observations about three types of information (variables) to answer this question, along with any other question of why someone behaves the way they do. These three variables are consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency 1) consensus variable: answers the question, do multiple people behave the same way in the same situation? If the answer is yes, then consensus is high. If the answer is no, then consensus is low. Think about you and your friend in the restaurant. Are other people in the restaurant also eating three stacks of pancakes? You look around and see that everyone who has pancakes has three stacks, just like your friend. So, consensus is high for your friend's behavior. 2) distinctiveness variable: answers the question, how unique is the behavior in this particular situation? In other words, does this person behave the same way in all situations? For instance, does your friend always eat three stacks of pancakes when he has breakfast, no matter where he is? You've seen him eat pancakes at a friend's house, where he only ate one stack. So, distinctiveness is high for your friend's behavior because it is distinct from normal behavior in any other location. 3) consistency: answers the question, how often does the behavior occur across time in this exact situation? For instance, does your friend always eat three stacks of pancakes when he eats breakfast at this restaurant? You two ate there last week, and he ate three stacks of pancakes then, too. So, consistency is high for the behavior *The essential step of attribution, according to the Covariation Model, is to look at the three types of information together, to see what changes and what stays the same. An external attribution, which is when a behavior is attributed to external factors, is likely to be made if all three variables are high For example, we already determined that your friend's behavior of eating three stacks of pancakes is similar to others' behavior in the restaurant, and that he only eats three stacks every time he is at this restaurant. Consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency are all high, so you would make an external attribution. You might think that the pancakes must not be very filling or that no one is allowed to order less than three stacks of pancakes. If some of these factors had been different, you might make an internal attribution, which is when a behavior is attributed to internal or personal factors. If consensus is low (no one else is eating that many pancakes) and distinctiveness is low (your friend always eats this many pancakes, no matter where he is), and consistency is still high, you would point to internal factors for an explanation of the behavior. You might think that your friend is a pig who eats a lot, all of the time.

Theories on development

Freud: psychosexual theory of development. - Believed early childhood was the most important age/period in which personality developed. Most of personality developed by age of 5. Early experiences plays a large role in personality development. This development influences behavior later in life. - 5 stages total: if completed successfully, result is a healthy personality. If issues aren't resolved at a certain stage, then fixation occurs. - Fixation was due to concept of libido - a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind. And when libido energy is fixated, can have lifelong effect well into adulthood. Libido is centered at different parts of the body at different times of development. Depending on what stage we're at, going to be fixation of energy at certain different body part. ex.) For oral stage - focus is mouth. For anal stage, anus, phallic is genitals, latent is none, and genital stage is the genitals. (see original card set) Erikson: Psychosocial development theory. - Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan. - Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. - 8 stages (see original card set) Vygotsky: Sociocultural Cognitive development theory - Believed children learned actively through hands-on processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning. - Child internalizes information w/ interactions with others. This social-interaction is important development of cognition. Kohlberg: Moral development theory - Focussed on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong. - Moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 levels/substages) - 6 levels total - Did research on groups of children and present children in moral dilemma situations and interview kids based on each of their conclusions in each dilemma.

neutral judge? - not really

How do we understand behavior? Ideally, we look at behavior as coming from two parts - a person's internal attributes, and secondly as being fueled by situation/external factors (ex. Weather, housing, finances) - If in middle, we are a "neutral judge" and see a combination as both. - Behaviors are often complex and involve a combination of internal and external factors. - But often when we look at behavior of others, we are NOT neutral, we're more likely to attribute their behavior to their internal factors instead of considering complex external factors (fundamental attribution error - over attribution of others behavior to internal causes) Problematic when looking at complex patients (ex. Obese patients who can't exercise because they are struggling with poverty or safety in neighborhood, or family issues need them to manage, taking their time) - we under-recognize the situational and social problems, and healthcare barriers they can have, blaming them for their own problems ("just lazy"). - However, when we consider our own behaviors, we are more likely to blame our behavior on external factors (ego-preservation). We consider ourselves victims of circumstance. No name for this attribution error. Bias: -"Cognitive bias" is the tendency to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment. "Actor-Observer Bias": we are victims of, but others are willful actors. (same thing as saying: circumstance (we attribute our behavior on external factors but others behavior on internal factors)

privately conform (Internalization)

If you privately conform, you change behaviors and opinions to align with group; you sincerely believe the group's thinking Ex: If you privately conformed to the shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color

primary and recency bias

Information retention (memory) relates to primacy and recency bias. - Primacy and recency events are more important to developing memory. - In Variable duration (in between primacy/recency - you might remember some actions a bit more if an action is unusual or elicits an unusual response in you. (see picture above in "recency bias")

Strong Linguistic Determinism (aka Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis)

Language determines thought completely - People understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience/understand/think about the world - asserts that cognition and perception are determined by language one speaks. - believes linguistic structure determines how and about what an individual is able to think. *notice this is kind of like the opposite of Piget's theory of language, where cognition/thoughts directs language, language purely expresses what the person's thinking Ex. Native tribe called Hopi without grammatical tense in language so they couldn't think about time in same way.

Max Weber - 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

Max Weber (sociologist) studied structure of - organizations 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of goal of organization (organization can be for business, charity, etc). All should show these characteristics: - Division of labor - Hierarchy of organization - Written rules and regulations - Impersonality - Employment based on technical qualifications

agents of socialization

Refers to parts of society that are important for socialization (the process of learning the norms and values in a society what's used to transmit (pass around) culture, values, beliefs about acceptable behaviors, and beliefs. Agents include people, organizations, and institutions that help us learn about our social world. Examples of Agents of Socialization: popular culture, family, and religion. 1. Our family - most important agent of socialization. When you are a child, totally dependent on it to survive, kind of like the only source of where you get your values, beliefs. Your parents teach you how to care for yourself, how close relationships work, their beliefs/values/norms, how to talk to others. 2. School is important. Schools teach life skills along with science and math- don't learn from academic curriculum, but learn social skills from interactions with teachers and other students - We learn the importance of obeying authority, act interested, learn to be quiet, to wait etc. Part of the "hidden curriculum": standard behaviors that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers. 3. Peers teach us develop our social behaviors. Peers values and behaviors contradict values of our families/parents at times, and influence us. Peer pressure. How our values of our peers influence us. - We must decide on what values to keep and what values to get rid off Ex. Peers pressure us to drink/do drugs as teenagers. What movies/music we watch and listen to. 4. Mass media - television, internet, radio, book, magazines. When you are young, you learn things through mass media that parents would not approve of. Today, children are exposed to a lot of content intended for mature audiences - violent TV shows. Enforces gender and other stereotypes.

Role strain vs. role conflict

Role strain and role conflict describe different phenomena. Strain is experienced within one particular role, such as being a student, while conflict occurs between two different roles, such as being a student and an employee Role conflict is a tension that occurs when a person is facing multiple roles having multiple statuses. It means that it occurs between two or more than two roles. ex. Rana as a son visit his mother in hospital, he also wishes to go at his close-friend's marriage ceremony, same time he also confuses to join his lecture in B.Z University Multan or to go office for emergency task. While role strain is a tension that occurs when a person is facing a single role having multiple statuses. It means that it occurs with in a single role. Ex. a domestic mother is preparing breakfast for her kids and same time she wishes to press school uniform. This situation leads her toward role strain.

Zimbardo prison study II - conclusion

The experiment shows us: - the influence situation can have on our behavior - might be due to situational attribution (due to situation), not dispositional attribution (internal characteristics/personalities of people) - It becomes much easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization (loss of self) - In this case prisoners forced to dress same, and addressed as number. - Bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate, tried to reduce their mental distress by cognitive dissonance reduction - overly justified their behaviors - everything happened because prisoners were whims or they deserved it. They changed their cognition. (remember cognitive dissonance? behavior and cognition don't match, so we either add more cognition, change etc. to resolve that dissonance or else there is tension) - role of internalization - participants internalized their prison roles. Prisoners incorporated their roles into beliefs, and let it influence their attitudes/cognitions/behaviors.

Kohlberg - Moral Development II

Three Levels of Moral Reasoning - Each have 2 sub-parts. - total 6 parts Three level Acronym = (PCP Pre-conventional, Conventional, Post-Conventional). I. Pre-Conventional (pre-adolescent/pre-morality) 1.) Obedience vs. Punishment (Obedience and Punishment Orientation) - reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means *to avoid punishment. - Age: Children. 2.) Individualism and Exchange or SELF-Interest (Hedonistic orientation) - recognize that there isn't just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints. Doing what is right for personal gain. II. Conventional Morality: 3.) Societal Norms /Acceptance (Internal concordance orientation) - Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the group the person belongs to. - Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity: "to gain acceptance and to avoid disapproval" * Doing what is right according to the majority in order to be a good boy/girl 4.) Law and Order / Law abidance (Law and Order orientation) - maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws. "to follow rules" *doing what is right because it is your (civil) duty and helps society III. Post-Conventional morality = Higher moral reasoning 5.) Social Contract - Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good (ex. prohibits breaking/stealing), there are times this law works against interest of particular people (ex. Heinz who tries to save his wife) ex.) for Heinz, is protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes. Sometimes law must be broken to reach these principles. *realizes sometimes we do what is right even if it's against the law because the laws are too restrictive at times 6.) Universal Ethical Principle - people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. - People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act according to these even if they have to obey consequences/disapproval/imprisonment. but very few people who reach this 6th stage of morality ex. Ghandi, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King. "to promote social welfare" *doing is what right because of our inner conscious which has absorbed the principles of justice and equality and sacredness of life.

Social loafing - reasons

Two other common reasons given for social loafing: 1. "sucker effect": The sucker effect refers to the tendency of people to try and avoid feeling like a 'sucker' by waiting to see how much effort others will put into a group first. These are people who often feel that the other group members will leave them to do all the work. The school group that we discussed earlier is a good example of this. If all the group members try to avoid being the sucker, then each person's effort will be significantly diminished. 2. :free-rider effect": the tendency of people to reduce their efforts when they believe that it will not affect the final performance of the group whatsoever. Another well-known social loafing study showed that people tend to clap and cheer much quieter when in a group. The majority of an audience claps loud enough to cover the lack of effort. Fortunately, not all group work leads to social loafing. It is typically absent when the group's task is personally meaningful or challenging or when the members of the group value each other. A group of close-knit friends who are working together are unlikely to experience social loafing because they wouldn't want to let each other down.

Theory of General Intelligence-Charles Spearman

Used factor analysis to identify cluster of related abilities. -1 General intelligence. -Came up with general intelligence (g factor) - said that g factor can predict our intelligence in multiple academic areas. Acronym: 1 Tip in a Spear Good point: This theory is highly supported by research. Those who score high in one area also score highly in other areas. Ex. Scoring high in verbal intelligence correlated to high special reasoning bad point: -controversial -can one factor explain all of the diverse human abilities -limited in what it considers to be intelligence

Migram Experiment on Obedience II

What Can We Learn from Milgram Experiment - Regular everyday people will comply with an authority figure even if it goes against their moral values and harming others. - Study has been replicated, and results remain same, no matter what country/time period/location. Full compliance always hovered at 61-66% - Study was perceived to be unethical today and at the time too in the 1960s. Things we should avoid: - Many participants really felt ashamed about what they had done, but even ashamed participants tended to speak poorly of the victims - he wouldn't have been shocked if he answered correctly/was smarter, the "just world phenomenon" - idea that universe is fair so people must get what they deserve - belief good things happen to good people, and vice versa (bad things happen to bad people). Some people use this to justify their actions. Assuming things had gone bad to the victim because he was deficient - Also, many participants were comforted by passing responsibility of actions to others (when experimenter said they'd take full responsibility and participant would not be responsible for the harm, participants felt more comfortable). "I was just following orders". (seen in other cases of atrocities) - Be aware of the "just world phenomena"- and try to stop ourselves from making judgements about people for being in the situations they are in ex. Stop thinking that people are poor because they didn't do well in school, didn't work hard enough, and didn't care enough. Stop believing in the just world phenomena. - Remind ourselves to take responsibility for our own actions. Avoid placing blame on others. Stop the passing-responsibility to others "it's the commander's intention to hurt, I'm just really following orders" - Also, caution ourselves against self-serving bias - that we could never commit acts like this, because apparently, in the right situations most of us would - "Fundamental attribution error" - focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws. - Idea of attributing character very strongly in order to explain another group's actions *Real takeaway of study - how easy it is to think others are atrocious and evil, while people like us would only perform evil acts because we are misguided/following orders. Truth is we're all misguided, all susceptible to authorities in ways that many of us would find upsetting. - Important to have compassion for all people - victims and aggressor, don't know how you'd act in their place. - Conversely, be skeptical if you hear "I was doing my job/just following orders" and try not to fall into this trap yourself.

Harlow Monkey Experiments - attachment

What causes attachment (a close bond) between mother and child? Scientists used to think it was food (mom has food). This is not true...mother provides more than that! - Scientists conducted the Harlow monkey experiments - Separated monkeys from mothers at young age (controversial today), then given choice between 2 substitute mothers (vaguely monkey-shaped structures) that were placed in cage with baby monkey. - First option was wire mother - vaguely face like shape on top of it, and chicken wire wrapped in cylinder. And in middle was feeding tube. This mother provides food. - Second mother was the cloth mother - same shape/size as mother, but instead of chicken wire had soft cloth blanket around it, so this mother can provide comfort. - Baby monkeys overwhelmingly preferred to cloth mother - spent a large majority of time clinging to her. If had to eat, tried to eat while staying attached to cloth mother. Shows that attachment basis to mother is due to comfort, not food! - Cloth mother acts as a secure base - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there. - If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother

Just world hypothesis II

When the "just world hypothesis" is threatened (which occurs on a daily basis, we say "the world is not fair"....we see evil deeds being rewarded and good deeds being punished), we need to mentally make sense of them to keep just world hypothesis in tact- we use "rational techniques" or "irrational techniques": "Rational Techniques": 1). Accept reality 2). Prevent or correct injustice - with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system "Irrational techniques": 1). Denial of the situation - refuse to accept the situation 2). Reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim Ex. If a Victim of violence that was hurt, they were really hurt, we can reinterpret outcome (wasn't that bad, it was a trip, it could have happened to anyone), reinterpret cause (victim was working in a bad neighborhood), or reinterpret character of victim (I always thought she was a good human being but I now realize she probably isn't, she was hanging around with the wrong people, etc.)

Migram Experiment on Obedience

Why this experiment: - Many Nazi Officers/German followers/Eichmann said they were "just following orders". Everyday people can commit horrendous acts if put into certain situations. - Milgram wanted to know if everyday people can be made to follow orders like the Nazi officers. - Can a normal person be made to harm an innocent individual just because of an authority figure? It isn't as simple as "they are evil" "we are good" - Milgram studies were done to study the willingness of participants, average Americans, to obey authority figures that instructed them to perform behaviors that conflicted with their personal beliefs and morals. - In the study there was the experimenter, one confederate (in on the study) participant, and another participant (real participant). Between the two people, they "randomly" decided who was going to be the learner and who was going to be the teacher. Not so random, the confederate always got learner role, and real participant got the teacher role. - Learner (confidante experiment) was hooked to a # of electrodes, and told that the teacher will teach the learner a # of word pairs. Then the teacher would press a button delivering shock to the learner (confederate) whenever they gave the wrong answer - At the first coupe shocks, the learner would not elicit much of a reaction. After several increasing shocks, learner would cry out in pain/pound out on wall. Also after some shocks would start complaining about their heart condition. As shocks increased, continued to yell/scream they want to quit (no actual shock was delivered). - Teacher (real participant) is instructed to continue by experimenter when teacher looked @ experimenter for guidance. Experimenter told teacher: "please continue (please go on)", "the experiment requires that you continue, "it is absolutely essential you continue", "you have no choice, you must go on". - When results of study came out, the results were very disturbing - 65% of participants shocked all the way. The teachers had protested and were trembling, but still obeyed commander and shocked to 450V. In versions of experiment where the learner claimed to have a heart conditions and complained that the shocks were hurting their heart - compliance dropped very little - to 63%. Everyday Americans heard the cries of people they were tormenting and continued with the task. VERY FEW PEOPLE RESISTED AUTHORITY. Conclusion: Ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure, even to the extent of killing an innocent human being. Obedience to authority is ingrained in us all from the way we are brought up. People tend to obey orders from other people if they recognize their authority as morally right and / or legally based. This response to legitimate authority is learned in a variety of situations, for example in the family, school and workplace.

stranger anxiety

Young Babies are happy to be passed around, but then around 8 months stranger anxiety (the fear of strangers) sets in

Lewis Terman

a Psychologist of Stanford University furthered/modified Binet's Intelligence test and also incorporated teenagers and adults. This was named the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test (IQ test). Terman noted that Binet's test was not predictive of US children. The Stanford-Binet test started being used to measure intelligence of immigrants (which was a huge problem -the test tested language ability which presented a clear issue, a language barrier) o Now, intelligence tests are being designed to make them more applicable to all cultures.

optimism bias

a belief bad things happen to others, but not to us

critical period

a point in early development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning in later life; not just in terms of language, but could be on health also etc.

Social loafing

a tendency to put forth less effort in group task when individual is part of the group, or if the individual contributions aren't evaluated, instead will be evaluated as part of a whole group. - this can be described as Group-produced reduction of individual effort: --> groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. Perhaps to guard against being the person who is doing all the work, or because you know that your individual contributions are not evaluated. Ex). in group project of a presentation, each individual puts in less effort and perform poorly than if he/she had to do the presentation alone. Ex.) Research shows that individuals often feel like their contributions don't matter, and therefore, they decrease their effort and contributions. Voting in the U.S. is a good example. Most citizens agree that voting is important. However, every year, a very small percentage of Americans participate in voting and elections. One vote can feel insignificant in such a massive population, so people may not think it is worth it to vote. The high number of people that feel this way is one of the reasons voting turnout is so low.

Hawthorne effect (observer effect)

a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. (acronym: observe the THORNes) - The Hawthorne effect occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behavior, specifically due the awareness of being observed. Difference between social facilitation and Hawthorne effect: social facilitation describes behavior change that depends on whether there are other people there and how good is the individual at the task; this tendency to change behavior is not due to the individual knowing he/she is being watched, but more depends on the arousal (nervous energy) he/she experiences in front of people Hawthorne effect: more refers to a research setting, ex. participant know or is aware that he/she is being watched by the experimenter, so modifies behavior in response to the awareness. The main factor is the awareness of being watched/observed, kind of like as an effort to match the behavior to what the experimenter/observer expects. "The biggest difference is that the Hawthorne effect refers specifically to the realm of a particular experiment or research of some kind being conducted, and a subject is behaving in the way they feel is expected of them rather than behaving naturally. Social facilitation is not limited to a research environment and is about performing better/differently in the presence of other people when compared to being alone"

Kelley's Covariation Model of attribution I

an attribution theory in which people make causal inferences to explain why other people and ourselves behave in a certain way - It is concerned with both social perception and self-perception Why do people act the way they do? Most of us probably ask ourselves this question daily. Why did my boss close her office door? Why does my father smoke? Why did my child yell at her friend? How we answer these questions depends on our experiences and observations. Beyond simple curiosity, we have a deep desire to be able to understand and explain what happens around us. This includes attempting to understand someone's motivation behind a behavior Harold Kelley's Covariation Model of Attribution explains how we use social perception to attribute behavior to internal or external factors. It also explains what information we gather through perception and how it's used to form a judgment about someone's behavior. The word 'covariation' refers to your ability to observe how two or more variables change in relation to each other. This attribution theory assumes that you have information from multiple experiences (at different places and times) that you use to determine what variables have changed and what has stayed the same

Social Anomie

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community - a situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. - can lead to uncertainty in social situations. Means that there is a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior. - refers to society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness Characteristics associated with anomie: >Rapid changes in society >Low levels of income >High heterogeneity --> social anomie can also result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups - To resolve social anomie, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms Associated with functionalist theoretical paradigm in sociology: The concept of anomie describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak. Without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness, and aimlessness. Periods of rapid social change are often associated with anomie

Piaget (developmental view of language)

came up w/ cognitive development in children. He believed once children were able to think a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts → influences build it. Language influence is influenced by cognitive development - language is developed to describe cognition/thought (cognitive thoughts directs language, language is just for expressing thoughts) For example, when children develop object permanence, they start to develop words like gone and missing, find, etc. to describe/express that their cognitive progression • Although the use of language begins in the sensorimotor stage, Piaget believed that the world of a child in this stage is understood through sensation and action. • During the preoperational stage, according to Piaget, the world is understood mainly through the use of language and mental imagery. • A child in the concrete operational stage of development will use categories, logic, and concrete reasoning to understand the world. • A person will describe and understand the world through scientific reasoning, hypothetical situations, and abstract relationships in the formal operational stage

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

damage to both amygdala - hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot; regression to childhood) - hypersexuality - disinhibited behaviour. These are all drunken behaviours

Obedience

describes how we follow orders/obey authority. No cognitive component. Ex. "I'm just following orders" - Can be positive. Ex: Firefighter tells you to not enter a building because it's on fire - you would probably acknowledge authority and obey. - Can be negative: ex. normal people committed such negative acts during the Holocaust due to obedience. Conformity and obedience refer to different, but related things. Both can be positive or negative in their effects on social behavior in society. - We can conform/obey in little ways as well: Ex: we obey traffic laws or agree that cereal is a breakfast food. We don't question if we should stop at a stop sign. Types of conformity/obedience: - compliance - identification - internalization

Social identity theory

develop the idea of "self-concept" further has 2 parts: - personal identity: things unique to each person like personality traits - social identity: includes the groups you belong too in our community - the following is our mental process involved in categorizing ourselves, others, and the relationship between personal identity and social identity: Step 1: All humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it, part of human nature. We categorize in order to understand objects/identify them ex. Categorize to groups (which we belong to and those different) like race (black, white)/job (student/accountant)/etc. - If we assign categories to others, we can make pre-judgements about them Step 2: Next is identification. When we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize us as belonging - behaving and acting like the category we belong to, ex. a student. ex. Act and behave like a student if we identify as students. The role starts to feel like a norm. Emotional significance to identification - our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging. Step 3: social comparison - how we comparing ourselves with other groups (or two different groups). We do this to maintain our self-esteem. - Critical to understanding of prejudice, because once two groups develop as rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem.

normative influence/normative social influence

even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to to avoid social rejection; If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we are complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently. - another reason why people confirm to negative behavior around them Ex: you are an expert group trainer and you know it's easier to train the dog with treats than treat it with a shock color. Even though you know training the dog with a shock color is incorrect you may still decide to go along with the group to avoid being a social outcast. You fear social rejection that can come with disagreement with the group, so you conform to even a wrongful act Ex: friends are all obsessed with a certain singer. You tell the group you like the singer as well even if you absolutely hate him/her. You continue to say you like it (or even go to the singers concert

Impersonality

how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner Pro - equal treatment Con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group

looking glass self

idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others; Socialization also shapes our self-image and self-concept - this process happens in three steps: 1) How do I appear to others? 2) What must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, or awkward) 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations). **key part: Cooley believed we are not exactly being influenced by the actual opinions of others, but instead what we imagine/believe the opinions of other people to be about me - suggests that the self-concept is influenced by how we perceive that others are viewing us - the way in which people see themselves is based on how they believe others perceive them during social interactions - a person who acquires a stigmatized illness is likely to internalize the stigmatization directed against him or her; always believe others will stigmatize against them, always have negative opinions of him/her even when they may not

Taboos

ideas that are considered unacceptable by almost every culture (like cannibalism or incest) - not only punishable by laws, but also shunned from other people severely *the most severe

Lexical access

identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory

Agraphia

inability to write (graphics, can't write = produce graphics)

Organizations

institutions designed for a specific purpose, collective goal, and try to achieve maximum efficiency Ex. Postal Service (purpose: deliver mail, McDonalds (food), Time Warner Cable (TV/Internet access) etc. - Utilitarian Organizations - Normative Organizations - Coercive Organization

Weak Linguistic Determinism/relativism

language influences thought to certain extent (but not completely) - depending on how our language is structured, ex. reading or writing direction, style etc., we are more likely to think in certain ways • Example: The girl pushes the boy. If you imagine that statement with girl on the left, your native language probably reads from left to right like English. If you drew it with the girl on the right, your native language probably reads right to left like Hebrew. Right to left vs. left to right language influences what direction you imagine girl pushing boy. • Weak Linguistic Determinism believes linguistic structure influences but does not determine the context of everyday encounters.

informative influence/informative social influence

look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct; we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't. - one of the reasons why people conform to negative peer behavior - individual may or may not realize this isn't the right thing to do Ex: You have never interacted with a dog before and you are uncertain about how to train a dog and you are uncertain if it's an appropriate method to use a shock color. You look for the group for guidance and you assume they are correct. Ex: when you move to a new place. You would ask people around you (who lived in this place for a longer period) of things to do /places to eat and go along with their suggestions

mores

norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society and have consequences if violated - Health behaviors (like seeking help for an acute medical illness) are standards of behavior that are necessary for the well-being of everyone - if a person does not seek help to fix the problem, they may be shunned by family members or friends

Folkways

norms that govern everyday behavior (like holding a door open) least severe: if violated, no serious/formal consequence; ex. may be judged by other people as rude if don't hold the door, but no actual punishment

Prejudice

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience made up of 3 components: ABC model Component#1: Cognition (Stereotype)- Fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief (cognition) Component#2: Affect - prejudice carries an emotional component Component #3: (Behavior) Discrimination (tendency for Prejudice to lead to behavior) -capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice At the core of prejudice is often fear of frustration. Scapegoats are group of people towards whom the aggression is directed ex. Jews during World War II

Morphology

refers to the structure of words. - Many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes: a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided (e.g., in, come, -ing, forming incoming). - "A grammatical system, which puts meaningful elements together into 'words'. • In ASL, when hand shape and location are combined, they form morphemes.

compliance

situations where we do behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment: tendency to go along with behavior without questioning why - the tendency to agree to do what is requested especially if there are certain factors present: a feeling that there is give and take, believability, likability, limited supply and positive feedback from others. ex. Robert Cialdini studied how successful marketing results in consumer compliance. For example, soft drink labels have long used celebrities to increase compliance. The ordinary consumer would buy the drink because they liked the celebrity, assumed that the celebrity approved of the product, and believed what he had to say about it ex. paying taxes (I will get punished if I don't pay my taxes). TSA screenings (nobody likes them, but you won't be allowed on the plane if you don't) - Compliance goes away once rewards/punishments/ factors are removed ex. if the celebrity image is removed from the label of a Coco-cola bottle, then the customer would probably stop buying the drink- not complying anymore

Self-fulfilling prophecy

stereotypes can lead to an individual's behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes in a person's mind toward others ex. "City dwellers are rude" (cognition, stereotyping) -> I don't like them (affective component, prejudice) -> I will avoid them and will be cold toward them (behavioral component, discrimination) --> They think I'm rude (cognition) -> They may not like me (affective) -> They avoid me (behavioral) -> City dwellers are rude - Continuous circle that positive feedbacks on itself Result: The city dwellers become ruder over time to me in response to my own behavior towards them; so in reality, maybe then the cold attitude the person receives from others is because the person is cold/rude to others at first place

Locus of control

the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives. - internal - external

Vygotsky- Sociocultural Cognitive development theory II

the process of Elementary Mental Functions, with the Social Interactions, developing into Higher Mental Functions (Cognition): 1.) Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other = the tutor, model) - a person with a better understanding than the learner. The interaction with the learner + MKO → Learning + Higher M.F (Independence) 2.) Zone of proximal development (ZPD) - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. ex.) ZPD = between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something; the link between the zone of learner can't do and can do on his/her own. Allows learner to use their skills they already have (zone of can do) and expand learning to things they can't do with the instruction given. 3.) Language - the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. ex.) private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves - happens most in children - a way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development - Language is an accelerator to thinking and understanding. - children who engage in lots of private speech (talk to themselves?) are more socially competent. - Language develops from social interactions for communication purposes: Language leads to (→) thought (inner speech) - think for ourselves --> independence of executing skills and higher cognition. Overall, through this process: Elemental mental functions (attention, sensation, perception, memory) + social interactions (including the above three details) --> higher mental functions (independent cognition, learning)

Self-esteem

the respect and regard one has for oneself difference between self-esteem and self-worth: self-worth: It is a deep knowing that I am of value, that I am loveable, necessary to this life, and of incomprehensible worth. self-esteem: to think I'm good at something, I'm competent, respect for one's skills It is possible to feel "high self-esteem," or in other words, to think I'm good at something, yet still not feel convinced that I am loveable and worthy. Self-esteem doesn't last or "work" without self-worth

Prejudice II

types of personality/situation more subject to prejudice: 1) sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves - they are oppressive. And rigid thinkers, inflexible with their viewpoints. --> These people probably had a harsh bringing/lots of discipline growing up --> They use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focussed on others 2) Frustration Aggression Hypothesis (not personality based, but more emotional): Ex. Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards the employer. But you can't actually do that because you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression - and rechannelled it somewhere or someone else. Often towards a group that has less power, weaker, such as minorities. --> scapegoating: display aggression towards other people Often seen in times of economic hardship. 3) Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation: upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to - Relative depreciation is the discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get --> Extent of and how quickly this happens can lead to collective unrest - an upsurge in prejudice and discrimination. - Linked to Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

Out-group derogation

we are super friendly to our in-group, but not friendly to out group - we discriminate. - Happens if we feel that the out group is threatening to or undermine in group's success.

Actor-Observer Bias

we are victims of, but others are willful actors. (same thing as saying: circumstance (we attribute our behavior on external factors but others behavior on internal factors) ex. Max attends a party and does not make eye contact with, or approach his acquaintance Sam. Max will attribute his own behavior to external/situational factor = not feeling well Sam will attribute Max's behavior to dispositional factors/internal factors = Max is a socially awkward guy

roles

we have many different roles that define what we do and who we are. - we adapt to and use social norms (the "standard" behavior a social group should have according to the society's accepted ideas) to guide our behavior, conform to expectations of others or society - We respond to their approval when we play our roles well - we get disapproval when we play roles badly - Expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them fit the role even more when roles are stereotyped we play our roles often according to the social norm, the role's characteristics, personality, attitude, behavior etc. is shaped up by social norm, and we use social norm expectations toward those roles to shape our behavior, and we subsequently behave like the social norms ex. Stanford Prison experiment - being in a prison environment caused guards to be more authoritative, sadistic, and power to do what they wanted with the prisoners. Prisoners: felt they were powerless to the guards. They would suck up to the guards. These were expectations of the prisoners for approval by the guards. Prison environment created these characteristics. The participants who played roles of guards before the study did not have these characteristics.

Identification (in terms of conformity)

when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect - will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual - As with compliance, we may not behave in a particular way because such behavior is intrinsically satisfying. Rather, we adopt a particular behavior because it puts us in a satisfying relationship to the person or persons with whom we are identifying. - We do come to believe in the opinions and values we adopt, though not very strongly. We want to be like some particular person. EX: Want to be just like your father. (the other "Identification" kind of has similar idea, but this one in terms of a type of conformity, is more under pressure)

Identification

when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect - will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual ex. football player people admired and bought his jersey, but then he engaged in domestic violence and once it was made public the identification of this player by people dropped significantly. Also, According to Freud, as children develop, there comes a time in which the child must adopt the characteristics of one of the parents. During this process of identification, the child adopts the characteristics of the same-sex parent and begins to associate themselves with and copy the behavior of significant others. In addition, Freud stated that this process also involves the development of the child's superego (our moral guide in life - the moral component of personality), which is done by incorporating characteristics of the parent's superegos into the child's own. So, a young male child will begin to take on characteristics of the father (act more like his father than his mother in the sense of being a male) and will develop a superego that has similarities to the moral values and guidelines by which the parents live their lives (e.g., if the parents are honest people, the child may come to realize that honesty is important and that lying is wrong

projection bias

when we assume other share the same beliefs we do

publicly conform (compliance)

you are outwardly changing (public behavior change but inside you may maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group; not sincerely changing your beliefs Ex: you agree to the shock color in the group situation but you also know that the treats is a more effective route. You are not convinced. When you are alone you train the dog with a treat.

Language

• Language is divided into many sub functions. How your brain speaks and understands language. • 90% of people, language is in left hemisphere (both right and left handed people!). Whatever is dominant - 2 main areas are Broca's area (speak/language expression, frontal lobe) and Wernicke's area (temporal lobe (sound processing-A1 is in temporal lobe), understand) • Aphasia: disorder that involves language. Aphasia is a communication disorder that causes problems with language, like speaking, listening reading, and writing.