Latin america

Nationalism/ Nation-State

As conservatives, liberals, and radicals debated issues of government, a new movement called nationalism emerged. Nationalism is the belief that people's greatest loyalty should not be to a king or an empire but to a nation of people who share a common culture and history. The nationalist movement would blur the lines that separated the three political theories. When a nation had its own independent government, it became a nation-state. A nation-state defends the nation's territory and way of life, and it represents the nation to the rest of the world. In Europe in 1815, only France, England, and Spain could be call nation-states. But soon that would change as nationalist movements progressed.

Jean Jacques Dessalines/ Haiti

Toussaint's lieutenant, Jean Jacques Dessalines, took up the fight for freedom. On January 1, 1804, General Dessalines declared the colony an independent country. It was the first black colony to free itself from European control. Dessalines called the country Haiti, which in the native language of Arawak means "mountainous land".

United Provinces of Central America

Before the Mexican revolution, Central America was part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. It had been governed by the Spanish from the seat of colonial government in Mexico. In 1821, several Central American states declared their independence from Spain - and from Mexico as well. However, Iturbide refused to recognize the declaration of independence. So, he was finally overthrown in 1823. Central America then declared its absolute independence from Mexico. It took the name the United Provinces of Central America. The future countries of Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Costa Rica would develop.

Romanticism/ George Gordon/ Lord Byron

At the end of the 18th century, Enlightment idea of reason gradually made way for major movement in art and ideas: romanticism. This movement reflected deep interest both in nature and in the thoughts and feelings of the individual. Romantic thinkers and writers reacted against the ideals of the Enlightenment. They turned from reason to emotion, from society to nature. They rejected the rigidly ordered world of the middle class. Nationalism also fired the romantic imagination. George Gordon, Lord Byron, one of the leading romantic poets of the time, fought for Greece's freedom. Emotion, sometimes wild emotion, was a key element of romanticism. Romanticism went beyond feelings. They expressed a wide range of ideas and attitudes. 1. They emphasized inner feelings, emotions, and imagination 2. They focused on the mysterious, the supernatural, and the exotic, grotesque or horrifying. 3. They loved the beauties of untamed nature. 4. They idealized the past as a simpler and noble time. 5. They glorified heroes and heroic actions, cherished folk traditions, music, and stories, valued the common people and the individual, and promoted radical change and democracy.

Impressionism

Beginning in the 1860s, a group of painters in Paris reacted against realistic style. Instead of showing life as it really was, they tried to show impression of a subject or moment in time. The art in style became known as impressionism. Fascinated by light, impressionist artist used pure, shimmering colors to capture a moment seen at a glance.

The Franco-Prussian War/ kaiser/ Second Reich

By 1867, a few southern German states remained independent of Prussian control. The majority of southern Germans were Catholics. Many in the region resisted domination by a Protestant Prussia. But, Bismarck felt he could win the support of southerners if they faced a threat from outside. He reasoned that a war with France would rally the south. Bismarck was good at manufacturing "incidents" to gain his ends. He created the impression that the French ambassador had insulted the Prussian king. The French reacted to Bismarck's depiction by declaring war on Prussia on July 19, 1870. The Prussian army then poured into northern France. In September 1870, the Prussian army surrounded the main French force at Sedan. Among the 83,000 French prisoners taken was Napoleon III himself. Parisians withstood a German siege until hunger forced them to surrender.The Franco-Prussian War was the final stage in German unification. Now the nationalistic fever also seized people in southern Germany. They finally accepted Prussian leadership. On January 18, 1871, at the capture French palace of Versailles, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was crowned kaiser, or emperor. Germans called their empire the Second Reich.

Franz Liszt

Emotion dominated music produced by romantic composers. The composers moved away from tightly controlled, formal compositions of the Enlightenment period. Instead, they celebrated heroism and national pride with a new power of expression. As music became a part of the middle class, musicians and composers became popular heroes. Composer and pianist Franz Liszt achieved earnings and popularity as today's rock stars.

Brussels/ Warsaw

By the 1830s, the old order, carefully arranged at the Congress of Vienna, was breaking down. Liberals and nationalists throughout Europe were revolting against conservative governments. Nationalist riots broke out against Dutch rule in the Belgian city of Brussels. In October 1830, the Belgians declared their independence from Dutch control. In Italy, nationalists worked to unite the many separate states on the Italian peninsula. Some were independent. Others were ruled by Austria, or by the pope. Eventually, Prince Metternich sent Austrian troops to restore order in Italy. The Poles living under the rule of Russia staged a revolt in Warsaw late in 1830. Russian armies took nearly an entire year to crush Polish uprising. By the mid 1830s, the old order seemed to have reestablished itself. But the appearance of stability did not last long.

Ferdinand VII/ Joseph

Creoles were the least oppressed of those born in Latin America and they were also the best educated. Many young wealthy creoles traveled to Europe for their education and in Europe they were read and adopt Enlightenment ideas. When Napoleon removed Spain's King Ferdinand VII, Napoleon made his brother Joseph king of Spain. In 1810, rebellion broke out in several parts of Latin America. South American wars of independence rested on the achievements of two brilliant creole generals.

Nationalists

During the 1800s, nationalism fueled efforts to build nation-states. Nationalists were not loyal to kings, but to their people (the ones who shared a common bond. Nationalists believed that people of a single ancestry should unite under a single government. But, people wanted to restore the old order from before the French Revolution saw nationalism as a force for disunity. Eventually, authoritarian rulers began to see that nationalism could also unify masses of people. They soon began to use nationalist feelings for their own purposes. They built nation-states in areas where they remained firmly in control.

Nicholas I/ Crimean War/ Alexander II

Eventually, Russia's lack of development became obvious to Russians and the whole world. In 1853, Czar Nicholas I threatened to take over part of the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War. However, Russia's industries and transportation system failed to provide adequate supplies for the country's troops. In 1856, Russia lost the war against combined forces of France, Great Britain, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire. After the war, Nicholas's son, Alexander II, decided to move Russia toward modernization and social change. Alexander and his advisers believed that his reforms would allow Russia to compete with Western Europe for world power. The first act of Alexander's reforms was to free the slaves in 1861. The abolition of serfdom went only halfway. Peasant communities received about half the farmland in the country. Nobles kept the other half. The government paid the nobles for their land. Each peasant had 49 years to pay the government for the land it had received.

Conservative/ Liberals/ Radicals

First half of the 1800s, three schools of political thought struggled for supremacy in European societies. 1. Conservatives: usually wealthy property owners and nobility. They argued for protecting the traditional monarchies of Europe. 2. Liberal: mostly middle class business leaders and merchants. They wanted to give more power to elected parliaments, but only the educated and the landowners would vote. 3. Radical: favored drastic change to extend democracy to all people. They believed that governments should practice the ideals of the French Revolution- liberty, equality, and brotherhood.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe/ The Sorrows of Young Werther/ Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm/ Victor Hugo/ Les Misérables/ The Hunchback of Notre Dame

Germany produced one of the earliest and greatest romantic writers. In 1774, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published The Sorrows of Young Werther. Goethe's novel told of a sensitive young man whose hopeless love for a virtuous married woman drives him to suicide. Also in Germany, Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm collected German fairy tales and created a dictionary and grammar of the German language. These both celebrated the German spirit. Victor Hugo led French romantics. His works reflected the romantic fascination with history and the individual. His novels Les Misérables and The Hunchback of Notre Dame show the struggles of individuals against a hostile society.

Mary Shelley/ Frankenstein

Gothic horror stories became hugely popular. These often took place in medieval Gothic castles. They were filled with fearful, violent, sometimes supernatural events. Mary Shelley, wife of poet Percy Shelley, wrote one of the earliest and most successful Gothic horror novels, Frankenstein. The novel told the story of a monster created from the body parts of dead human beings.

King John VI/ Prince John/ Dom Pedro

In 1807, Napoleon's armies invaded both Spain and Portugal. Napoleon's aim was to close the ports of these countries to British shipping. As French troops approached Lisbon, the Portuguese capital, Prince John (Later King John VI) and the royal family boarded ships to escape capture. They took their court and royal treasury to Portugal's largest colony, Brazil. Rio de Janiero became the capital of the Portuguese empire. For 14 years, the Portuguese ran their empire from Brazil. After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, King John and the Portuguese government returned to Portugal six years later. Dom Pedro, King John's son, stayed behind in Brazil. King John planned to make Brazil a colony again. However, many Brazilians could not accept a return to colonial status. In 1822, creoles demanded Brazil's independence from Portugal. Eight thousand Brazilians signed a petition asking Dom Pedro to rule. He agreed. On September 7, 1822 he officially declared Brazil's independence. Brazil had won its independence in a bloodless revolution.

Padre Miguel Hidalgo/ Grito de Dolores/ Jose Maria Morelos/ Augustin de Iturbide

In 1810 Padre Miguel Hidalgo, a priest in the small village of Dolores, took the first step toward independence. Hidalgo was a poor but well educated man. He firmly believed in Enlightenment ideals. On September 16, 1810 he rang the bells of his village church. When peasants gathered in the church, he issued a call for rebellion against the Spanish. The call is known as "grito de Dolores". The very next day, Hidalgo's Indian and mestizos followers began a march toward Mexico City. This unruly army soon numbered 80,000 men. The uprising of the lower classes alarmed the Spanish army and creoles, who feared the loss of their property, control of the land, and their lives. The army defeated Hidalgo in 1811. The rebels then rallied around another strong leader, Padre Jose Maria Morelos. Morelos led the revolution for four years. However in 1815, a creole officer, Agustin de Iturbide, defeated him. Events in Mexico took yet another turn in 1820 when a revolution in Spain put a liberal group in power there. Mexico's creoles feared the loss of their privileges in the Spanish-controlled colony. So they united in support of Mexico's independence from Spain. Ironically, Agustin de Iturbide proclaimed independence in 1821.

Charles X/ Louis-Phillipe

In 1830, France's King Charles X tried to stage a return to absolute monarchy. The attempt sparked riots that forced Charles to flee to Great Britain. He was replaced by Louis-Philippe, who had long supported liberal reforms in France. However, in 1848, Louis-Philippe fell from popular favor. A Paris mob overturned a monarchy and established a republic. The new republican government began to fall apart almost immediately. The radicals split into factions. One side wanted only political reform. The other side also wanted social and economic reform. The differences set off bloody battles in Parisian streets. The violence turned French citizens away from the radicals. As a result, a moderate constitution was drawn up later in 1848. It called for a parliament and a strong president to be elected by the people.

Budapest/ Louis Kossuth/ Prague

In 1848, ethnic uprisings occurred in Europe. After an unruly mob in Vienna that clashed with the police, Metternich resigned and liberal uprisings broke out in the Austria Empire. In Budapest, nationalist leader Louis Kossuth called for a parliament and self government for Hungary. Meanwhile in Prague, Czech liberals demanded Bohemian independence.

Wilhelm I/ Junkers/ Otto Von Bismarck/ Realpolitik

In 1861, Wilhelm I succeeded Frederick William to the throne. The liberal parliament refused him money for reforms that would double the strength of the army. Wilhelm saw the Parliaments refusal as a major challenge to his authority. He was supported in his view by the Junkers (strongly conservative members of Prussia's wealthy landowning class). In 1862, Wilhelm chose a conservative Junker named Otto Von Bismarck as his prime minister. Bismarck was a master of what came to be known as realpolitik. This term means "the politics of reality". This describes tough power politics with no room for idealism. With his realpolitik as his style, Bismarck would become one of the commanding figures of German history. With the king's approval, Bismarck declared that he would rule without the consent of parliament and without a legal budget. Those actions were in direct violation of the constitution.

Ludwig van Beethoven/ Ninth Symphony/ Robert Schuman/ Felix Mendelssohn/ Frederic Chopin/ Guiseppe Verdi/ Richard Wagner

One of the greatest and leading the way to the Romantic periods was Ludwig van Beethoven. His Ninth Symphony soars, celebrating freedom, dignity, and the triumph of the human spirit. Later romantic composers also appealed to the hearts and souls of their listeners. Robert Schuman's compositions sparkle with merriment. Felix Mendelssohn drew on literature, such as Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, as the inspiration for his music. Polish composer and concert pianist Frederic Chopin used Polish dance rhythms in his music. Guiseppe Verdi and Richard Wagner brought European opera to a dramatic and theatrical high point.

Schleswig/ Holstein/ Seven Weeks' War

In 1864, Bismarck took the first step toward molding an empire. Prussia and Austria formed an alliance and went to war against Denmark to win Schleswig and Holstein (border provinces). Quick victory increased national pride among Prussians and won new respect from other Germans and lent support for Prussia as head of a unified Germany. After the victory, Prussia governed Schleswig while Austria controlled Holstein. Bismarck purposely stirred up border conflicts with Austria over Schleswig and Holstein. The tensions provoked Austria into declaring war on Prussia in 1866. This conflict is known as the Seven Weeks' War. The Prussians used their superior training and equipment into win a devastating victory. They humiliated Austria. The Austrians had lost the region of Venetia. They had to accept Prussian annexation of more German territory. With its victory in the Seven Week's War, Prussia took control of northern Germany. For the first time, the eastern and western parts of the Prussian kingdom were joined. In 1867, the remaining states of the north joined the North German Confederation, which Prussia dominated completely.

Venetia/ Papal States

In 1866, the Austrian province of Venetia, which included the city of Venice, became part of Italy. In 1870, Italian forces took over the last part of a territory known as the Papal States. With this victory, the city of Rome came under Italian control. Soon after, Rome become the capital of the unite kingdom of Italy. The pope would still continue to govern a section of Rome known as Vatican City.

Louis-Napoleon/ Napoleon III

In December 1848, Louis-Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, won the presidential election. Four years later, Louis-Napoleon took the title of Emperor Napoleon III. A majority of French voters accepted this action without complaint. The French were weary of instability. They welcome a strong ruler who would bring peace to France. Louis Napoleon built railroads, encouraged industrialization, and promoted an ambitious program of public works. Gradually, because of Louis-Napoleon's policies, unemployment decreased and the country experienced prosperity.

Peninsulares/ Creoles/ Mestizos/ Mulattos

In Latin American colonial society, class dictated people's places in society and jobs. At the top of Spanish-American society were the peninsulares, people who had been born in Spain, which is on the Iberian Peninsula. They formed a tiny percentage of the population. Only peninsulares could hold high office in Spanish colonial government. Creoles, Spaniards born in Latin America, were below the peninsulares. Creoles could not hold high level political office, but they could rise as officers of Spanish colonial armies. Together the two controlled land, wealth, and power in the Spanish colonies. Below peninsulares and creoles came the mestizos, persons of mixed European and Indian ancestry. After, the mulattos, persons of mixed European and African ancestry and lastly in the society were the enslaved Africans. Indians were at the bottom of the bottom, however.

Piedmont-Sardinia/ Victor Emmanuel II/Count Camillo di Cavour

Italian nationalists looked for leadership from the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the largest and most powerful of the Italian states. The kingdom had adopted a liberal constitution in 1848. So, the liberal Italian middle classes, unification under Piedmont-Sardinia seemed a good plan. In 1852, Sardinia's king, Victor Emmanuel II named Count Camillo di Cavour as his prime minister. Cavour was a cunning statesman who worked tirelessly to expand Piedmont-Sardinia's power. Using skillful diplomacy and well-chosen alliances he set about gaining control of Northern Italy for Sardinia. Cavour realized that the greatest roadblock to annexing northern Italy was Austria. In 1858, the French emperor Napoleon III agreed to help drive Austria out of northern Italian provinces. Cavour then provoked a war with the Austrians. A combined French-Sardinian army won two quick victories. Sardinia took all of northern Italy except Venetia.

Realism

Mid 19th century, rapid industrialization deeply affected everyday life in Europe. The growing class of industrial workers lived grim lives in dirty, crowded cities. Industrialization began to make the dreams of the romantics seem pointless. In literature and the visual arts, realism tried to show life as it was, not as it should be. Realist paintings reflected the increasing political importance of the working class in the 1850s. Along with paintings, novels proved especially suitable for describing workers' suffering.

Russification

Nationalism also helped break up the 370 year old empire off the czars in Russia. In addition to the Russians themselves, the czar ruled over 22 million Ukrainians, 8 million Poles, and smaller numbers of Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Jews, Romanians, Georgians, Armenians, Turks, and others. Each group had its own culture. The ruling Romanov dynasty of Russia was determined to maintain iron control over this diversity. They instated the Russification policy that forced the Russian culture on all ethnic groups in the empire. This strengthened ethnic nationalist feelings and helped to disunify Russia. The weakened czarist empire finally could not withstand the double shock of World War I and the communist revolution. The last Romanov czar gave up his power in 1917.

Daguerreotypes/ Louis Daguerre/ William Talbot

Photographers could record an instant in time with scientific precision. The first practical photographs were called daguerreotypes. They were named after their French inventor, Louis Daguerre. The images in his daguerreotypes were startlingly real and won him worldwide fame. British inventor William Talbot invented a light sensitive paper that he used to produce photographic negatives. The advantage of paper was that many prints could be made from one negative. The Talbot process also allowed photos to be reproduced in books and newspapers. Mass distribution gained a wide audience for the realism of photography. With its scientific, mechanical, and mass-produced features, photography was the art of the new industrial age.

William Wordsworth/ Samuel Taylor Coleridge/ Percy Bysshe Shelley/ John Keats

Poetry, music, and painting were the most influential arts because they were able to capture the emotion. To romantics, poetry was the highest form of expression. British romantic poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge both honored nature as the source of truth and beauty. Later English romantic poets, such as Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats, wrote poems celebrating rebellious heroes, passionate love, and the mystery and beauty of nature. The British poets lived stormy lives and died young. Byron died at 36 and Shelley died at 29.

Honoré de Balzac/ Émile Zola/ The Human Comedy

Realism in literature flourished in France with writers like Honoré de Balzac and Émile Zola. Balzac wrote a massive series of almost 100 novels entitled The Human Comedy. They describe in detail the brutal struggle for wealth and power among all levels of French society. Zola's novels exposed the miseries of French workers in small shops, factories, and coal mines. His revelations shocked readers and spurred reforms of labor laws and working conditions in France.

San Martin/ Bernardo O'Higgins/ Guayaquil/ Battle of Ayacucho/ Gran Colombia

San Martin's Argentina had declared its independence in 1816. Spanish forces in nearby Chile and Peru still posed a threat. In 1817, San Martin led an army on a grueling march across the Andes to Chile. He was joined there by forces led by Bernardo O'Higgins, son of a former viceroy of Peru. With O'Higgins helping, San Martin finally freed Chile. In 1821, San Martin planned to drive the remaining Spanish forces out of Lima, Peru. But to do so, he needed a much larger force. San Martin and Bolivar discussed this problem when they met at Guayaquil, Ecuador, in 1822. Nobody knows how the two men reach an agreement. But San Martin left his army for Bolivar to command. With unified revolutionary forces, Bolivar's army went on to defeat the Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. In this last major battle of the war for independence, the Spanish colonies in Latin America won their freedom. The future countries of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador were united into a country called Gran Colombia.

Simón Bolivar

Simón Bolivar's native Venezuela declared its independence from Spain in 1811. But the struggle for independence had only begun. Bolivar's volunteer army of revolutionaries suffered numerous defeats. Twice Bolivar had to go into exile. A turning point came in August 1819. Bolivar led over 2,000 soldiers on a daring march through the Andes into what is now Colombia. Coming from this direction, he took the Spanish army in Bogota completely by surprise and won a decisive victory. By 1821, Bolivar had won Venezuela's independence. He then marched south into Ecuador. In Ecuador, Bolivar finally met Jose de San Martin. Together they would decide the future of the Latin American revolutionary movement.

Austro-Prussian War/ Francis Joseph/ Austria-Hungary

The Austrian Empire brought together Slovenes, Hungarians, Germans, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Poles, Serbs, and Italians. In 1866, Prussia defeated Austria in the Austro-Prussian War. As a result, Prussia gained control of the newly organized Northern German Confederation, a union of Prussia and 21 smaller German political units. Then, pressured by the Hungarians, Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria split his empire in half, declaring Austria and Hungary independent states, with himself as ruler of both. The empire was now called Austria-Hungary or the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Nationalist disputes continued to weaken the empire for more than 40 years.

Saint Domingue/ Toussaint L'Ouverture

The French colony called Saint Domingue was the first Latin American territory to free itself from European rule. The colony, now known as Haiti, occupied the western third of the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea. Nearly 500,000 enslaved Africans worked on French plantations, and they outnumbered their masters dramatically. White masters used brutal methods to terrorize them and keep them powerless. While the French Revolution was taking place, oppressed people in Haiti rose up against their French masters. In August 1791, 100,000 enslaved Africans rose in revolt. A leader soon emerged, Toussaint L'Ouverture. He was formerly enslaved and was unfamiliar with military and diplomatic matters. However, he rose to become a skilled general and diplomat. By 1801, Toussaint had control of the entire island and freed all enslaved Africans. In January 1802, 30,000 French troops landed in Saint Domingue to remove Toussaint from power. In May, Toussaint agreed to halt the revolution if the French would end slavery. Despite the agreement, the French accused him of planning another uprising. They seized him and sent him to a prison in the French Alps, where he died April 1803.

Charles Dickens/ Little Dorrit

The famous English realist novelist Charles Dickens created unforgettable characters and scenes of London's working poor. Many of the scenes were humorous, but others showed the despair of London's poor. In his book Little Dorrit, Dickens described the life of a working-class person as sheer monotony set in a gloomy neighborhood.

The Balkans

The first people to win self-rules during this period were the Greeks. The Greeks used to be part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans controlled most of the Balkans. That region includes all or part of present-day Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and the former Yugoslavia. Greeks, however, had kept alive the memory of their ancient history and culture. Spurred on by the nationalist spirit, they demanded independence and rebelled against the Ottoman Turks in 1821.

Battle of Navarino

The most powerful European governments opposed revolution. However, the cause of Greek independence was popular with people around the world. Russians felt a connection to Greek Orthodox Christians, who were ruled by the Muslim Ottomans. Educated Europeans and Americans loved and respected ancient Greek culture. As the support for Greece grew, powerful nations of Europe took the side of the Greeks. In 1827, a combined British, French, and Russian fleet destroyed the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Navarino. In 1830, Britain, France, and Russia signed a treaty guaranteeing an independent kingdom of Greece.

Alexander III

The reforms stopped when Alexander II was assassinated in 1881. His successor, Alexander III, tightened czarist control over the country. He encouraged industrial development to expand Russia's power. A major force behind Russia's drive towards it was nationalism.

The Ottoman Turks

The ruling Turks of the Ottoman Empire controlled the Greeks, Slavs, Arabs, Bulgarians, and Armenians. In 1856, under pressure from the British and French, the Ottomans granted equal citizenship to all people under their rule. That measure angered conservative Turks, who wanted no change in the situation, and caused tension to rise. In response to nationalism in Armenia, the Ottomans massacred and deported Armenians from 1894 to 1896 and again in 1915. Also like Austria-Hungary, it broke apart after World War I.

Unification/ Separation/ State-building

There were three types of nationalist movements. 1. Unification, which were the mergers of politically divided but culturally similar lands. 2. Separation, which were a culturally distinct group that resisted being added to a state or tries to break away. 3. State-building, which were culturally distinct groups that formed into a new state by accepting a single culture.

Claude Monet/ Edgar Degas/ Pierre-Auguste Renoir/ Maurice Ravel/ Claude Debussy

They showed a more positive view of the new urban society in Western Europe. Instead of abused workers, they showed shop clerks and dock workers enjoying themselves in dance halls and cafes. They painted performers in theatres and circuses. And they glorified the delights of the life of the rising middle class. Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir were leaders in the movement that became very popular. Composers also created impressions of mood and atmosphere. They used different combinations of instruments, tone patterns, and music structures; they were able to create mental pictures of such things as flashing lights, the feel of a warm summer day, or the sight of sea. French composers like Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy are most notable members of the impressionist music movement.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

When Cavour was uniting northern Italy, he secretly started helping nationalist rebels in southern Italy. In May 1860, a small army of Italian nationalists led by a bold and visionary soldier, Giuseppe Garibaldi captured Sicily. In battle, Garibaldi always wore a bright red shirt and so did his followers and then they became known as the Red Shirts. From Sicily, Garibaldi and his forces crossed to the Italian mainland and marched north. Eventually, Garibaldi agreed to unite the southern areas he had conquered with the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. Cavour arranged for King Victor Emmanuel II to meet Garibaldi in Naples. He stepped aside and let Sardinian king rule.