MCAT

Disturbance of Affect

Negative symptom. Lack of normal emotion

Filtration

Nephron's first function. Hydrostatic pressure causes fluid to move into the nephron. Movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at Bowman's capsule

Secretion

Nephrons secrete salts, acids, bases, and urea by active or passive transport. Kidneys can eliminate ions or other substances in excess in the blood. Movement of solutes from blood to filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule

Synapse

Nerve terminal, synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic membrane

Reflex Arcs

Neural circuits that control reflexive behavior

Neuroplasticity

Neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli

Postsynaptic Neuron

Neuron after the synaptic cleft

Presynaptic Neuron

Neuron preceding the synaptic cleft

Sensory Receptors

Neurons that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. For the peripheral nervous system it is used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles. In the central nervous system it is linked to attention and arousal. Voluntary muscle control, parasympathetic nervous system, attention, and alertness.

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

Neurotransmitter that produces inhibitory post synaptic potentials and is though to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain

Urea

Neutral compound which travels to the kidney and is secreted into the nephron for excretion with the urine

Retroactive Interference

New information causes forgetting of old information

Incomplete Regeneration

Newly formed tissue is not identical in structure or function to the tissue that has been injured or lost

Diffusion of neurotransmitters out of the Synaptic Cleft

Nitric Acid (NO), a gaseous signaling molecule is an example.

Absolute Refractory Period

No amount of stimulation can cause another action potential to occur

Disorganized Attachment

No clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence, but can show a mix of different behaviors. Including avoidance, seeming dazed, or rocking. Red flag for abuse.

Flat Affect

No signs of emotional expression

Spatial Processes

Nondominant: Geometry, sense of direction

Nonpenetrance

None show symptoms of the disease

Natural Killer (NK) Cells

Nonspecific lymphocyte that can detect the downregulation of MHC and induce apoptosis. Kills body's own cells infected with pathogens.

Physiological Zero

Normal temperature of the skin. Used to judge temperature.

Conditioned Stimulus

Normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response called a conditioned response

Folkways

Norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions

Learned Behavior

Not based on heredity but experience and environment.

Anterograde Amnesia

Not being able to establish new long-term memories but memories before brain injury are still intact

Virus

Not living. They are acellular. Lack organelles and a nucleus. Composed of genetic material, a protein coat, and sometimes an envelope containing lipids. The genetic information may be circular or linear, single or double stranded and composed of either DNA or RNA. Obligate intracellular parasites because they cannot reproduce independently. Must express and replicate genetic information within a host cell because they lack ribosomes for protein synthesis.

Shape

Not only the 3D geometry but also our ability to discriminate an object of interest from the background by detecting its boundaries. Detected by parvocellular cells which have very high color spatial resolution that permits us to see very fine details. Only works with stationary or slow objects because they have low temporal resolution

Family Group

Not self-selected but determined by birth, adoption, and marriage. Joins members of various ages, sexes, and generations through emotional ties

Fictional Finalism

Notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences.

Astrocytes

Nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier, which controls the transmission of solutes from the bloodstream into nervous tissue

Sertoli Cells

Nourish sperm during their development

Benzodiazepines

Now used as sleep medications because of the decreased chance of overdose.

Prophase II

Nuclear envelope dissolves, nucleoli disappear, the centrioles migrate to opposite poles, and the spindle apparatus begins to form

Telophase II

Nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus. Cytokinesis follows and two daughter cells are formed. Four haploid daughter cells are produced per gametocyte.

Telophase I

Nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus. Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere. Cells are now haploid. Cell divides into two daughter cells by cytokinesis.

Bottom-up Processing

Object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection. Brain takes individual stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is

Object Relations Theory

Object refers to the representation of parents based on subjective experiences during early infancy. They persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others

Law of Simiarity

Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together

Phenotypic Benefits

Observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex.

Deletion Mutations

Occur when a large segment of DNA is lost from a chromosome.

Translocation Mutations

Occur when a segment of DNA from one chromosome is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome

Duplication Mutations

Occur when a segment of DNA is copied multiple times in the genome.

Insertion Mutations

Occur when a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another.

Inversion Mutations

Occur when a segment of DNA is reversed within the chromosome.

Stereotypes

Occur when attitudes and impressions are based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group of individuals. Attributes that people believe define and characterize a group.

Secondary Circular Reactions

Occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body such as throwing toys. Often repeated because the child gets a response from the environment

Frameshift Mutations

Occur when nucleotides are inserted or deleted from the genome. Shift the reading frame

Point Mutations

Occur when one nucleotide in DNA is swapped for another. Include silent, missense, and nonsense

Nonsense Mutations

Occur when the change in nucleotide results in substituting a stop codon for an amino acid

Missense Mutations

Occur when the change in nucleotide results in substituting one amino acid for another in the final protein

Alpha Waves

Occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed. Somewhat slower than beta waves. More synchronized.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Occurs after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. Consists of intrusion symptoms, avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms, and arousal symptoms. Present for at least one months. Less than one month is acute stress disorder

Death Phase

Occurs after the bacteria have exceeded the ability of the environment to support the number of bacteria.

Crossing Over

Occurs at the chiasma. Equivalent pieces of DNA are exchanged. Single and double crossovers can occur. Occurs between homologous chromosomes. Provides genetic diversity.

Primary Socialization

Occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other proximal adults.

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)

Occurs during slow-wave sleep. Have no recollection.

Implantation

Occurs during the blastula stage

Pregnancy

Occurs if fertilization has occurred. Zygote will develop into a blastocyst that will implant in the uterine lining and secrete human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). It is an analog of LH and can stimulate LH receptors. Maintains the corpus luteum. hCG is critical during the first trimester because the estrogen and progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum keep the uterine lining in place. hCG declines by the second trimester because the placenta can now secrete progesterone and estrogen by itself.

Secondary Appraisal

Occurs if stress is identified in the Primary Appraisal. Evaluates as to whether the organism can cope with the stress. Involves evaluation of harm, threat, and challenge.

Deindividuation

Occurs in group settings. Individual behavior can be dramatically different in social environments.Thought to be due to the fact that large groups provide anonymity and a loss of individual identity. Further enhanced with masks

Lag Phase

Occurs in new environments. Adapt to the new local conditions.

Bystander Effect

Occurs in social group wherein individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present. Likelihood and timeliness of response is inversely related to the number of bystanders. More people, less likely to help. Due to the fact that people are less likely to notice danger in groups and the fact that if others are not responding an individual is inclined to do the same

Ambivalent Attachment

Occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully. Unable to form a secure base he can consistently rely on. Very distressed when caregiver leaves but a mixed response when the caregiver returns

Fixation

Occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development. In response to the anxiety the child forms a personality patter based on that particular stage

Negative Feedback

Occurs when a hormone later in the pathway inhibits hormones earlier in the pathway. Maintains homeostasis and prevents wasted energy by restricting production of substances that are already present in sufficient quantities.

Distress

Occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors

Attribute Substitution

Occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic.

Discrimination

Occurs when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others. Behavior.

Grasping Reflex

Occurs when the infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand

Olfactory Pathway

Odor inhaled into the nasal passages and then contact the olfactory nerves in the olfactory epithelium. Receptor cells are activated and signals are sent to the olfactory bulb. They are then relayed to the olfactory tract to higher regions of the brain.

F Generation

Offspring

Proactive Interference

Old information interfering with new learning

Pheromone

Once bonded with, compel or urge another to behave in a specific way

Ovulation

One egg per month is ovulated into the peritoneal sac which lines the abdominal cavity. It is then drawn into the Fallopian tube or oviduct which is lined with cilia to propel the egg forward. Estrogen level reaches a threshold that paradoxically results in positive feedback. As a result GnRH, LH, and FSH levels spike. The surge in LH induces ovulation. FSH up, LH up, Estrogen up, Progesterone down

Specific Phobia

One in which anxiety is produced by a specific object or situation

Simple Epithelia

One layer of cells

Antagonistic Pairs

One muscles relaxes while the other contracts

Jean Piaget

One of the most influential figures in developmental psychology. Believed infants learn mainly through instinctual interaction with the environment. Divided life into fours stage: -Sensorimotor -Preoperational -Concrete Operational -Formal Operational.

Septal Nuclei

One of the primary pleasure centers in the brain.

Monohybrid Cross

One one trait is being studied. Crossing two heterozygotes produces a 1:2:1 ratio of genotypes and a 3:1 ratio of phenotypes assuming complete dominance

Individual Discrimination

One person discriminating against a person or group

Contralaterally

One side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body.

Ascribed Status

One that is given involuntarily, due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender, and family background.

Consciousness

One's level of awareness in both the world and one's own existence within that world. States include: -Alertness -Sleep -Dreaming -Altered

Foramen Ovale

One-way valve that connects the right atrium to the left atrium. Allows blood entering the right atrium from the inferior vena cava to flow into the left atrium instead of the right so it could be pumped from the aorta directly. Right side is higher pressure in the fetus. The pressure reverses after birth.

Reappraisal

Ongoing monitoring of stress

Clonal Selection

Only B-cells that can bind with the antigen at high affinity survive

Genetic Transduction

Only genetic recombination process that requires a vector. Transferred DNA can integrate into the genome, giving the new host additional genes.

Hemizygous

Only have one copy. Will always express if it has the disease-causing allele because that is the only active copy

Approach-Avoidance

Only one choice but can have a positive and negative aspect

Dominant

Only one copy of an allele is needed to express a given phenotype

Complete Dominance

Only one dominant and one recessive allele exist for a given gene

Selective Transcription

Only the genes needed for that particular cell type are transcribed.

Primary oocytes

Oogonia that have undergone DNA replication. 2n and are arrested in prophase I

Blastopore

Opening of the archenteron. Develops into the anus in deuterosomes. In proteosomes it develops into the mouth.

Glottis

Opening of the larynx

Anus

Opening through which wastes are eliminated. Consists of two sphincters: -internal (under involuntary or autonomic control) -external (under voluntary or somatic control)

Ego

Operates according to the reality principle, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id. This is referred to as the secondary process. The aim of the reality principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained. Organizer of the mind. Receives it powers from the id.

Heroin

Opioid. Body metabolizes it to morphine.

Placenta

Organ where nutrient, gas, and waste exchanges occur. Placental barrier provides immune protection. Produces progesterone, estrogen, and human chorionic gonadotropin. Where oxygenation occurs.

Golgi Apparatus

Organelle that plays a role in the packaging and secretion of proteins and other molecules produced intracellularly. Consists of stacked membrane-bound sacs. Materials from ER are transferred to Golgi apparatus in vesicles. They are then modified by addition of various groups. May also modify cellular products through the introduction of signal sequences which direct the delivery of the product to a specific cellular location. They are repackaged and transferred to the correct cellular location.

Discrimination (Psych)

Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli. Opposite of generalization.

Mating System

Organization of a group's sexual behavior. Include monogamy, polygamy, and promiscuity

Thick Filaments

Organized bundles of myosin

Social Movements

Organized either to promote or resist social change

Actin Filaments

Organized into bundles and networks and are resistant to both compression and fracture which provides protection for the cell. Use ATP to generate force for movement by interacting with myosin

Histones

Organizing proteins in which linear DNA is wound around. These are then further wound into linear strands called chromosomes.

Glands

Organs that secrete hormones

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Originally used to collect statistical data in the United States. It is now used as a diagnostic tool in the United States and other countries. Current is DSM-5. It is based on descriptions of symptoms.

Pulmonary Arteries

Originate from the right ventricle of the heart. Brings deoxygenated blood

Oncotic Pressure

Osmotic pressure that is attributable to dissolved proteins specifically

Androgens

Other male sex hormones

Impression Management

Our attempts to influence how others perceives us. Done through regulation or controlling of information in social interactions.

Self-Efficacy

Our belief in our ability to succeed

Looking-Glass Self

Our reactions to how others perceive us is reliant on others reflecting our selves back to ourselves.

Ought Self

Our representation of the way others think we should be

Stress

Our response to challenging events, be they physical, emotional, cognitive, or behavioral. Elevated stress can result in irritability, moodiness, fearfulness, and helplessness. Chronic stress can lead to mental health disorders.

Actual Self

Our self-concept or the way we see ourselves.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres. Forebrain. Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Sometimes called the neocortex. Has numerous bumps and folds called gyri and sulci respectively.

Parietal Pleura

Outer part of the pleura

Ectoderm

Outermost layer. Gives rise to the epidermis, hair, nails, and the epithelia of the nose, mouth, and lower anal canal. Also the lens of the eye, nervous system, and inner ear. Adrenal medulla (contains nervous tissue)

Accessory Organs of Digestion

Outgrowths of endoderm from the gut tube during development.

Cecum

Outpocketing that accepts fluid exiting the small intestine through the ileoceal valve and the site of attachment of the appendix

Identification

Outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas.

Dichorionic/ Diamniotic

Own amnion and own chorion

Monochorionic/ Diamniotic

Own amnion same chorion

Myoglobin

Oxygen carrier that uses iron in a heme group to bind oxygen. It imparts a red color.

Chylomicrons

Packaged triglycerides and esterfied cholesterol molecules. Enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals

Dimerization

Pairing of two receptor-hormone complexes

Cluster A

Paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid (Weird).

Reinforcement

Parents and caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language spoken by the parents.

Broca's Area

Part of the frontal lobe in the inferior frontal gyrus. Important for speech production. Found in the left hemisphere.

Personality Disorder

Patter of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive causing distress or impaired functioning in at least two of: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control. They are ego-syntonic.

Religion

Pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence

Instinct Theory

People are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts

Modeling

People learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them

Mere Exposure Effect (Familiarity Effect)

People prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently

State-Dependent Memory

People who learn facts or skills while intoxicated, for example, will show better recall or proficiency when performing those same tasks in the same state

Ductus Arteriosus

Shunts leftover blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta. Due to the pressure differential.

Hormones

Signaling molecules that are secreted directly into the bloodstream to travel to a distant target tissue. Can be peptides, steroids, or amino acid derivatives. Chemical messengers

Indicator Traits

Signify good overall health and well-being of an organism

Filtrate

Similar in composition to blood but does not contain cells or proteins

Meiosis II

Similar to mitosis in that it results in the separation of sister chromatids; also known as equational division.

Binary Fission

Simple form of asexual reproduction seen in prokaryotes. Equal nuclear and cytoplasmic division. The circular chromosome attaches to the cell wall and replicates while the cell continues to grow in size. Eventually, the plasma membrane and cell wall begin to grow inward along the midline of the cell to produce two identical daughter cells.

Diffusion

Simplest method to move water, glucose, amino acids, and inorganic salts. Requires a gradient

Heuristics

Simplified principles used to make decisions. Can lead us astray but are speedy and effective

Superinfection

Simultaneous infection with other phages. Infection with one strain of phage makes the bacterium less susceptible to superinfection.

Cognitive Dissonance

Simultaneous presence of two opposing thought or opinions

Sleep Cycle

Single complete progression through the sleep stages.

Aminopeptidase

Peptidase secreted by glands in the duodenum that removes the N-terminal amino acid from a peptide. Functions in the duodenum and is produced by intestinal glands. Their nutrient is proteins

Parathyroid Hormone

Peptide hormone released by the parathyroid glands in response to low blood calcium, promotes resorption of bone, increasing the concentration of calcium and phosphate in the blood.

Secretin

Peptide hormone that causes pancreatic enzymes to be released into the duodenum. Also regulates the pH of the digestive tract by reducing HCl secretion.

First Messenger

Peptide hormone. Binds to the receptor and triggers the transmission of a second messenger

Growth Factors

Peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues. Only function on specific cell types or in certain areas. Code for particular tissues

Oxygen Saturation

Percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen. Usually 97%

Subliminal Perception

Perception of a stimulus below a given threshold. Arrives at the central nervous system, but does not reach the higher-order brain regions that control attention and consciousness

Cultural Relativism

Perception of another culture as different from one's own but with the recognition that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself.

Social Support

Perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network.

Hallucinations

Perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality. Most common is auditory, involving voices that the individual perceives as coming from inside or outside his or her head.

Projection Area

Perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual and motor tasks

Major Depressive Episode

Period of at least two weeks with at least five of the following symptoms: prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood, loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities (anhedonia), appetite disturbances, substantial weight changes, sleep disturbances, decreased energy, feelings of worthlessness, difficulty concentrating, psychomotor symptoms, and thoughts of death or suicide. SIG E. CAPS -Sadness + -Sleep -Interest -Guilt -Energy -Concentration -Appetite -Psychomotor -Suicide

Night Terrors

Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep

Ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle

Permeable only to salts. Salt concentration decreases as it goes up the loop.

A child is diagnosed with an enzyme deficiency that prevents the production of hydrogen peroxide. What would the likely outcome be of such a deficiency?

Peroxisomes are dependent on hydrogen peroxide for their functions, so an enzyme deficiency that results in an inability to digest very long chain fatty acids. These fatty acids would build up in peroxisomes until most of the cellular contents were displaced by oversized peroxisomes. Would ultimately result in cell death.

Dissociative Disorders

Person avoids stress by escaping from his idenity

La belle indifference

Person is surprisingly unconcerned by the symptom

Ideal Self

Person we would like to be under optimal circumstances

Role Partner

Person with whom one is interacting.

Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)

Personality test based on Jung's three dichotomies

Microglia

Phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in the central nervous system. Monocytes in the central nervous system

Monocytes

Phagocytize foreign matter such as bacteria. Become known as macrophages once they enter an organ.

Interpersonal Attraction

Phenomenon of individuals liking each other. Some factors include similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity. Physical appearance and the golden ratio (1.618:1) plays a factor

Reciprocal Liking

Phenomenon whereby people like others better when they believe the other person likes them

Age 2

Physical Developments: -High activity level -Walks backwards -Can turn doorknob -Scribbles -Stacks six cubes -Stands on tiptoes -Able to aim ball Social Developments: -Selfish -Imitates -May be aggressive -Recognizes self in mirror -No is their favorite word -Parallel play Language Developments: -Use of pronouns -Parents understand most -Two-word sentences -250 words -Identifies by pointing

1st Year of Life

Physical Developments: -Puts everything in mouth -Sits with support -Stands with help -Crawls -Pincer grasp -Follows objects to midline -One-handed approach -Feet in mouth -Bang and rattle -Changes hands with toy Social Developments: -Parental figure central -Issues of trust -Stranger anxiety -Play is solitary and exploratory Language Developments: -Laughs aloud -Repetitive responding -First word

Age 3

Physical Developments: -Rides tricycle -Stacks 9 cubes -Alternates feet going up stairs -Toilet training -Draws recognizable figures -Catches ball with arms -Cuts paper with scissors -Unbuttons buttons Social Developments: -Fixed gender identity -Gender-specific play -Understands taking turns -Knows full name Language Developments: -Complete sentences -Uses 900 words -Understands 3600 words -Strangers can understand -Recognizes common objects in pictures -Can answer basic questions

Age 1

Physical Developments: -Walks alone -Climbs stairs alone -Emergence of hand preference -Kicks and throws ball -Pats pictures in book -Stacks three cubes Social Developments: -Separation anxiety -Dependency on parental figure -Onlooker play Language Developments: -Variation in timing of language developments -Uses 10 words

Mechanical Digestion

Physical breakdown of large food particles into smaller food particles, but does not involve breaking chemical bonds

Beneficence

Physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest

Respect for Patient Autonomy

Physician has a responsibility to respect patients' decisions and choices about their own healthcare.

Justice

Physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly

Melanin

Pigment that serves to protect the skin from DNA damage caused by ultraviolet radiation.

Glial Cells (Neuroglia)

Play both structural and supportive roles

Oral Cavity

Plays a role in both mechanical and chemical digestion of food.

Chiasma

Point of contact where chromosomes may break and cross over

Self

Point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind. Jung saw self as a mandala

Peptidoglycan

Polymeric substance made from amino acids and sugars. It can aid a pathogen by providing protection from a host organism's immune system. They also contain lipoteichoic acid

Mast Cells

Populate the lungs. Have antibodies on their surfaces. Release inflammatory chemicals into the surrounding area to promote an immune response when the right substrate is attached. Contain tiny granule.

Penetrance

Population measure defined as the proportion of individuals in the population carrying the allele who actually expresses the phenotype

Isolation

Populations can no longer interbreed

Vestibule

Portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule. Structures that are sensitive to rotational acceleration. Used as a balancing apparatus.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that appears rough microscopically due to the presence of ribosomes attached to the outer surface; site of protein synthesis for proteins destined to be membrane-bound or secreted.

Statuses

Positions in society that are used to classify individuals. There are three types of statuses: ascribed, achieved, and master.

Pull Factors

Positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant

Token Economies

Positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers

Fisherian (Runaway Selection)

Positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time.

Learning Theory

Posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning

Racial Formation Theory

Posits that racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors

Fundamental Attribution Error

Posits that we are generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions, especially in negative contexts.

Monozygotic (Identical) Twins

Single zygote splits into two. Three types: -Monochorionic/monoamniotic -Mnochorionic/diamniotic -Dichorionic/ diamniotic

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Postulates a U-shaped function between the level of arousal and performance. Performance is worst at low ad high levels of arousal.

Social Cognitive Theory

Postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. Develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others, in tandem with personal factors and the environment.

Collective Unconscious

Powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors

Role-Taking

Practice for later in life

Ethnocentrism

Practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture, especially when it comes to language, customs, and religion.

Gestalt Therapy

Practitioners take a holistic view of the self seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives.

L-Dopa

Precursor that is converted to dopamine once in the brain

Babbling

Precursor to language. Begins during their first year.

Trait Theorists

Prefer to describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors. Use clusters of behaviors to describe individuals.

Ageism

Prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person's age

Obligate Anaerobes

Presence of oxygen leads to the production of reactive oxygen-containing radicals in these species, which leads to cell death

Thoracic Duct

Present in the base of the neck. Empties into the left subclavian vein.

Stratum Lucidum

Present in thick, hairless skin, such as the foot or palms. Nearly transparent

Microvilli

Present on all villus. They drastically increase the surface area available for absorption

Brush-border Enzymes

Present on the luminal surface of cells lining the duodenum and break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers

Dendritic Cell

Presents antigens to adaptive immune cells. Induces cells to attack bearers of the displayed antigen

Pressure for Conformity

Pressure put on anyone in the group who expresses opinions against the group

Epiglottis

Prevents food from entering the larynx during swallowing. It is a cartilaginous structure that folds down to cover the laryngeal inlet.

Prezygotic Isolation Mechanism

Prevents formation of the zygote completely

Auditory Cortex

Primary site of most sound processing.

Archaea

Single-celled organisms that are visually similar to bacteria, but contain genes and several metabolic pathways that are more similar to eukaryotes than to bacteria. Notable for their ability to use alternative sources of energy. Contain a single circular chromosome, use binary fission.

Coping with Stress

Problem-focused strategies work to overcome a stressor with the help of family or other social support. Emotionally focused strategies center on changing one's feelings about the stressor. Exercise is also effective. Relaxation such as meditation is another stress reducer.

Anticipatory Socialization

Process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships.

Cultural Assimilation

Process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group. Integrates new aspects of a society and culture with old ones, transforming the culture.

Acommodation

Process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information that does not fit neatly into an existing schema

Resocialization

Process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change, and can have positive or negative connotations

Mitosis

Process by which two identical daughter cells are created from a single cell. Consists of four phases; prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Occurs in somatic cells.

Necrosis

Process of cell death where the cell dies due to injury. Substances can be leaked.

Assimilation

Process of classifying new information into existing schemata

Confabulation

Process of creating vivid but fabricated memories.

Socialization

Process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs

Reinforcement

Process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior.

Globalization

Process of integrating the global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets. Leads to a decrease in geographical constraints on social and cultural exchanges and can lead to both positive and negative effects

Observational Learning

Process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others.

Secondary Socialization

Process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society. Based on learning the rules of the specific social environments.

Recognition

Process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned.

Encoding

Process of putting new information into memory.

Shaping

Process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors.

Acquisition

Process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus

Bulbourethral (Cowper's) Glands

Produce a clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra

Plasma Cells

Produce large amounts of antibodies

Acinar Cells

Produce pancreatic juices

Mucous Cells

Produce the bicarbonate-rich mucus that protects the muscular wall from the harshly acidic conditions of the stomach

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Produced by the parathyroid glands. Serves as an antagonistic hormone to calcitonin, raising blood calcium levels; decreases excretion of calcium by the kidneys, increases absorption of calcium in the gut and increases bone resorption. Results in a significant increase in blood calcium levels with little effect on phosphate. Peptide.

Sperm

Produced in highly coiled seminiferous tubules where they are nourished by Sertoli cells. Mixed with seminal fluid as they pass through the reproductive tract. Very compact. Consists of a head (containing genetic material), a midpiece (which generates ATP from fructose), and a flagellum (for motility). Only contribute half of DNA

Bone Marrow

Produces all of the leukocytes that participate in the immune system. May be red or yellow. Fill the cavities between trabeculae

Ciliary Body

Produces the aqueous humor

Hematopoiesis

Production of blood cells and platelets. Triggered by a number of hormones, growth factors, and cytokines

Oogenesis

Production of female gametes. All oogonia a woman will ever have are formed during fetal development.

Peak Experiences

Profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death. Occurs in a highly organized manner in response to either external or internal signals. Cell divides itself into many self-contained pieces called apoptotic blebs which are then digested by other cells.

Cilia

Projections from a cell that are primarily involved in movement of materials along the surface of the cell.

Les Vygotsky

Prominent educational psychologist, proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules symbols, and language.

Transcription Factors

Promote transcription of genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle

AV Node

Sits at the junction of the atria and ventricles

Binocluar Cues

Slight difference in images projected on the two retinas and the angle required to bring an object into focus

Parasympathetic Signals

Slow down the heart rate. Provided by the vagus nerve

Stages 3 and 4

Slow-wave sleep (SWS). EEG activity progresses to a few sleep waves per second. Low-frequency and high voltage. Delta waves.

Thyroxine and triiodothyronine

Slower onsets but longer duration

Ethnic Enclaves

Slows assimilation. Locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity.

Nodes of Ranvier

Small breaks in the myelin sheath with exposed areas of axon membrane

Mandala

Promoter of unity, balance, and harmony between the conscious mind, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious

Indirect Benefits

Promotes better survival in offspring

Electrochemical Gradient

Promotes the migration of sodium into the cell. Interior is more negative than the exterior which favors the movement of Na+ into the cell

Angiotensin II

Promotes the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex

Appendix

Small fingerlike projection

Villi

Small fingerlike projections from the epithelial lining

Islets of Langerhans

Small groups of hormone-producing cells grouped together throughout the pancreas. Have three types of cells: alpha, beta, and delta.

Nuclear Pores

Small hole present in the nuclear membrane. Allows for the selective two-way exchange of material between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

Prions

Small infectious particles. Nonliving. Cause disease by triggering misfolding of other proteins. Reduces the solubility of the protein as well as the ability of the cell to degrade the misfolded protein. Function of the cell is eventually reduced.

Lacteals

Small lymphatic vessels, located at the center of each villus in the small intestine.

Glomerulus

Small molecules dissolved in blood pass through but large molecules such as proteins and blood cells will not

Centrioles

Small organelle in the cytoplasm of animal cells. Found in the centrosome. They are organizing centers for microtubules and are structured as nine triplets of microtubules with a hollow center. During mitosis they migrate to opposite poles of the cell and organize the mitotic spindle. Attach at kinetochores and pull the sister chromatids apart.

Viroids

Small pathogens consisting of a very short circular single-stranded RNA that infects plants. Bind to a large number of RNA sequences and silence genes in the plant genome. Prevents synthesis of necessary proteins and can cause metabolic and structural derangements in the plant cell.

Foot-in-the-door Technique

Small request is made, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made.

Synaptic Cleft

Small space into which the terminal portion of the axon releases neurotransmitters, which bind to the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron

Lacunae

Small spaces between the lamellar rings

Venules

Smaller venous structures that connect capillaries to the larger veins of the body

Ossicles

Smallest bones in the body that help transmit and amplify the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear. They are the malleus, incus, and stapes.

Race

Social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people.

Gender

Social construct that corresponds to the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex.

Ethnicity

Social construct, which sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors

Out-Group

Social group with which an individual does not identify

Peer Pressure

Social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual. Can cause changes in behavior, attitudes, or beliefs.

Proactive

Social movements that promote social change

Reactive

Social movements that resist social change

Groupthink

Social phenomenon in which desire for harmony results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision. Desire to agree with the group causes a loss of independent thinking. Janis found eight factors

In-Group

Social with a person experiences a sense of belonging

Taboo

Socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible.

Norms

Societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. Not laws but do provide a mechanism for regulating the behavior of individuals and groups and serve as a means of social control. Provides us with a sense of what is appropriate

Material Culture

Sociologists explore the meaning of objects of a given society

Cartilage

Softer and more flexible than bone. Consists of a firm but elastic matrix called chondrin that is secreted by cells called chondrocytes.

Morula

Solid mass of cells that forms after several divisions. Undergoes blastulation to form the blastula

Belief

Something that an individual accepts to be true

Recognition-Primed Decision Model

Sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern

Intermembrane Space

Space between the inner and outer membranes of the mitochondria

Mitochondrial Matrix

Space inside the inner membrane. The pumping of proteins from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space establishes the proton-motive force; ultimately, these protons flow through ATP synthase to generate ATP during oxidative phosphorylation.

Neurons

Specialized cells capable of transmitting electrical impulses and then translating those impulses to chemical signals

Division of Labor

Specific components of a larger task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals. Promotes specialization and efficiency.

Demographic Transition

Specific example of demographic shift referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system. Has four stages. -Stage 1: Preindustrial society; birth and death rates are both high -Stage 2: Improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and wages cause death rates to drop -Stage 3: Improvements in contraception, women's rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause birth rates to drop. Further with an industrializing society, children must go to school for many years to be productive in society and need to be supported by parents for a longer time -Stage 4: An industrialized society; birth and death rates are both low

Learning (Behaviorist) Theory

Proposed by B.F. Skinner. Explained language acquisition by operant conditioning.

Neurotic Needs

Proposed by Horney. Each of these needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable.

Ego-Defensive

Protect our self-esteem or justify wrong actions

Bicarbonate

Protects mucosa

Mucus

Protects mucosa

Capsid

Protein coat of a virus

Kinetochores

Protein structures located on the centromeres that serve as attachment points for specific fibers of the spindle apparatus appropriately called kinetochore fibers.

Albumin

Protein that maintains plasma oncotic pressure and serves as a carrier for drugs and hormones as well as clotting factor

Interferons

Proteins that prevent viral replication and dispersion. Cause nearby cells to decrease production of both viral and cellular proteins. Also decrease the permeability of nearby cells.

Schizophrenia

Prototypical psychotic disorder. Must show consistent symptoms for at least six months. Genetic. Hypoxemia is a risk factor. Associated with an excess of dopamine in the brain.

Inner Cell Mass

Protrudes into the blastocoel and gives rise to the organism itself

Population Pyramids

Provide a histogram of the population size of various age coherts

Cell-Mediated Immunity

Provided by T-Cells

Knowledge

Provides consistency and stability. Help provide organization to experiences

Direct Benefits

Provides material advantages, protection, or emotional support

Cytoskeleton

Provides structure to the cell and helps it to maintain its shape. Provides a conduit for the transport of materials around the cell. Has three components: microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments

Social Perception (Social Cognition)

Provides the tools to make judgments and impressions regarding other people. Has three components: the perceiver, the target, and the situation

Informational Support

Providing information that will help someone

Arousal

Psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli

Motivation

Purpose or driving force, behind our actions.

Semantic Encoding

Put the information in a meaningful context to encode it. Strongest.

Hershey and Chase

Radiolabeled DNA and protein from bacteriophages. Found radiotraced DNA but not radiotraced protein in offspring

Delirium

Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes

Cleavage

Rapid mitotic cell divisions. First cleavage officially creates an embryo. Increases surface area-to-volume ratio and the nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio. Two types of cleavage: Indeterminate and Determinate

Bureaucracy

Rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control. Six characteristics: -Paid officials on a fixed salary -Officials who are provided rights and privileges -Regular salary increases, and seniority Rights -Officials who enter the organization by holding an advanced degree -Responsibilities, obligations, and privileges defined by the organization -Responsibility for meeting the demands of one's position

Misinformation Effect

Recalling false infromation

Amacrine (Horizontal Cells)

Receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same are before the information is passed on to ganglion cells. Important for edge detection

Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

Receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body. Associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli.

Inferior Colliculus

Receives sensory information from the auditory system.

Superior Colliculus

Receives visual sensory input

Taste Buds

Receptors for taste. Found in little bumps on the tongue called papillae.

Cultural Sensitivity

Recognition and respect of differences between cultures, and research ethics.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Records an average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain.

Dishabituation

Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred usually occurs after a different stimulus has been presented

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells. Specialized cell designed for oxygen transport. Contains 250 million molecules of hemoglobin which can bind to four molecules of oxygen. Bioconcave structure that helps them travel in tiny capillaries and increases the cell's surface area for greater gas exchange. They lose all membrane-bound organelles when they mature. They rely entirely on glycolysis for ATP. They can't divide and live for 120 days before cells in the liver and spleen recycle them for parts

Depressants

Reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety.

Negative Punishment

Reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed. Ex. Forbidding

Visual Pathways

Refer to both the physical anatomical connections between the eyes and the brain and the flow of visual information along these connections. Each eye's right visual field projects onto the left half of each eye's retina and vice versa. The signal crosses over at the optic chiasm. In the end the reorganized pathways are called optic tracts.

Gender Roles

Refer to the behaviors expected of a given fender

Distinctiveness Cues

Refer to the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios

Concordance Rates

Refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait.

Mortality Rates

Refer to the number of deaths in a population per unit time.

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

Referred to as the hunger center. Detects when body needs more food or fluids. When destroyed one lacks hunger.

Negative Selection

Refers to causing apoptosis in cells that are self-reactive

Catatonia

Refers to certain motor behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia. May maintain a rigid posture and have reduced spontaneous movement.

Attention

Refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment or sensorium

Nonverbal Communication

Refers to how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words. Examples include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, and body position

Positive Selection

Refers to maturing only cells that can respond to the presentation of antigen on MHC

Ethnic Identity

Refers to one's ethnic group in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language.

Class

Refers to socioeconomic status.

Kinesthetic Sense (Proprioception)

Refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in space

Fertility Rate

Refers to the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population

Self-Serving Bias (Self-Serving Attributional Bias)

Refers to the fact that individuals will view their own success based on internal factors, while viewing failures based on external factors

Constancy

Refers to the idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment

Two-point Threshold

Refers to the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli

Target

Refers to the person about which the perception is made

Perception

Refers to the processing of the information of sensation to make sense of its significance. Helps us to make sense of the world. Linked to experience and internal and external biases.

Locus of Control

Refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives. Those with an internal locus of control view themselves controlling their own fate while those with an external locus of control feel that events are caused by luck or outside influences.

I-band

Region containing exclusively thin filaments (I is a thin letter)

Excretory System

Regulates blood pressure, blood osmolarity, acid-base balance, and the removal of nitrogenous wastes. Consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions. Manages the involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands. Also helps regulate body temperature by activating sweating or piloerection. Contains two neurons the preganglionic neuron and the postganglionic neuron. Has two further subdivisions the Sympathetic and the Parasympathetic nervous system. Specific reactions are related to specific emotions.

Thermoregulation

Regulation of body temperature. Regulated by vasodilation and vasoconstriction. Primarily regulated by sweat glands or rapid contraction.

Homeostasis

Regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions. Controlled by negative feedback loops.

Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedules

Reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior.

Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedules

Reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant. Have the fastest response rate. Most resistant to extinction

Variable-Interval (VI) Schedules

Reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time.

Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedules

Reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specific time period has elapsed

Parallel Evolution

Related species evolve in similar ways for a long period of time in response to analogous environmental selection pressures

Neuromodulators (Neuropeptides)

Relatively slow and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell than neurotransmitters.

Cortical Reaction

Release of calcium ions after penetration of sperm through the cell membrane. The ions depolarize the membrane of the ovum in order to prevent fertilization by multiple sperm cells and increase the metabolic rate of the new zygote

Autolysis

Release of enzymes which results in apoptosis. Leads to degradation of cellular components.

Progeny Release

Released in multiple ways. First viral invasion may initiate cell death, which results in spilling of the viral progeny. Second the host cell may lyse as a result of being filled with extremely large numbers of virions. Finally a virus can leave the cell by fusing with its plasma membrane in a process known as extrusion. Allows for the survival of the host cell and continued use of the host cell by the virus. A virus in this state is said to be in a productive cycle.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Relies on the assumptions that the client projects his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape

Cult

Religious sect that takes on extreme or deviant philosophies

Depth Perception

Rely on both monocular and binocular cues.

Family Studies

Rely on the assumption that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future

Corpus Luteum

Remnant follicle that remains after ovulation in response to Luteinizing Hormone (LH). Involved in the development and maintenance of the endometrium but not in the initial thickening of the endometrium.

Habituation

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus that causes a decrease in response

Echolalia

Repeating another's words

Primary Circular Reactions

Repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance such as sucking the thumb. Child finds it soothing

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or to store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory

Genetic Map

Represents the relative distance between genes on a chromosme

Lowball Technique

Requestor will get an initial commitment from an individual, and then raise the cost of the commitment.

Tropic Hormones

Require an intermediary to act. Originate in the brain and anterior pituitary gland

Obligate Aerobes

Require oxygen for metabolism

Intrinsic Factor

Required for normal absorption of vitamin B₁₂

Vitamin D

Required for the absorption of calcium and phosphate in the gut. Promotes resorption of bone.

Supraspinal Circuits

Requires input from the brain or brainstem

Classical Pathway

Requires the binding of an antibody to a pathogen

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Requires: -Very large population (no genetic drift) -No mutations that affect the gene pool -Mating between individuals in the population is random -No migration in or out of the population -Genes in the population are all equally successful at reproducing

Pharynx

Resides behind the nasal cavity and at the back of the mouth; it is a common pathway for both air destined for the lungs and food destined for the esophagus. Also connects to the larynx. Has three parts the nasopharynx (behind the nasal cavity), oropharynx (at the back of the mouth), and the laryngopharynx (above the vocal cords).

Thermoreceptors

Respond to changes in temperature (thermosensation)

Merkle Cells

Respond to deep pressure and texture

Taste Receptors

Respond to dissolved compounds (taste)

Photoreceptors

Respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum (sight)

Meissner Corpuscles

Respond to light touch

Hair Cells

Respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures (hearing, rotational and linear acceleration). Sway back and forth within the endolymph. Opens ion channels which cause a receptor potential.

Free Nerve Endings

Respond to pain and temperature

Nociceptors

Respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation)

Gastric Glands

Respond to signals from the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system, which is activated by the brain in response to the sight, taste, and smell of food. Has three cell types: -Mucous -Chief -Parietal

Osmoreceptors

Respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)

Olfactory Receptors

Respond to volatile compounds (smell)

Distal Convoluted Tubule

Responds to aldosterone, promotes sodium reabsorption.

Simple Twitch

Response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above threshold. Consists of a latent period, contraction period, and relaxation period.

Smooth Muscle

Responsible for involuntary action. Controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Found in the respiratory tree, digestive tract, bladder, uterus, blood vessel walls and other locations. Have a single nucleus in the center of the cell. Contain actin and myosin but these fibers are not as well-organized so it is nonstriated. Capable of more sustained contractions. Respond to nervous input but do not require external signals to undergo contraction. Ca²⁺ required for contraction

Vagus Nerve (Cranial Nerve X)

Responsible for much of the parasympathetic innervation of the thoracic and abdominal cavity

Cyclins and Cyclin Dependent Kinases (CDK)

Responsible for the cell cycle. CDKs require the presence of the right cyclins. Concentrations of the various cyclins increase and decrease during specific stages. These bind to CDKs creating an activated CDK-cyclin complex. This complex can then phosphorylate transcription factors which then promote transcription of genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle.

Adrenal Medulla

Responsible for the production of the sympathetic hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. Amino-acid derivative hormones that are part of a larger classes known as catecholamines.

Skeletal Muscle

Responsible for voluntary movement and is innervated by the somatic nervous system. Appears striped (striated) due to the arrangement of actin and myosin into repeating units called sarcomeres. Many nuclei per cell. Ca²⁺ required for contraction

Repolarization

Restoration of the negative membrane potential

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Restricted at the beginning of puberty by the hypothalamus but one released it triggers the anterior pituitary gland to synthesize and release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) which trigger the production of other sex hormones that develop and maintain the reproductive system

Sleep Deprivation

Result from as little as one night without sleep, or from multiple nights with poor-quality, short-duration sleep. Results in irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, and slowed reaction time.

Spermatozoa

Result of mutation of spermatids

Eustress

Result of positive conditions such as graduating from college. Despite being positive any event requiring a change leads to stress

Tumors

Result of rapid cell division by cancer cells

Transformation

Results from the integration of foreign genetic material into the host genome. Most frequently comes from other bacteria that, upon lysing, spill their contents in the vicinity of a bacterium capable of transformation. Many gram-negative rods carry out this process.

Passive Imunity

Results from the transfer of antibodies to an individual.

Atrial Systole (Contraction)

Results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricles

Amplification

Results in an increase in the intensity of the signal

Indeterminate Cleavage

Results in cells that can still develop into complete organisms

Determinate Cleavage

Results in cells with fates that are already determined. Cells are committed to differentiating into a certain type of cell.

Meiosis I

Results in homologous chromosomes being separated, generating haploid daughter cells; also known as reductional division.

Release of Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) by the hypothalamus

Results in the release of Growth Hormone (GH) by the anterior pituitary

Release of Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) by the hypothalamus

Results in the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the anterior pituitary

Release of Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) by the hypothalamus

Results in the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary

Release of Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) by the hypothalamus

Results in the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) by the anterior pituitary

Avoidant Attachment

Results when the caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child. No preference between caregiver or stranger. Show little distress when caregiver leaves

Recall

Retrieval and statement of previously learned information

Serial Position Effect

Retrieval cue that appears when learning lists. Much higher recall for the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) few items on the list.

Interference

Retrieval error caused by the existence of other information.

Inferior Vena Cava (IVC)

Returns blood from portions of the body below the heart

Superior Vena Cava (SVC)

Returns blood from the portions of the body above the heart

Pulmonary Veins

Returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart

Telophase

Reverse of prophase. Final stage of mitosis or meiosis during which the chromosomes uncoil. Spindle apparatus disappears. Nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes and the nucleoli reappear. Chromosomes resume interphase form. Each of the two nuclei has received a complete copy of the genome identical to the original genome. When cytokinesis occurs.

Telomerase

Reverse transcriptase that is able to synthesize the ends of chromosomes preventing senescence

Regression

Reversion to an earlier development state.

Prosody

Rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

Peristalsis

Rhythmic contractions of the gut tube, in order to move materials through the system. Squeezes, pushes, and propels the bolus toward the stomach.

Fat-Soluble Vitamns

(A, D, E, and K). Dissolve directly into chylomicrons to enter the body.

Water-Soluble Vitamins

(B complex and C). Absorbed across the endothelial cells of the small intestine and pass directly into the plasma

Functions of Calcium

-Bone structure and strength -Release of neurotransmitters from neurons -Regulation of muscle contraction -Clotting of blood

Jung's three dichotomies of personality

-Extraversion (external world) vs. introversion (inner world) -Sensing (obtaining objective information) vs. intuiting (working with information abstractly) -Thinking (logic an reason) vs. feeling (personal beliefs)

Universal Emotions

-Happiness: Smile, wrinkling around eyes, raised cheeks -Sadness: Frown, inner eyebrows pulled up and together -Contempt: One corner of the mouth pulled upwards -Surprise: Eyes widen, eyebrows pulled up and curved, jaw opens -Fear: Eyes widen, eyebrows pilled up and together, lips pulled toward ears -Disgust: Nose wrinkling and/or raising of upper lip -Anger: Glaring, eyebrows pulled down and together, lips pressed together

Darwin's Theory

-Organisms produce offspring, few of which survive to reproductive maturity -Chance variations within individuals in a population may be heritable. If these variations give an organism a slight survival advantage, the variation is termed favorable -Individuals with a greater tendency of these favorable variations are more likely to survive and produce offspring

Functions of the Nervous System

-Sensation and perception -Motor function -Cognition and problem-solving -Executive function and planning -Language comprehension and creation -Memory -Emotion and emotional expression -Balance and coordination -Regulation of endocrine organs -Regulation of heart rate, breathing rate, vascular resistance, temperature, and exocrine glands

Oral Stage

0 to 1 year. Gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth, biting, an sucking. An orally fixated adult would exhibit excessive dependency

Trust vs. Mistrust

0 to 1 year. If resolved successfully the child will come to trust his environment as well as himself. If mistrust wins the child will often be suspicious of the world. Can I trust the world?

Map Unit (Centimorgan)

1 percent chance of recombination occurring between two genes

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

1 to 3 years. Favorable outcome is feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self-restraint. Unfavorable outcome is a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control. Is it okay to be me?

Anal Stage

1 to 3 years. Libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials. Fixation would lead to either excessive orderliness or sloppiness.

Pulmonary Circulation

Right side of the heart accepts deoxygenated blood returning from the body and moves it to the lungs by way of pulmonary arteries

Full Penetrance

100 percent of individuals with this allele show symptoms

Identity vs. Role Confusion

12 to 20 years. Encompasses physiological revolution. Favorable outcome is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. Unfavorable outcomes are confusion about one's identity and a personality that shifts from day to day. Who am I? What can I be?

Rods

120 million in the retina. More functional than cones in reduced illumination. Only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment called rhodopsin. Low sensitivity to details and not involved in color vision.

Notochord

Rod of mesodermal cells formed along the long axis of the organism. Induces a group of overlying ectodermal cells to slide inward to form neural folds, which surround a neural groove. The neural folds grow towards one another until they fuse into a neural tube which becomes the central nervous system.

Bacilli

Rod-shaped bacteria

Escape Learning

Role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists

M-line

Runs down the center of the sarcomere, through the middle of the myosin filaments. (Middle of the myosin)

Frederick Griffith

1920. Worked with streptococcus pneumoniae and treated mice with different strains including a rough and smooth strain. Found a transforming principle as he theorized that nonvirulent bacteria can acquire the ability to transform

Intimacy vs. Isolation

20 to 40 years. Favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one's own goals. If not favorably resolved there will be an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one's ideals. Can I love?

Phallic or Oedipal Stage

3 to 5 years. Centers on resolution of the Oedipal conflict for males or the Electra conflict for females. Male envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father's hands. Wishes to eliminate his father and possess his mother. This causes guilt in the child which is resolved by identifying with his father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values. Girls were thought to have penis envy

Initiative vs. Guilt

3 to 6 years. Favorable outcomes include a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment. If guilt wins the child will be overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself or overcompensate by showing off. Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?

Generativity vs. Stagnation

40 to 65. Successful resolution results in an individual capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society. If not overcome, one acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered. Can I make my life count?

Blood

55% liquid and 45% cells. Also carries nutrients, waste products, and hormones

Cones

6 million in the retina. Used for color vision and fine details. Most effective in bright light and come in three forms: S (blue), M (green), L (red)

Industry vs. Inferiority

6 to 12 years. If resolved favorably the child will feel competent, be able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that the child desires. Unfavorable resolution results in a sense of inadequacy or sense of inability to act in a competent manner. Can I make it in the world of people and things?

Timeline of Language Acquisition

9 to 12 months: Babbling 12 to 18 months: One word per month 18 to 20 months: Explosion of language and combining words 2 to 3 years: Longer sentences 5 years: Language rules largely mastered

Dihybrid Cross

9:3:3:1 ratio

Mnemonic for Male Reproductive System

SEVE(N) UP -Seminiferous tubules -Epididymis -Vas Deferens -Ejaculatory duct -Nothing -Urethra -Penis

Corticosteroid Functions

Salt, sugar, and sex

Monochorionic/ Monamniotic

Same amnion and chorion

Pancreatic Juices

A complex mixture of several enzymes in a bicarbonate-rich alkaline solution. Helps neutralize acidic chyme, as well as provide an ideal working environment for digestive enzymes

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed. It is thought to be one of the underlying causes of depression.

Nuclear Membrane

A double membrane which envelops the nucleus, interrupted periodically by pores; found in eukaryotes only. Maintains a nuclear environment separate and distinct from the cytoplasm.

Blastula

A hollow ball of cells with a fluid-filled inner cavity known as blastocoel

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

A stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled. Action then emotion. Nervous system arousal -> Conscious emotion

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

Satiety center. Provides signals to stop eating. When destroyed one is very much hungry

Law of Pragnanz

Says that perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible.

Downward Drift Hypothesis

Schizophrenia results in a decline of socioeconomic status which leads to worsening symptoms

Upon ovulation, the oocyte is released into the?

Abdominal cavity

Chemotaxis

Ability of a cell to detect chemical stimuli and move toward or away from them. Sensing of certain products given off by bacteria and migration of neutrophils to follow these products back to the source

Regenerative Capacity

Ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body

Induction

Ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of other nearby cells.

Power

Ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite and obstacles

Intuition

Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence

Communication

Ability to convey information by speech, writing, signals, or behavior

Categorical Perception

Ability to learn when subtle differences between speech sounds represent a change in meaning or not

Divided Attention

Ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time.

Symbolic Thinking

Ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination.

Theory of Mind

Ability to sense how another's mind works. We can recognize and react to how others think of us.

Parallel Processing

Ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion.

Perceptual Organization

Ability to use bottom-up and top-down processing to create a complete picture

Empathy

Ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another, and it is thought by some social psychologists to be a strong influence on helping behavior

Lysozyme

Able to attack the peptidoglycan walls of gram positive bacteria. Nonspecific bacterial enzyme.

Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR)

Able to recognize the category of the invader. Allows for the production of appropriate cytokines

Parasomnias

Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep

Integrity vs. Despair

Above 65. If favorably resolved we will see wisdom defined as detached concern with life itself, with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one's life has been worthwhile, along with a readiness to face death. If not resolved favorably there will be feelings of bitterness and fear of death. Is it okay to have been me?

Appraisal Model

Accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional experience

Starling Forces

Account for the pressure differentials in both hydrostatic and oncotic pressures between the blood and Bowman's space

Edema

Accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitium. Swelling due to fluid collecting in tissue

Relaxation

Acetylcholine is degraded in the synapse by the enzyme known as acetylcholinesterase. This results in termination of the signal at the neuromuscular junction and allows the sarcolemma to repolarize. As the signal decays calcium release ceases and the SR takes up calcium from the sarcoplasm. SR tightly controls intracellular calcium concentrations so that muscles are contracted only when necessary. ATP binds to the myosin heads, freeing them from actin. The sarcomere can now return to its original width.

Chyme

Acidic; semifuid mixture caused by the digestion of solid food. Has a significant increase in surface area

Transcellularly

Across the cell membrane

Paracrine Signals

Act on cells in the local area

Autocrine Signals

Act on the same cell that secreted the signal in the first place

Stapes (Stirrup)

Acted on by the Incus

Manifest Function

Action is intended to help some part of a system

Social Action

Actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activated by stress. Known as fight-or-flight reactions. -Increases heart rate -Redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion -Increases blood glucose concentration -Relaxes the bronchi -Decreases digestion and peristalsis -Dilates the eyes to maximize light intake -Releases epinephrine into the bloodstream

Marijuana

Active chemical is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Exerts its effects by acting at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors. Increases GABA activity and dopamine activity. Causes eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, and lowered blood pressure.

Controlled (Effortful) Processing

Active memorization where we work to gain iformation

Inhalation

Active process. Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles are used to expand the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm flattens and the chest wall expands outward and the intrathoracic volume increases. As a result according to Boyle's law the pressure decreases. Air will then be sucked in from a higher-pressure environment. This mechanism is referred to as negative-pressure breathing.

Titin

Acts as a spring and anchors the actin and myosin filaments together, preventing excessive stretching of the muscle

Tail Sheath

Acts like a syringe, injecting genetic material into a bacterium

Organ of Corti

Actual hearing apparatus that rests on the basilar membrane.

Phonology

Actual sound of the language

Secondary Drives

Additional drives that are not directly related to biological processes. Motivate us to fulfill nonbiological desires

Atrial Kick

Additional volume of blood that accounts for about 5-30 percent of cardiac output

Spatial Summation

Additive effects are based on the number and location of the incoming signals.

Summation

Additive effects of multiple inhibitory and excitatory signals

Positive Punishment

Adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior. Ex. Arrest

Modern Synthesis Model

Adds knowledge of genetic inheritance and changes in the gene pool to Darwin's original theory

Inappropriate Affect

Affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech

Malleus (Hammer)

Affixed to the tympanic membrane and acts on the incus

Secondary Spermatocytes

After first meiotic division

Spermatids

After meiosis II

Primary Spermatocytes

After they replicate genetic material

Healthcare and Medicine

Aimed at maintaining or improving the health status of the individual family, community, and society as a whole. Goals include: -Increased access to care -Decreased costs of healthcare -Prevention of disease before it occurs -Association of patients with a primary care physician or a patient-centered medical home -Increased education for the public with public health outreach -Decreased paternalism -Reduced economic conflicts of interest for physicians

Education

Aims to arm the population with information in the form of facts, figures, and mental processes. It also emphasizes the social role of statuses within society, and stimulates learners to add to their knowledge base. Includes the hidden curriculum

Indirect Therapy

Aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends

Sensation

Aligns with transduction. Performed by receptors in the peripheral nervous system, which forward the stimuli to the central nervous system in the form of action potentials and neurotransmitters

Constant Expressivity

All individuals with a given genotype express the same phenotype

Gene Pool

All of the alleles that exist within a species

Heterozygous

Alleles are different for a given gene

Hypersensitivity Reactions

Allergies and autoimmunity are examples

Postzygotic Isolation Mechanism

Allow for gamete fusion but yield nonviable offspring

Democracy

Allows every citizen a political voice, usually through electing representatives to office

Cytosol

Allows for the diffusion of molecules throughout the cell

Ego-Expressive

Allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity

White Fibers

Also known as fast-twitch fibers. Contain much less myoglobin and less iron giving it a lighter color. Predominance is high in muscles that contract rapidly, but fatigue quickly

Self-Presentation

Also known as impression management. Process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors

Birth

Also known as parturition. Accomplished by rhythmic contractions of uterine smooth muscle, and coordinated by prostaglandins and the peptide hormone oxytocin. Has three phases: -Water breaking: Cervix thins out and the amniotic sac ruptures -Strong uterine contractions result in the birth of the fetus -Placenta and umbilical cord are expelled; called afterbirth

Red Fibers

Also known as slow-twitch fibers. Have high myoglobin content and derive their energy aerobically. Predominance is high in muscles that contract slowly.

Cell Body

Also known as the soma. Where the nucleus is located. Also the location of the endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.

Hypophysis

Alternate term for the pituitary

Alleles

Alternative forms

Glycine

Amino acid. Also an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Brain stabilization

Glutamate

Amino acid. Excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Brain excitation

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Amino acids, glucose, water-soluble vitamins, and salts are reabsorbed along with water.

Connective Tissue

Animal tissue composed of cells lying in an extracellular proteinaceous network that supports the body and provides a framework for the epithelial cells to carry out their functions. Main contributors to the stroma or support structure. Most cells in connective tissues produces and secrete materials such as collagen and elastin to form the extracellular matrix. Ex: Fibroblasts, osteoblasts, and chondroblasts

Preparedness

Animals are most able to learn behaviors that coincide with their natural behaviors

Relearning

Another way of demonstrating that information has been stored in long-term memory. Proves information has been stored even though it wasn't readily available for recall

Insulin

Antagonistic to glucagon and is therefore secreted when blood glucose levels are high. Induces muscle and liver cells to take up glucose and store it as glycogen for later use. Lowers blood glucose. Increases anabolic processes. Peptide. Comes from Pancreas Beta Cells.

Immunoglobins (IG)

Antibodies. Carry out many different jobs. Y-shaped molecules that are made up of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains

Exogenous Pathway

Antigens originated from outside the cell

Cluster B

Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic (Wild)

Agoraphobia

Anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places or in situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape

Panic Disorder

Anxiety disorder. Consists of repeated panic attacks.

Barbituates

Anxiety-reducing. Sleep medications. Increase GABA activity causing a sense of relaxation.

Unconditioned Stimulus

Any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response

Material Support (Tangible Support)

Any type of financial or material contribution to another person

Deviace

Any violation of norms, rules, or expectation within a society.

Stimulus

Anything to which an organism can respond

Pseudostratified Epithelia

Appear to have multiple layers due to differences in cell height but are only one layer.

Shadow

Appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness.

Dendrites

Appendages emanating directly from the soma. Receive incoming messages from other cells.

Sex pili

Appendages that make up the conjugation bridge. Found on the donor male

Mindguards

Appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views

Gestation

Approximately 280 days. Divided into three trimesters. Larger the animal the longer the gestational period and the fewer the offspring per pregnancy.

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest; produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles of the brain

Direct Hormones

Are secreted and then act directly on a target tissue

Aerotolerant Anaerobes

Are unable to use oxygen for metabolism, but are not harmed by its presence in the environment

Centromere

Area of a chromosome where sister chromatids are joined; it is also the point of attachment to the spindle fiber during mitosis and meiosis

Constant Region

Area of antibody that cells such as natural killer cells, macrophages, monocytes, and eosinophils have receptors for and can initiate a complementary cascade

Association Area

Area that integrates input from diverse brain regions.

Ghettoes

Areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequalities.

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

Argues that delusions, hallucination, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain

Menopause

As a woman ages her ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH. Estrogen and progesterone levels drop and the endometrium also atrophies and menstruation stops. Blood levels of progesterone and estrogen rise.

Exponential Phase or log Phase

As the bacteria adapt, growth increases, causing an exponential increase in the number of bacteria in the colony

Stationary Phase

As the number of bacteria in the colony grows, resources are often reduced. This reduction of resources slows reproduction.

Freud

Asserted the libido is present at birth.

Temporal Lobes

Associated with a number of functions. Auditory cortex and Wernicke's area are located here. Also functions in memory processing, emotion, and language.

Dorsal Prefrontal Cortex

Associated with attention and cognition

Forebrain (Prosencephalon)

Associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Associated with emotion and memory. Has the greatest influence on human behavior. Divides to form the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system, as well as the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland

Parkinson's Disease

Associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia. Characterized by bradykinesia (slowness in movement), resting tremor (tremor that appears when muscles are not used), pilli-rolling tremor (flexing and extending the fingers while moving the thumb back and forth), masklike facies (facial expression consisting of static and expressionless facial features, staring eyes, and a partially open mouth), cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement), and a shuffling gait with stooped posture. Dementia is also common. Caused by decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra which is a layer of cells in the brain that function to produce dopamine to permit proper functioning of the basal ganglia.

Wernicke's Area

Associated with language reception and comprehension. Located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe.

Peg-Word

Associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers.

Semantics

Association of meaning with a word

Elaborative Rehearsal

Association of the information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory

Biopsychosocial Approach

Assumes that there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's disorder. The biological components is something in the body. The psychological component stems from the individual's thoughts, emotions, or behaviors. The social component results from the individual's surroundings and can include issues of perceived class and even discrimination.

Social Construction Model

Assumes that there is no biological basis for emotions. Emotions are based on experiences and the situational context alone. Also suggest that certain emotions can only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently across cultures

Polysynaptic Reflex Arc

At least one interneuron between the sensory and motor neurons.

Nerve Terminal (Synaptic Bouton/Knob)

At the end of the axon. An enlarged and flattened structure used to maximize neurotransmission to the next neuron and ensure proper release of neurotransmitters

Epiphyseal Plate

At the internal edge of the epiphysis. It is a cartilagenous structure and the site of longitudinal growth.

Tendons

Attach muscle to bone

Conjugated

Attached to a protein

Type Theorists

Attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types

Stereotype Content Model

Attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using two dimensions: warmth and competence. Warmth are those that are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources. Competent groups are those that have high status within society.

Game Theory

Attempts to explain decision-making behavior. Used to predict interaction based on game characteristics, including strategy, winning and losing, rewards and punishments, and profits and cost. Defined by its players, information and actions available to each player at decision points, and the payoffs associated with each outcome

Strain Theory

Attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure.

Feminist Theory

Attempts to explain social inequalities that exist on the basis of gender. Focuses on the subordination of women through social structure and institutional discrimination

Functional Attitudes Theory

Attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense

Heterosexual

Attraction to individuals of the opposite sex

Homosexual

Attraction to individuals of the same sex

Bisexual

Attraction to members of both sexes

Rooting Reflex

Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek

Cluster C

Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive (Worried)

Behaviorist

B.F. Skinner. Based heavily on the concepts of operant conditioning.

Conjugation

Bacterial form of sexual reproduction. Involves two cells forming a conjugation bridge between them that allows for the transfer of genetic material. Is unidirectional, from the donor male (+) to the recipient female (-). Conjugation bridge is made of sex pili. Bacteria must contain plasmids known as sex factors that contain the necessary genes. Entire genome replicates. A plasmid can be transferred from F+ to F- cells or a portion of the genome can be transferred from an Hfr cell to a recipient.

Lyctic Cycle

Bacteriophage makes maximal use of the cell's machinery with little regard for the survival of the host cell. Once the host is swollen with new virions, the cell lyses, and other bacteria can be infected. Bacteria in the lyctic phase are termed virulent.

Nationality

Based on political borders. Result of shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols.

Resistance

Based on resistivity, length, and cross-sectional area. The longer a blood vessel the more resistance. The larger the cross-sectional area the less resistance

System for Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)

Based on the belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive

Sarcomere

Basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle. Made of thick an thin filaments. Divided into different lines, zones, and bands.

Aqueous Humor

Bathes the front part of the eye before draining into the canal of Schlemm

Heart Rate (HR)

Beats per minute

Prodromal Phase

Before schizophrenia is diagnosed. Characterized by poor adjustment. Clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences.

Closed Sodium Channels

Before the cell reaches threshold, and after inactivation has been reversed

Genital Stage

Begins in puberty and lasts through adulthood. Person should enter into healthy heterosexual relationships if all stages proceeded correctly.

Conventional Morality

Begins to develop in early adolescence when individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others. Based on accepting social rules. Stage three (conformity) places emphasis on the orientation of seeking the approval of others. Stage four (law and order) maintains the social order in the highest regard.

Follicular Phase

Begins when the menstrual flow which sheds the uterine lining of the previous cycle, begins. GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus increases in response to the decreased concentrations of estrogen and progesterone which fall off toward the end of each cycle. Higher concentrations of GnRH cause increased secretions of both Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). Develop several ovarian follicles. Begin to produce estrogen which has negative feedback effects and causes the GnRH, LH, and FSH concentrations to level off. Egg develops, endometrial lining becomes vascularized and glandularized. FSH Up, LH Same, Estrogen down then up, Progesterone down.

Digestive Tracts

Begins with the oral cavity followed by the pharynx. From the pharynx, food enters the esophagus, which then transports food to the stomach. From the stomach food travels to the small intestine and then the large intestine. Finally, waste products enter the rectum, where feces are stored until the appropriate time of release. The salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder help to provide the enzymes and lubrication necessary to aid the digestion of food.

Antinormative Behavior

Behavior against the norm

Dispositional Approach

Behavior is determined by an individual's personality

Situational Approach

Behavior is determined by the environment and context

Incentive Theory

Behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments

Aggression

Behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance. Amygdala plays a key part as well as hormones such as testosterone level.

Fad

Behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community.

Reflex

Behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input

Positive Symptoms

Behaviors, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behavior. Ex: Delusions and hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior. Can be broken into psychotic dimension and the disorganized dimension.

Vitreous

Behind the lens. Transparent gel that supports the retina

Illness Anxiety Disorder

Being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition. Individuals are quick to become alarmed about their health, and either excessively check for signs of illness or avoid medical appointments.

Yerkes-Dodson Law of Social Facilitation

Being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (simple tasks) and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks)

Proximity

Being physically close to someone.

Objectified

Being viewed as a sexual object rather than a person

Thought Broadcasting

Belief that one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world

Illusion of Morality

Belief that the group's decisions are morally correct

Thought Insertion

Belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head

Culture

Beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people. Learned by living within a society, observing behaviors and traits, and adopting them. Encompassing the entire lifestyle for a given group

Reticular Layer

Below the papillary layer. Dense.

Function

Beneficial consequences of people's actions

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

Best categorized as major depressive disorder with seasonal onset. Present in Winter months. May be related to abnormal melatonin metabolism. Treated with bright light therapy

F (Fertility) Factor

Best-studied sex factor present in E. coli. F factor in one can be replicated and given to a new plasmid

Posterior Chamber

Between the iris and the lens

Critical Period

Between two years and puberty. If no language exposure occurs during this time, later training is largely ineffective.

Endogenous Pathway

Binds antigens from inside the cell

Senescence

Biological aging

Stressor

Biological element, external condition, or event that leads to a stress response. Classified as either causing distress or eustress Can range from minimal to irritating. Include: -Environmental Factors: Uncomfortable temperature, loud sounds, inclement weather -Daily Events: Running late. losing items, unexpected occurrences -Workplace or Academic Setting: Assignments, hierarchical interactions, time management -Social Expectations: Demands placed by society, family, and friends -Classical and Biological: Diet, alcohol, drugs, viruses, allergies, medications, medical conditions

Alkalemia

Blood is too basic. More CO₂ must be retained to lower pH

Hepatic Portal System

Blood leaving capillary beds in the walls of the gut pass through the hepatic portal vein before reaching the capillary beds in the liver

Renal Portal System

Blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta

Hypophyseal Portal System

Blood vessel system that directly connects the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary. Allows for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones.

Portal Systems

Blood will pass through two capillary beds in series before returning to the heart

Exhaustion

Body can no longer maintain an elevated response with sympathetic nervous system activity. Individuals become susceptible to illness.

Humors

Body fluids. Greeks believed an imbalance could lead to various personality disorders.

Homozygous

Both alleles are the same for a given gene

Archaea and Bacteria Similarities

Both are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Both contain a single circular chromosome, divide by binary fission and share a similar structure.

Mutualistic Symbiotes

Both humans and bacteria benefit from the relationship

Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)

Both produced by the iodination of the amino acid tyrosine in the follicular cells of the thyroid. Undergoes the maintenance of the Thyroid. Stimulates metabolic activity. Comes from the thyroid. It is an amino acid derivative.

Spite

Both the donor and recipient are negatively impacted

Cooperation

Both the donor and recipient benefit by cooperating

Peptidases

Break down proteins

Plasmin

Breaks clots down. Generated from plasminogen

Pancreatic Amylase

Breaks down large polysaccharides into small disacharides and is responsible for carbohydrate digestion. Produced in the pancreas by acinar cells. Function in the duodenum. Their nutrient is carbohydrates.

Reuptake Carriers

Bring neurotransmitters back into the presynaptic neuron. Ex: Serotonin (5-HT), Dopamine (DA), and Norepinephrine (NE)

Generalization

Broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditional stimulus can also produce the conditioned response

Osteoblasts

Build bone

Morphemes

Building blocks of words that contain a meaning.

Arcuate Fasciulus

Bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production. Connect Broca's area and Wernicke's area.

Tracts

Bundles of multiple neurons. Carry one type of information

Ductus Venosus

Bypasses the liver which prevents blood returning from the placenta via the umbilical vein directly to the inferior vena cava

Mitochondria

Called the power plants of the cell in reference to their important metabolic functions. Has two layers: the outer and inner membranes. They are semi autonomous. Contain some of their own genes and replicate independently of the nucleus via binary fission. Keeps cell alive by providing energy and is capable of killing the cell by release of enzymes from the electron transport chain. Where aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis occur.

Hypnosis

Can be defined as a state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her functions, but is in a highly suggestible state.

Eukaryotic Cells

Can be unicellular or multi-cellular. They contain a true nucleus and are enclosed in a membrane.

Macrophages

Can engulf and digest pathogens and signal to the rest of the immune system that there is an invader. Type of agranulocyte that is part of the innate immune system. Derived from blood-borne monocytes. When invader enters the macrophage first phagocytizes the invader. Then it digests the invader with enzymes. Finally it brings tiny pieces of the invader to other cells using a protein called major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and carries it to the cel surface

Adaptation

Can have both a physiological (sensory) and a psychological (perceptual) component. One way that the mind and body try to focus attention on only the most relevant stimuli, which are usually changes in the environment around us. Processes new information

Schema

Can include a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events.

Infection

Can only infect a specific set of cells. Virus has to bind to specific receptors on the host cell. After binding to the receptor the virus and the cell are brought into close enough proximity to permit additional interactions. Viruses fuse with the plasma membrane of a cell, allowing entry of the virion into the host cell. Sometimes the host cell may misinterpret the binding of a virus as useful and allow it to go into the cytoplasm. Bacteriophages use tail fibers to anchor themselves to the cell membrane and inject their viral genome into the host bacterium using the tail sheath.

Facultative Anaerobes

Can toggle between metabolic processes, using oxygen for aerobic metabolism if it is present, and switching to anaerobic metabolism if it is not

Acrosome

Cap that covers each sperm head. Derived from the Golgi apparatus and is necessary to penetrate the ovum

Pancreatic Lipase

Capable of breaking down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol

Cytotoxic T-cells (Tc) or CTL for Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes or CD8⁺ T-Cells

Capable of directly killing virally infected cells by injecting toxic chemicals that promote apoptosis into the infected cell. Best against intracellular infections. Responds to MHC-I.

Salivary Amylase

Capable of hydrolyzing starch into smaller sugars. Produced by salivary glands. Function in the mouth. Nutrient is carbohydrates

Client-Centered/ Person-Centered/ Nondirective Theory

Carl Rogers. Believed people have freedom to control their own behavior. Helps the client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine his or her own destiny.

X Chromosome

Carries a sizable amount of genetic information

Umbilical Vein

Carries blood toward the fetus from the placenta. Oxygenated blood

Hemoglobin

Carries oxygen in the blood. Protein composed of four cooperative subunits each of which has a group that binds to an oxygen molecule. Once one oxygen leaves a hemoglobin it creates a spiral of loss. This process is called cooperative binding

Arteries

Carry blood AWAY from the heart. Branch into arterioles which branch into capillaries. Have more smooth muscle than veins and are also more elastic which causes resistance to the flow of blood. Contain oxygenated blood.

Umbilical Arteries

Carry blood away from the fetus toward the placenta. Deoxygenated blood

Carriers

Carry disease but do not exhibit. Recessive.

Auditory Nerve

Carry electrical signals to the central nervous system

Role Performance

Carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role

Pinna (Auricle)

Cartiaginous outside part of the ear where sound first reaches. Its main function is to channel sound waves into the external auditory canal

Lipase

Catalyzes the hydrolysis of lipids. Functions in the duodenum. Produced in the pancreas by acinar cells. Their nutrient is lipids.

Dopamine

Catecholamine that plays a role in smooth movement and posture.

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

Caused by a deficiency of thiamine and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills

Type I Diabetes Mellitus

Caused by autoimmune destruction of the Beta cells of the pancreas. As a result insulin can not be produced. Those effected require regular injections of insulin to avoid hyperglycemia

Depolarization

Caused by excitatory input. It is the raising of the membrane potential from its resting potential and thus makes the neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

Hyperpolarization

Caused by inhibitory input. It is the lowering of the membrane potential from its resting potential and makes the neurons less likely to fire an action potential.

Basic Hostility

Caused by neglect and rejection. Causes anger.

Basic Anxiety

Causes by inadequate parenting. Causes vulnerability and helplessness.

Babinski Reflex

Causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated

Cell Migration

Cell ability to disconnect from adjacent structures and migrate to their correct location

Nuclei

Cell bodies of neurons in the same tract grouped together

G1/S Checkpoint

Cell determines if the DNA is in good enough condition for synthesis. If there has been damage to the DNA, the cell cycle goes into arrest until the DNA has been repaired. Main protein in control is p53

Thrombocytes (Platelets)

Cell fragments or shards released from cells in bone marrow

G2/M Checkpoint

Cell is mainly concerned with ensuring that the cell has achieved adequate size and the organelles have been properly replicated to support two daughter cells. p53 also plays a role in this checkpoint.

G0 Stage

Cell is simply living and serving its function, without any preparation for division

Prokaryotic Cells

Cell lacking a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles, such as bacterium. Genetic material is organized into a single circular molecule of DNA concentrated in an are of the cell called the nucleoid region. DNA is not coiled around histones in bacteria but is in archaea. Lack key organelles. The cell membrane is used for the electron transport chain and the generation of ATP. Contain ribosomes but are much smaller than those of eukaryotes. Reproduce via asexual reproduction in form of binary fission.

Sarcolemma

Cell membrane of a myocyte. Capable of propagating an action potential and can distribute the action potential to all sarcomeres in a muscle using a system of transverse tubules (T-tubules) that are oriented perpendicularly to the myofibrils.

S Stage: Synthesis of DNA

Cell replicates its genetic material so that each daughter cell will have identical copies. After replication, each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids that are bound together at a specialized region known as the centromere. Cells entering G2 have twice as much DNA as cells in G1.

Competent

Cell that is able to respond to the inducing signal

Melanocytes

Cell type derived from neural crest cells and found in the stratum basale. Produce melanin

Cell Specializatioon

Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Organ systems

Nonspecific Immune Response

Cells can carry out without learning

Isotype Switching

Cells change which isotype of antibody they produce when stimulated by specific cytokines

G1 Stage: Presynthetic Gap

Cells create organelles for energy and protein production while also increasing their size. Passage is governed by a restriction point.

Specific Immune Response

Cells learn to recognize and respond. Has two categories: humoral and cell-mediated immunity

Somatic Cells

Cells not involved in sexual reproduction

Stem Cells

Cells that have not yet differentiated, or which give rise to other cells that will differentiate. Exist in embryonic tissues as well as adult tissues

Self-Tolerance

Cells that turn off self-reactive lymphocytes to prevent autoimmune diseases

Totipotent

Cells with the greatest potency. Include embryonic stem cells. Can ultimately differentiate into any cell type.

Fovea

Centermost point of the retina. Contains only cones. Where visual activity is best. Most sensitive in normal daylight vision.

Meditation

Central practice in religions of Buddhism, Hinduism and others. Quieting of the mind for some purpose.

Metaphase

Centriole pairs are now at opposite ends of the cell. Chromosomes align at the metaphase (equatorial) plate which is equidistant to the two poles. Single chromosomes or tetrads line up on the central axis of the dividing cell and become attached to spindle fibers

Anaphase II

Centromeres divide, separating the chromosomes into sister chromatids. Pulled to opposite poles by spindle fibers.

Anaphase

Centromeres split so that each chromatid has its own distinct centromere, allowing the sister chromatids to separate. The sister chromatids are pulled toward the opposite poles of the cell by the shortening of the kinetochore fibers

Ipsilaterally

Cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body.

Restriction Point

Certain criteria, such as containing the proper complement of DNA, must be met for the cell to pass the restriction point and enter the synthesis stage

Mutation

Change in DNA sequence, results in a mutant alleles.

Compliance

Change in behavior base on a direct request. Person who asks is an equal.

Physiological Response

Change in heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, and blood pressure that occurs when a feeling is first experienced.

Punctuated Equilibrium

Changes in some species occur in rapid bursts rather than evenly over time

Genetic Drift

Changes in the composition of the gene pool due to chance.

Demographic Shifts

Changes in the makeup of a population over time

Differentiation

Changing of the structure, function, and biochemistry of the cell to match the cell type

Obedience

Changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure.

Internalization

Changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group

Dependent Personality Disorder

Characterized by a continuous need for reassurance. Remain dependent on one specific person.

Manic Episodes

Characterized by abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week with at least three of the following: increased distractability, decreased need for sleep, inflated self-esteem, racing thoughts, increased goal-directed activity, pressured speech, and involvement in high-risk behavior. DIG FAST -Distractible -Insomnia -Grandiosity -Flight of Ideas -Agitation -Speech -Thoughtlessness

Social Anxiety Disorder

Characterized by anxiety that is due to social situations. Fear of embarrassment.

Type A

Characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive

Long Bones

Characterized by cylindrical shafts called diaphyses that swell at each end to form metaphyses and terminate in epiphyses.

Disorganized Thought

Characterized by loosening of associations. May be exhibited as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another in such a way that a listener would be unable to follow the train of thought

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses) which produce tension, and compulsions (repetitive tasks) that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life

Conversion Disorder

Characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions. Generally begin soon after the individual experiences high levels of stress or a traumatic event but may not develop until some time has passed after the initiating experience.

Basic Model of Emotional Expression

Charles Darwin. Emotional expression involves a number of components: facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes. Expression is consistent with his theories on evolution and should be similar across cultures.

Cytokines

Chemical substances that stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells to the area.

Inducers

Chemical substances which diffuse from the organizing cells to the responsive cells.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit information between neurons. Traverse the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron

Mastrication

Chewing. Breaking up of large food particles into smaller particles using the teeth, tongue, and lips. Helps increase the surface-area-to-volume ratio of the food

Errors of Growth

Child applies a grammatical rule in a situation where it does not apply

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment

Child is always anxious about the reliability of the caregiver

Transformational Grammer

Children learn to make transformations effortlessly at an early age

Birth Rate

Children per 1000 people per year

Parallel Play

Children play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior

Prophase I

Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the spindle apparatus forms, the nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear. Main difference with mitosis at this point is that the chromosomes come together and intertwine in a process called synapsis. At this point, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids, so each synaptic pair contains four chromatids and is referred to as a tetrad.

Metaphase II

Chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate

Sphincters

Circular smooth muscles around the canal that can contract to allow compartmentalization of function

Lymphatic System

Circulatory system made up of one-way vessels that become larger as they move toward the center of the body. Has functions such as equalization of fluid distribution and transportation of biomolecules. Transports fats from the digestive system into the bloodstream.

Inborn Errors of Metabolism

Class of Deleterious Mutations. Defects in genes required for metabolism.

Cornea

Clear, domelike window in the front of the eye which gathers and focuses the incoming light first.

Dipeptidases

Cleave the peptide bonds of dipeptides to release free amino acids. Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids. Functions in the duodenum. Produced in the intestinal glands. Their nutrient is proteins.

Pepsinogen

Cleaved to pepsin in the stomach; an enzyme that partially digests proteins

Renin

Cleaves angiotensinogen to form angiotensin I.

Agglutinate

Clumping together of pathogens. Easy to be phagocytized.

Paranoid Personality Disorder

Cluster A. Marked by a pervasive distrust of others and suspicion in their motives.

Schizotypal Personality Disorder

Cluster A. Pattern of odd or eccentric thinking. May have ideas of reference as well as magical thinking, such as superstitiousness

Schizoid Personality Disorder

Cluster A. Pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression

Histrionic Personality Disorder

Cluster B. Characterized by constant attention-seeking behavior. Extremely extroverted.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Cluster B. Grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, need for constant admiration, and disturbances in interpersonal relationships. Very fragile self-esteem.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Cluster B. Pattern of disregard for and violations of the rights of others.

Borderline Personality Disorder

Cluster B. Pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image. Intense and unstable. Profound identity disturbances. Intense fear of abandonment. May use splitting where they view others as good or bad.

Avoidant Personality Disorder

Cluster C. Extreme shyness and fear of rejection. See themselves as socially inept and isolated.

Genes

Coding regions in DNA. DNA sequences that code for heritable traits that can be passed from one generation to the next

Halo Effect

Cognitive bias in which judgments about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one's overall impression of the individual

Ventilation Center

Collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata that fire rhythmically to cause regular contraction of respiratory muscles

Enteric Nervous System

Collection of one hundred million neurons that govern the function of the gastrointestinal system

Conscience

Collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished. Part of the superego

Ganglia

Collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system

Iris

Colored part of the eye, composed of two muscles: the dilator pupillae, which opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation; and the constrictor pupillae which opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation

Cyclothymic Disorder

Combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive episodes

Gastric Juice

Combination of secretions from the other two cell types

Semen

Combination of sperm and seminal fluid

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Comes from the anterior pituitary. Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones. Peptide.

Determination

Commitment of a cell to having a particular function in the future. The presence of specific mRNA and protein molecules may result in determination. Can also occur due to secretion of morphogens from nearby cells.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Common and is defined as a disproportionate and persistent worry about many different things. Fatigue, muscle tension, and sleep problems may accompany

Context Effects

Common retrieval cue. Memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place.

Propaganda

Common way by which large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others. Often invoke fear and exaggerates.

Mnemonics

Common way to memorize information. Acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of the information we are trying to remember.

Multiculturalism

Communities of societies containing multiple cultures. Encourages, respects, and celebrates cultural differences.

Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (Community and Society)

Community refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography. Society refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal

Adoption Studies

Compare the similarities between biological relatives and the adopted child to similarities between adoptive relatives and the adopted child.

Twin Studies

Comparing concordance rates for a trait between monozygotic and dizygotic twins.

Secondary oocytes

Completes meiosis I. Remains arrested in metaphase II and does not complete the remainder of meiosis II unless fertilization occurs. Ovulated on day 14 of the menstrual cycle. Travels into the Fallopian tube to be fertilized.

Bile

Complex fluid composed of bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol. Necessary for proper digestion. Emulsifies fat. Functions in the duodenum and is produced by the liver but stored in the gallbladder. Their nutrient is lipids.

Choroidal Vessels

Complex intermingling of blood vessels between the sclera and the retina

Basal Body

Complex structure that anchors the flagellum to the cytoplasmic membrane and is also the motor of the flagellum.

Human Genome

Composed of 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes (homologues). Each homolog contains one chromosome inherited from each parent. After the S phase there are 92 chromatids organized into 46 chromosomes which are organized into 23 homologous pairs

Cots

Composed of both coagulation factors and platelets, and the minimize blood loss. When platelets come in contact with exposed collagen

Innate Immunity (Nonspecific Immunity)

Composed of defenses that are always active against infection, but lack the ability to target specific invaders over others

Prokaryotic Cell Membrane

Composed of phospholipids. Similar to that of a eukaryote

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord. Brain consists of white and grey matter

Urethra

Composed of two fused ejaculatory ducts and carries sperm through the penis as they exist

Yellow Marrow

Composed primarily of fat and is relatively inactive

ABO Antigens

Comprised of three alleles for blood type. A and B are codominant.

Frontal Lobe

Comprised of two basic regions: the prefrontal lobes and the motor cortex.

Stereotype Threat

Concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group. Can cause reduced performance, encourage self-handicapping strategies, and lower one's personal investment in an activity.

Semantic Network

Concepts are linked together based on similar meaning

Narcolepsy

Condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep

Advantageous Mutations

Confer a positive selective advantage that may allow the organism to produce more offspring

Source-Monitoring Error

Confusion between semantic and episodic memory. Remembers the details but confuses the context

Bile Ducts

Connect the liver with both the gallbladder and small intestine

Uterus

Connected to the Fallopian tubes. It is muscular and the site of fetal development.

Signaling Cascade

Connection between the hormone at the surface and the effect brought about by second messengers within the cell

Gap Junctions

Connections between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing for the flow of ions directly between cells. Allows for rapid and coordinated muscle cell depolarization and efficient contraction of cardiac muscle.

Bone

Connective tissue derived from embryonic mesoderm. Much harder than cartilage but is relatively lightweight.

Interstitium

Connective tissue surround the nephron

Intercalated Discs

Connects cardiac muscle. May contain many gap junctions.

Umbilical Cord

Connects the embryo to the placenta. Consists of two arteries and one vein encased in a gelatinous substance. Vein carries freshly oxygenated blood rich with nutrients. Arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste to the placenta.

Hook

Connects the filament and the basal body so that, as the basal body rotates, it exerts torque on the filament, which can thereby spin and propel the bacterium forward.

Eustachian Tube

Connects the middle ear to the nasal cavity

Ventral Prefrontal Cortex

Connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion

Wild-Type

Considered natural

Homologous Pairs

Considered separate chromosomes

Immovable Joints

Consist of bones that are fused together to form sutures. Found primarily in the head

Agranulocytes

Consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.

Consistency Cues

Consistent behavior of a person over time

M Stage: Mitosis

Consists of Mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is divided into four stages prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Cardiovascular System

Consists of a muscular four-chambered heart, blood vessels, and blood. Heart acts as a pump, circulating blood through the vasculature.

Complement System

Consists of a number of proteins in the blood that act as a nonspecific defense against bacteria. Can be activated through a classical or an alternative pathway. Proteins punch holes in the cell walls of bacteria.

Thematic Apperception Test

Consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story about each one hoping they will elucidate their own thoughts and feelings.

id

Consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce. Functions according to the pleasure principle in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification. Primary process is the id's response to frustration. Mental imagery that fulfills this need for satisfaction is termed wish fulfillment.

Vasculature

Consists of arteries, capillaries, and veins

White Matter

Consists of axons encased in myelin sheaths. Lies deeper

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Consists of bony points known as trabeculae.

Dermis

Consists of multiple layers. Where sweat glands, blood vessels, and hair follicles originate

Fluid Intelligence

Consists of problem-solving skills. Peaks in early adulthood.

Ego-Ideal

Consists of proper actions for which a child is rewarded. Part of the superego

Somatic Nervous System

Consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles.

External Urethral Sphincter

Consists of skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control.

Internal Urethral Sphincter

Consists of smooth muscle. Is contracted in its normal state.

Internal Urethral Sphincter

Consists of smooth muscle. Is contracted in its normal state. Involuntary control

Appendicular Skeleton

Consists of the bones of the limbs, the pectoral girdle, and pelvis.

Axial Skeleton

Consists of the skull, vertebral column, ribcage, and hyoid bond. Provides the basic central framework for the body.

Explicit (declarative) Memory

Consists of those memories that require conscious recall. Further divided into semantic (the facts we know) and episodic (experiences)

Portal System

Consists of two capillary beds in series through which blood must travel before returning to the heart

Group

Consists of two or more people who share similar characteristics and a sense of unity.

Grey Matter

Consists of unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites

Tonus

Constant state of low-level contraction

Excessive Stereotyping

Construction of stereotypes against outside opinions

Pyloric Glands

Contain G-cells that secrete gastrin, a peptide hormone.

Peroxisomes

Contain Hydrogen Peroxide. Breakdown very long chains of fatty acids via Beta Oxidation. Participate in the synthesis of phospholipids.

Bacteria

Contain a cell membrane and cytoplasm. Some have flagella or fimbriae

Basophils

Contain large purple granules and are involved in allergic responses. Least populous leukocyte

Intercalated Disks

Contain many gap junctions directly connecting the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, thereby allowing for coordinated ventricular contraction

Psychoanalytic (Psychodynamic) Theories or Personality

Contain some of the most widely varying perspectives on behavior, but they have in common the assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality.

Diploid (2n)

Contain two copies of each chromosomes. Ex: Autosomal cells

Haploid (n)

Containing only one copy of each chromosome. Ex: Germ cells

Intrapleural Space

Contains a thin layer of fluid. Creates a pressure differential that can be created across the pleura ultimately driving breathing

Myocyte (Muscle Fiber/Cell)

Contains many myofibrils arranged in parallel and can also be called a muscle fiber.

H-zone

Contains only thick filaments (H is a thick letter)

Stratum Corneum

Contains several dozen layers of flattened keratinocytes, forming a barrier that prevents invasion by pathogens and that helps to prevent loss of fluids and salts.

Stratum Basale

Contains stem cells and is responsible for proliferation of keratinocytes.

Bony Labyrinth

Contains the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals. Mostly filled by the membranous labyrinth which is bathed with potassium-rich endolymph.

Inner Membrane of the Mitochondria

Contains the molecules and enzymes necessary for the electron transport chain

Posterior Pituitary

Contains the nerve terminals of neurons with cell bodies in the hypothalamus. Receives and stores two hormones: ADH and oxytocin. Does not synthesize any hormones.

A-band

Contains the thick filaments in their entirety including any overlap with thin filaments. During contraction only the A-band's size remains constant (All of the thick filament)

Y Chromosome

Contains very little genetic information. Contains the SRY.

Formal Organizations

Continue despite the departure of an individual member. Have expressed goals. Enforcement procedure that seek to control the activities of their members. Characterized by hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members

Atrioventricular (AV) Node

Continues depolarization onto the bundle of His and its branches

Bundle of His

Continues depolarization to the Purkinje Fibers

Conscious

Continuous access

Resistance (Stress)

Continuous release of hormones that allows the sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight the stressor

Myogenic Activity

Contraction of smooth muscle without nervous system input. Muscle cells contract directly in response to stretch or other stimuli

Tetanus

Contractions become so frequent that the muscle is unable to relax at all

Seminal Vesicles

Contribute fructose to nourish sperm

Articular Cartilage

Contributes to the joint by coating the articular surfaces of the bones so that impact is restricted to the lubricated joint cartilage

Migration

Contributor to population growth

Anterior Pituitary

Controlled by the hypothalamus. Synthesizes and secretes seven different products. Four of which are tropic the other three are direct hormones. Tropic Products: -Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) -Luteinizing hormone (LH) -Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) -Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Direct Products: -Prolactin -Endorphins -Growth Hormone (GH) FLAT PEG

Anterior Hypothalamus

Controls sexual behavior. When it is destroyed one is asexual.

Transduction

Conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in the nervous system

Panting

Cooling mechanism where heat is transferred to the environment through evaporation of water in mucous secretions

Helper T-cells (Th) or CD4⁺ T-Cell

Coordinate the immune response by secreting chemicals known as lymphokines. Capable of recruiting other immune cells and increasing their activity. Most effective against bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections (extracellular). Responds to MHC-II

Menstruation

Corpus luteum loses its stimulation form LH, progesterone levels decline, and the uterine lining is sloughed off. This removes the block on GnRH so the next cycle can begin. FSH down, LH down, Estrogen down, Progesterone down

Intensity

Corresponds to an increased amplitude of the vibration of the eardrum

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)

Cover myofibrils. It is a modified endoplasmic reticulum with a high concentration of CA²⁺ ions

Epithelial Tissue

Covers the body and lines its cavities providing a means for protection against pathogen invasion and desiccation. Involved in absorption, secretion, and sensation. Tightly joined with a connective tissue called basement membrane. Epithelial cells are highly diverse and serve numerous function depending on the identity of the organ. Constitute the parenchyma. They are often polarized. Ex: Endothelial cells and alpha cels

Inferiority Complex

Created by Adler. It is an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially.

Behaviorism

Created by B.F. Skinner. Theorizes all behaviors are conditioned.

Creatine Phosphate

Created by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to creatine during times of rest. Creatine + ATP ⇌ Creatine Phosphate + ADP

Associative Learning

Creation of a pairing, or association, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response.

Genetic Compatibility

Creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics. Reduced frequency of recessive disorders

Nativist (Biological) Theory

Credited to Naom Chomsky. Advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language. Believe in a critical period

Cuboidal Cells

Cube-shaped

Cultural Barriers

Cultural difference impedes interaction with others

Display Rules

Cultural expectations of emotions

Sublimates

De-eroticizes libidinal energy

Subjective Contours

Deal with perceiving contours and shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus

Thanatos

Death instincts. Unconscious wish for death and destruction.

Tolerance

Decrease in perceived drug effect over time

Relative Deprivation

Decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society

Endorphins

Decrease the perception of pain. Comes from Anterior Pituitary. Peptide.

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone System

Decreased blood pressure causes the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney to secrete renin, which cleaves an inactive plasma protein, angiotensinogen, to its active form angiotensin I. This is then converted to angiontensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in the lungs. Angiontensin II is then used to secrete aldosterone which helps to restore blood pressure.

Avolition

Decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions

Flexor

Decreases the angle across a joint

Hilum

Deep slit in the center of its medial surface

Stage 2

Deeper sleep. Shows theta waves and sleep spindles and K complexes.

Hypothyroidism

Deficiency of iodine or inflammation of the thyroid. Thyroid hormones are secreted in insufficient amounts.

Aphasia

Deficit of language production or comprehension

Z-lines

Define the boundaries of each sarcomere. (Z is the end of the alphabet and the end of the sacromere)

Medicalized

Defined and treated as medical conditions

Animal Communication

Defined as any behavior of one animal that affects the behavior of another

Government and Economy

Defined as systemic arrangements of political and capital relationships, activities, and social structures that affect rule-making, representation of the individual in society, rights and privileges, division of labor, and production of goods and services.

Sexual Orientation

Defined as the direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes

Peer Group

Defined by association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses.

Alzheimer's Disease

Degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus. Marked by progressive dementia, disorientation of place and time, problems with abstract thought, and memory loss, with atrophy of the brain. Markers include: -Diffuse atrophy on the brain on CT or MRI -Flattened sulci in the cerebral cortex -Enlarged cerebral vesicles -Deficient blood flow in parietal lobes -Reduction in levels of acetylcholine -Reduction in choline acetyltransferase which produces acetylcholine -Reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes -Senile plaques of Beta amyloid -Neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

Avoidance Symptoms

Deliberate attempts to avoid the memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with the trauma

Blood Pressure

DeltaP=CO x TPR -DeltaP is the pressure differential across the circulation -CO is the cardiac output -TPR is the total peripheral resistance

Iron Law of Oligarchy

Democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group. Due to factors such as the necessity of a core body of individuals and leadership characteristics of certain members

Urbanization

Dense areas of population creating a pull for migration. Cities are formed as individuals move into and establish residency in new urban centers.

Immediate Networks

Dense with strong ties. May be composed of friends

Pathway of Blood

Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium, travels through the tricuspid valve, and enters the right ventricle. On contraction the blood from the right ventricle passes through the pulmonary valve and enters the pulmonary arteries where it travels to the lungs in continuously smaller vessels. It then undergoes gas exchange. The blood then travels into pulmonary venules and into the pulmonary veins, which carry the blood to the left side of the heart. The oxygenated blood enters the left atrium, travels through the mitral valve, and enters the left ventricle. On contraction the blood from the left ventricle passes through the aortic valve and enters the aorta. From the aorta, blood enters arteries, then arterioles, and then capillaries. After gas exchange the blood enters the venules, and then larger veins. The veins empty into the Superior or Inferior Vena Cava and return to the right side of the heart. Right Atrium --TRICUSPID VALVE>> Right Ventricle --PULMONARY VALVE>> Pulmonary Artery -->> Lungs -->> Pulmonary Veins -->> Left Atrium --MITRAL VALVE>> Left Ventricle --AORTIC VALVE>> Aorta -->> Arteries -->> Arterioles -->> Capillaries -->> Venules -->> Veins -->> Venae Cavae -->> Right Atrium

Pragmatics

Dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge.

Fertilization Membrane

Depolarized and impenetrable membrane

Dysthymia

Depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode.

Steroid Hormones

Derived from cholesterol and are produced primarily by the gonads and adrenal cortex. Nonpolar molecule derivatives meaning they can easily cross the cell membrane.

Bile Salts

Derived from cholesterol. Serve an important role in the mechanical digestion of fats and ultimately facilitate the chemical digestion of lipids. They emulsify fats and cholesterol into micelles.

Medial and Lateral Rotation

Describe motions that occur in limbs. Medial rotates the axis of the limb toward the midline, whereas a lateral rotator rotates the axis of the limb away from the midline

Postconventional Morality

Describes a level of reasoning that Kohlberg claimed that not everyone was capable of and is based on social mores, which may conflict with laws. Stage five (social contract) views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights. Stage six (universal human ethics) reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles. Expected in a smaller subset of adults with more advanced moral reasoning skills than the average population.

Gender Identity

Describes a person's appraisal of him- or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity

Adaptive Radiation

Describes the rapid rise of a number of species from a common ancestor

Personality

Describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations

Authentic Self

Describes who the person actually is, both positive and negative

Normative Conformity

Desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection

Motion

Detected by magnocellular cells because they have very high temporal resolution. They have low spatial resolution so rich detail con no longer be seen once in motion.

Sex

Determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes. XX being female and XY being male. Ovum carries X chromosome. Sperm can carry X or Y.

Form

Determined through parallel processing and feature detection

Deleterious Mutations

Detrimental

Sensory Bias

Development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population

Cognitive Development

Development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan. During childhood it is limited by the pace of brain maturation.

Neurulation

Development of the nervous system. Occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds

Differential Association Theory

Deviance can be learned through interactions with others. Intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior. The degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. ideals that go against them

Punnett Squares

Diagrams that predict the relative genotypic and phenotypic frequencies that will result from the crossing of two individuals

Basal Plate

Differentiates into motor neurons

Alar Plate

Differentiates into sensory neurons

Insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep

Instinctive Drift

Difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors

Role Strain

Difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role

Role Conflict

Difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles

Disaccharidases

Digest dissacharides

Isomaltase

Digests isomaltose to two glucose molecules. Produced by intestinal glands. Function in the duodenum. Their nutrient is carbohydrates.

Lactase

Digests lactose to glucose and galactose. Produced by intestinal glands. Function in the duodenum. Their nutrient is carbohydrates

Maltase

Digests maltose to two glucose molecules. Function in the duodenum. They are produced by the intestinal glands. Their nutrient is carbohydrates.

Pepsin

Digests proteins by cleaving peptide bonds near aromatic amino acids. Most active at low pH. Activated by HCl. Produced by gastric glands. Function in the stomach. Nutrient is proteins.

Sucrase

Digests sucrose to glucose and fructose. Produced by intestinal glands. Function in the duodenum. Their nutrient is carbohydrates

Spermatogonia

Diploid stem cells of males

Shunts

Direct blood away from liver and lungs in infant

External Auditory Canal

Directs the sound waves to the eardrum

Institutional Discrimination

Discrimination against a person or group by an entire institution

Dysomnias

Disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep

Primitive Reflexes

Dissappear with age

Water

Dissolves and dilutes ingested material

Metastasis

Distant spread of cancerous cells through the lymphatic systems

Phonemes

Distinct units of sound

Purkinje Fibers

Distribute the electrical signal through the ventricular muscle

Intermediate Filaments

Diverse group of filamentous proteins including keratin, desmin, vimentin, and lamins. Involved in cell-cell adhesion or maintenance of the integrity of the cytoskeleton. Able to withstand a tremendous amount of tension which makes the cell structure more rigid. Help anchor other organelles, including the nucleus.

Descending Limb of the Loop of Henle

Dives deep into the medulla before becoming the Ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle. Permeable only to water. Favors outflow of water.

Colon

Divided into ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons. Absorbs water and salts from the undigested material left over from the small intestine. Concentrates remaining material to form feces.

Muscle

Divided into three different subtypes: Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. All are capable of contraction which is dependent on calcium ions. All are also innervated. Made up of parallel muscle fibers.

Cytokinesis

Division of materials between daughter cells. Actin filaments organize as a ring at the site of division between the two new daughter cells. The actin filaments within the ring contract, the ring becomes smaller, eventually pinching off the connection between the two daughter cells.

Nonmaleficence

Do no harm; the physician has a responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit

Juxtacrine Signals

Do not usually involve diffusion, but rather feature a cell directly stimulating receptors of the adjacent cells

Exhalation

Does not have to be an active process. Relaxation of the external intercostal muscles reverse the processes of inhalation. Relaxation causes the chest cavity to decrease in volume. This causes the pressure to go up and air to be pushed out. Internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles speed the process up.

Alternative Pathway

Does not require antibodies

Hypomania

Does not significantly impair functioning, nor are there psychotic features, but the individual may be more energetic and optimistic.

Movement

Dominant: Complex voluntary movement

Auditory System

Dominant: Language-related sounds Nondominant: Music

Visual System

Dominant: Letters, words Nondominant: Faces

Language and the Brain

Dominant: Speech, reading, writing, arithmetic Nondominant: Emotions

Breakdown of acetylcholine (ACh)

Done by AChE. Is an enzymatic reaction that breaks down neurotransmitters

Selfishness

Donor benefits while recipient is negatively impacted

Culture Shock

Dramatic cultural differences

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry. Mimics incoming sensory information.

Humoral Immunity

Driven by B-Cells. Involves the production of antibodies.

Top-down Processing (Conceptually driven)

Driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on expectations.

Role Exit

Dropping of one identity for another

Male Sexual Development

During the fetal period the presence of the Y chromosome allows for the production of androgens which results in male sexual differentiation. Testosterone levels increase dramatically during puberty and sperm production begins. LH and FSH help bring about this change.

Chromatid

Each of the two chromosomal strands formed by DNA replication in the S phase of the cell cycle; held together by the centromere

REM Rebound

Earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal after sleep deprivation

Ova

Eggs. A mature ovum is a very large cell consisting of large quantities of cytoplasm and organelles. Contributes nearly everything to the zygote.

Defense Mechanisms

Ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego. First they deny, falsify, or distort reality. Second they operate unconsciously.

Repression

Ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious. Unconscious forgetting

Resting Membrane Potential

Electrical potential difference between the inside of the neuron and the extracellular space. Usually about -70 mV. Inside is negative relative to the outside. Na high outside the cell. K is high inside. Once the threshold is reached sodium channels open and sodium floods the cell making the inside more positive. Potassium channels are later opened which allows Potassium to flow out allowing the potential to become negative again.

Law of Proximity

Elements close to one another are perceived as a unit

Law of Good Continuation

Elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together

Attachment

Emotional bond between a caregiver and a child. Begins during infancy

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

Emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy, the need to be in control of one's actions and ideas; competence, the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks; and relatedness, the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships

Exoskeletons

Encase whole organisms and are usually found in arthropods. Must be shed and regrown to accommodate growth.

Eukaryotic Cell Membranes

Encloses a semifluid cytosol in which organelles are suspended. Consists of a phospholipid bilayer. Surface is hydrophilic. It electrostatically interacts with the aqueous environments inside and outside of the cell. The inner portion is hydrophobic. This helps provide a highly selective barrier between the interior of the cell and the external environment.

Origin

End of the muscle with a larger attachment to bone

Insertion

End with the smaller attachment to bone

MHC-I

Endogenous. In all nucleated cells

Telomeres

Ends of chromosomes

Positive Feedback Loop

Enhances or amplifies changes

Organizations

Entities that are set up to achieve specific goals are characterized by having a structure and a culture.

Gram Positive Cell Wall

Envelope absorbs the crystal violet stain. Consist of a thick layer of peptidoglycan. It can aid a pathogen by providing protection from a host organism's immune system. They also contain lipoteichoic acid whose function is unknown

Gram Negative Cell Wall

Envelope does not absorb the crystal violet stain, but absorbs a counterstain. Very thin. They also contain peptidoglycan but in much smaller amounts. Directly connect to the cell membrane. Also have outer membranes that contain phsopholipids and lipopolysaccharides which trigger an immune response in humans

Retroviruses

Enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses. Contains two identical RNA molecules. Carry an enzymes known as reverse transcriptase which synthesizes DNA from single-stranded RNA. This DNA is then integrated into the host cell's own DNA. Allows for the cell to be infected indefinitely. Cell must die to be cured.

Chemical Digestion

Enzymatic cleavage of chemical bonds, such as the peptide bonds of proteins or the glycosidic bonds of starches

Enteropeptidase

Enzyme critical for the activation of trypsinogen to trypsin and procarboxypeptidases A and B to carboxypeptidases A and B. Function in the duodenum and is produced by intestinal glands. Their nutrient is proteins.

Four Tissue Types

Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous

Racialization

Establishment of a group as a particular race

Menstrual Cycle

Estrogen and progesterone levels rise and fall in cyclic pattern. The endometrial lining will be grown and be shed. Has four events: -Follicular phase -Ovulation -Luteal Phase -Menstruation Key Topics: -Follicles mature during the follicular phase (FSH, LH) -LH surge at midcycle triggers ovulation -Ruptured follicle becomes corpus luteum, which secretes estrogen and progesterone to build up uterine lining in preparation for implantation; LH and FSH are inhibited -If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum atrophies, progesterone and estrogen levels decrease, menses occurs, and LH and FSH levels begin to rise again

Mnemonic for Female Sexual Development

Estrogen establishes and progesterone protects the endometrium

Eukaryotic Flagella vs. Bacterial Flagella

Eukaryotic flagella contain microtubules composed of tubulin, organized in a 9+2 arrangement. Bacterial flagella are made of flagellin and consist of a filament, basal body, and a hook.

Nucleus

Eukaryotic membrane bound organelle. Genetic material is encoded in DNA which is further organized into chromosomes. Control center of the cell. Contains all genetic material necessary for replication of the cell. Surrounded by nuclear membrane.

Paul Broca

Examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage.

Alpha Cells

Secrete Glucagon

Sweating

Excellent cooling mechanism that is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. When body temperature rises above the set point determined by the hypothalamus then thermoregulation must occur in order to rid the body of heat. Postganglionic sympathetic neurons that utilize acetylcholine innervate sweat glands and promote the secretion of water with certain ions onto the skin. Heat is then absorbed from the body as the molecules within the water undergo a phase change to evaporate. The evaporation of water from the skin is the main mechanism off cooling.

Hyperthyroidism

Excess of thyroid hormone

Monogamy

Exclusive mating relationship

Parietal Cells

Secrete Hydrogen ions as hydrochloric acid, cleave pepsinogen to pepsin

Beta Cells

Secrete Insulin

Delta Cells

Secrete Somatostatin

Fetal Hemoglobin (HbF)

Exhibits a greater affinity for oxygen than does maternal hemoglobin. Assists with the transfer of oxygen into the fetal circulatory system

Neural Crest Cells

Exist at the tip of each neural fold. These cells migrate outward to form the peripheral nervous system as well as specific cell types in other tissues.

Oligodendrocytes

Exist in Central Nervous System. Produce myelin around axons

Schwann Cells

Exist in Peripheral Nervous System. Produce myelin around axons

Degranulation

Exocytosis of granule contents

MHC-II

Exogenous. In antigen-producing cells

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Expectations that can create conditions that lead to cofirmation of those expectations

Affect

Experience and display of empotion

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Explanation for the relationship between empathy and helping behavior. One individual helps another person when he feels empathy for the other person, regardless of the cost

Social Interaction

Explores the ways in which two or more individuals can both shape each other's behavior.

Suppressor or Regulatory T-cells (Treg)

Express CD4 and Foxp3. Help tone down the immune response. Prevent autoimmune disease

Attitude

Expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario. Develop; from experiences with others who affect our opinions and behaviors. Has three components: Affective, behavioral, and cognitive

Chief Cells

Secrete pepsinogen which is the inactive zymogen form of pepsin

Intertitial Cells of Leydig

Secrete testosterone and other male sex hormones.

Testosterone

Secreted by cells of Leydig. Production increases dramatically during puberty and helps sperm production begin. Develops and maintains the male reproductive system and results in the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Production remains high through adulthood and declines as men age. Comes from testis. Steroid.

Progesterone

Secreted by the corpus luteum. Promotes maintenance of the endometrium. Originates in ovary. Steroid.

Spinal Cord

Extends downward from the brainstem and has four divisions: -Cervical -Thoracic -Lumbar -Sacral It is protected by the vertebral column. It also consists of white and grey matter. White matter lies on the outside of the cord while grey matter is deep within it. Motor neurons exit ventrally (side closest to the front)

Exchange Theory

Extension of rational choice theory. Focuses on interactions in groups. Individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and will avoid certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments

Consensus Cues

Extent to which a person's behavior differs from others

Adaptive Value

Extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species thus leading to adaptation through natural selection

Vulva

External anatomy of a female

Plasmids

Extrachromosomal material. Carry DNA acquired from external sources. Carry DNA that is not necessary for survival of the prokaryote and therefore is not considered part of the genome. Often carry genes that impart some benefit to the bacterium. May also carry additional virulence factors, or traits that increase how pathogenic a bacterium is.

Chorion

Extraembryonic membrane that develops into the placenta. Formed from trophoblastic cells

Stigma

Extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society

Slum

Extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation

Catecholamines (Epinephrine and Norepinephrine)

Extremely fast onsets but are short lived. Increase blood glucose concentrations and heart rate; dilate bronchi; alter blood flow patterns. Comes from adrenal medulla. Amino acid derivative

Lobes of the Brain

F-POT -Frontal -Parietal -Occipital -Temporal

Short-Term Memory

Fades quickly over the course of 30 seconds without rehearsal. Limited in capacity with the 7 plus/minus rule

Erikson

Failure at given stages of development are possible but it is not required to pass all the stages to move to the next.

Delusions

False beliefs discordant with reality and not shared by others in the individual's culture that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary.

Illusion of Unanimity

False sense of agreement within the group

Erythropoietin

Secreted by the kidney and stimulates mainly red blood cell development

Thrombopoietin

Secreted by the liver and kidney and stimulates mainly platelet development

Glucagon

Secreted during times of fasting. Levels are high when glucose in gone. Stimulates glycogen breakdown. Increases blood glucose concentrations. Comes from the Pancreas Alpha Cells. Peptide.

Agents of Socialization

Family, peers, religion, government, media, work, ethnic background, clubs, school

White Fat

Fat that helps insulate the body

William James

Father of American psychology. Believed it was important to study how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals

Separation Anxiety

Fear of being separated from the parental figure

Polyandry

Female having exclusive relationships with multiple males

Sex-Linked (X-linked) Traits

Females have two X. Males have one. More common in males

Second Trimester of Gestation

Fetus undergoes tremendous growth. Moves within the amniotic fluid and its face takes on a human appearance, as the toes and fingers elongate. 30 to 36 cm long by end of the sixth month.

Periosteum

Fibrous sheath that surrounds the long bone to protect it and serve as a site for muscle attachment

Psychophysics

Field where the relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke

Red Marrow

Filled with hematopoietic stem cells which are responsible for generation of all the cells in our blood

Sperm Midpiece

Filled with mitochondria which generate the energy to be used as the sperm swims through the female reproductive tract to reach the ovum in the Fallopian tubes

Large Intestine

Final part of the gastrointestinal tract. Primarily involved in water absorption. Larger diameter than the small intestine but is shorter in length. Has three major sections: -cecum -colon -rectum

Sensory Memory

First and most fleeting kind of memory storage. Consists of both iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory. Lasts a very short time (less than a second). Maintained by the major projection areas of each sensory system such as the occipital lobe and temporal lobe

Skin (Integument)

First line of defense in the Innate Immune System. Provides a physical barrier between the outside world and our internal organs. Also contain defensins which are antibacterial enzymes. Largest organ in our bodies. It is derived from the ectoderm. Has several layers: hypodermis, dermis, and epidermis

Menarche

First menstrual cycle where one primary oocyte per month will complete meiosis I producing a secondary oocyte and a polar body. Ample cytoplasm given to one cell.

Pierre Flourens

First person to study the functions of the major sections of the brain. Did extirpation on rabbits and pigeons. Asserted that the brain had specific parts for specific functions.

Prophase

First phase in mitosis. Involves condensation of the chromatin into chromosomes. Centriole pairs separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell which are responsible for the correct division of DNA. Once the centrioles migrate to opposite poles they begin to form spindle fibers. Nuclear membrane dissolves allowing the spindle fibers to contact the chromosomes. Kinetochores also appear at the centromere. Homologous chromosomes align

Preconventional Morality

First phase. Typical of preadolescent thinking and places an emphasis on the consequences of the moral choice. Stage one (obedience) is concerned with avoiding punishment, while stage two (self-interest) is about gaining rewards. Stage two is often called the instrumental relativist stage because it is based on reciprocity and sharing

Sensorimotor Stage

First stage of life. Starts at birth and lasts until two years of age. Child learns to manipulate his or her environment in order to meet physical needs.

Problem Solving

First step is to have the correct mental set as demonstrated by Duncker's Candle Problem

Hermann von Helmholtz

First to measure the speed of a nerve impulse.

First Trimester of Gestation

First weeks, the major organs begin to develop. Heart beats at 22 days and then the eyes, gonads, limbs, and liver start to form. By five weeks embryo is 10 mm. By week six is is 15 mm. Cartilaginous skeleton begins to harden into bone by the seventh week. By the end of eight weeks most organs have formed, the brain is fairly developed, and the embryo becomes a fetus. At the end of the third month, the fetus is 9 cm long

Taste

Five basic tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, and umami (savory). Detected by chemoreceptors that are sensitive to dissolved compounds. Information travels from the taste bud to the brainstem, and then ascend to the taste center in the thalamus.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Five groups at different levels. From bottom up: -Physiological: Breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion -Safety: Security of: body, employment, resources, morality, the family, health, property -Love/belonging: Friendship, family, sexual intimacy -Esteem: Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others -Self-actualization: Morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts

Continuous Reinforcement

Fixed-ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed

Squamous

Flat and scalelike

Leakage

Flow of genes between species

Capitalist

Focus on free market trade and laissez-faire policies, where success or failure of business is driven by consumerism with as little intervention from central governing bodies as possible

Humanistic or Phenomenological Theorists

Focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach. Personality is the result of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals

Bowman's Capsule, Proximal Convoluted Tubule, and Distal Convoluted Tubule (Horizontal in Nephron)

Focused on the identity of the particles in the urine. Keeps what the body needs and loses what it doesn't.

Loop of Henle and Collecting Duct (Vertical in Nephron)

Focused on the volume and concentration of the urine

Vygotsky

Focused on understanding cognitive development. Believed culture was imperative to cognitive activity.

Social Cognitive

Focuses not just on how our environment influences our behavior, but how we interact with that environment

Rational Choice Theory

Focuses on decision-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual. Problematized by altruism

Social Constructionism

Focuses on how individuals put together their social reality. Subject to change as social norms and opinions develop over time

Malthusian Theory

Focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder

Macrosociology

Focuses on large groups and social structure

Microsociology

Focuses on small groups and the individua

Signal Detection Theory

Focuses on the changes in our perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal and external context.

Kohlberg

Focuses on the development of moral thinking. As our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, and this directly affects the way in which we resolve moral dilemmas.

Superego

Focuses on the ideal self. Personality's perfectionist, judges our actions and responds with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures. Divided into the conscience and ego-ideal.

Symbolic Culture (Nonmaterial Culture)

Focuses on the ideas that represent a group of people.

Correspondent Inference Theory

Focuses on the intentionality of others' behavior. When an individual unexpectedly performs a behavior that helps or hurts us, we tend to explain the behavior by dispositional attribution.

Social Interactionist Theory

Focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes. Language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate and behave in a social manner

Self-Enhancement

Focuses on the need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failure

Attribution Theory

Focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior

Social Cognition

Focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior

Selective Attention

Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli.

Creative Self

Force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality

Hydrostatic Pressure

Force per unit area that the blood exerts against the vessel walls. Generated by the contraction of the heart and the elasticity of the arteries. Pushes fluid out of the bloodstream and into the interstitium through the capillary walls

Limbic System

Forebrain. Group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory. Composed of the septal nuclei, amygdala, fornix, hypothalamus, thalamus and hippocampus. Resides below the cerebrum.

Basal Ganglia

Forebrain. Movement. Coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and the spinal cord. Helps make our movements smooth and our posture steady.

Hypothalamus

Forebrain. Subdivided into the lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus. Serves homeostatic functions. Restricts production of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) at the start of puberty. Bridge between the nervous and endocrine systems. Located in the forebrain above the pituitary gland and below the thalamus. Its release of hormones is regulated by negative feedback. Hunger and thirst;emotion. Primary regulator of the autonomic nervous system. Feeding, fighting, flighting, sexual functioning. Releases a variety of neurotransmitters,

Calluses

Form from excessive keratin deposition in areas of repeated strain due to friction. Provide protection to avoid future damage.

Dizygotic (Fraternal) Twins

Form from fertilization of two different eggs released during one ovulatory cycle by two different sperm. Each zygote will implant in the uterine wall, and each develops its own placenta, chorion, and amnion. No more genetically similar than other siblings

Crack

Form of cocaine that can be smoked.

Altruism

Form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to himself

Power (Sociology)

Form of influence over other people

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain. Marked by retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Another symptom is confabulation

Ritual

Formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior. Have a prescribed order of events or routine.

Speciation

Formation of a new species through evolution

Spermatogenesis

Formation of haploid sperm through meiosis. Occurs in the seminiferous tubules. Results in four functional sperm

Fingernails and Hair

Formed from keratin and are produced by specialized skin cells.

Chorionic Villi

Formed from trophoblasts. Microscopic fingerlike projections that penetrate the endometrium. Support maternal-fetal gas exchange

Myofibrils

Formed of sacromeres which are attached end-to-end

Veins

Formed of venules which are formed of capillaries. They are thin-walled inelastic vessels that transport blood to the heart. They carry deoxygenated blood except for the pulmonary and umbilical veins.

Hybrid Offspring

Formed when different but similar species reproduce

Algorithm

Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.

Interneurons

Found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the three types. Located predominately in the brain and spinal cord and are often linked to reflexive behavior

Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty

Found that the mouse survived when the strain was treated with an enzyme that degrades DNA. Proves DNA was the transforming substance.

Cell Theory

Foundational belief in modern biology that -All living things are composed of cells -The cell is the basic functional unit of life -Cells arise only from preexisting cells -Cells carry genetic information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This genetic material is passed on from parent to daughter cell

Heart

Four-chambered structure composed predominantly of cardiac muscle. Composed of two pumps supporting two different circulations in series with one another.

Shortening of the Sarcomere

Free globular heads of the myosin molecules move toward and bind with the exposed sites on actin. The actin-myosin cross bridges then allow myosin to pull on actin, which draws thin filaments toward the M-line, resulting in shortening of the sarcomere. Shortening is undone when ATP release provides energy for the powerstroke and sliding of the actin filament over the myosin filament.

Inactive Sodium Channels

From approximately +35mV to the resting potential

Open Sodium Channels

From threshold to approximately +35mV

Lipoteichoic Acid

Function is unknown but the human immune system may be activated by exposure to these chemicals. Major component of gram positive cell walls

Neurosis

Functional mental disorder that persists into adulthood in response to the anxiety caused by fixation

Parenchyma

Functional parts of the organ

Interphase

G1, S, and G2. The longest part of the cell cycle. Stage between successive nuclear divisions.

Extrapyramidal Motor System

Gathers information about body position and carries this information to the central nervous system.

Demographic Shift

General term referring to changes in population makeup over time

SA Node

Generates 60-100 signals per minute. Where impulse initiation occurs.

Gastrulation

Generation of three distinct cell layers.

Genotype

Genetic combination possessed by an individual

Transposons

Genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome. If inserted into a coding region the gene may be disrupted.

Estrogens

Secreted in response to Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and result in the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and female secondary sexual characteristics. Stimulate development of the reproductive tract in the embryo. Lead to the thickening of the lining of the uterus (endometrium) each month in preparation for the implantation of a zygote. Originates in ovary. Steriod.

Innate Behavior

Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or (Vasopresin)

Secreted in response to low blood volume or increased blood osmolarity. Results in increased blood volume and higher blood pressure. Increases reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidneys. Comes from the hypothalamus but is released by the posterior pituitary. Peptide.

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Secreted in response to the entry of chyme into the duodenum. Stimulates the release of both bile and pancreatic juices.

Adrenal Cortex

Secretes corticosteroids. These are divided into three functional classes: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and critical sex hormones

Neurocognitive Models of Dreaming

Seek to unify biological and psychological perspective on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

Foraging

Seeking out and eating food, driven by biological, psychological, and social influences.

Inductive (bottom-up) Reasoning

Seeks to create a theory via generalization. Starts with specific instances.

Gametocytes

Germ cells

Prostate Gland

Give the fluid mildly alkaline properties so the sperm will be able to survive in the relative acidity of the female reproductive tract

Elder Abuse

Seen across all socioeconomic classes, and most commonly manifests as neglect of an older reative

Persistent Depressive Disorder

Given to those who suffer from dysthymia

Self-Disclosure

Giving information about oneself to establish an identity. Sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with nonjudgmental empathy

Front Stage

Goffman. Actor is in front of the audience, and performs according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see.

Back Stage

Goffman. Actor is not being observed by an audience and he is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image

Dramaturgical Approach

Goffman. Using the metaphor of a theatrical performance to describe how individuals create images of themselves in various situations.

Ovaries

Gonads of females. Produce estrogen and progesterone.

Just-World Hypothesis

Good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people

Functional Autonomy

Gordon Allport. Behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior.

Central Traits

Gordon Allport. Major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer

Secondary Traits

Gordon Allport. Personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence. Only appear in close groups or specific situations.

Cardinal Traits

Gordon Allport. Traits around which a person organize his or her life

Gram-Positive vs. Gram-Negative

Gram-positive have a thick layer of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid and contain no outer membrane. Gram-negative have a thin layer of peptidoglycan, but also have an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and phospholipids

Relative Refractory Period

Greater than normal stimulation causes an action potential because the membrane is starting from a potential that is more negative than its resting potential.

Group Conformity

Group holds power over its members, creating group pressure that ultimately shapes members' behaviors. Individuals are compliant with the group's goals even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goal.

Synaptonemal Complex

Group of proteins that hold together homologous chromosomes

Ganglion Cells

Group together to form the optic nerve.

Subcultures

Groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong

Reference Groups

Groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves

In-Groups

Groups to which an individual belongs

Out-Groups

Groups with which an individual competes or is in opposition

9+2 Stucture

Seen only in eukaryotic organelles of motility. Nine pairs of microtubules forming an outer ring, two microtubules in the center. Key structure in cilia and flagella.

Secure Attachment

Seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore, knowing that he or she has a secure base to return to

Franz Gal

Had early theory that behavior was linked to brain anatomy. Developed the doctrine of phrenology. If a particular trait was well-developed than the part of the brain responsible will expand. Believed skull could bulge.

Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Hallucinations

Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening respectively

Cerebral Hemispheres

Halves of the cerebrum

Completion of meiosis II

Haploid pronuclei of the sperm and the ovum join creating a diploid zygote

Endochondral Ossification

Hardening of cartilage into bone. Responsible for the formation of most of the long bones of the body.

Dysfunctions

Harmful consequences of people's actions as they undermine a social system's equilirium

Fetal Hemoglobin

Has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin. Has a left-shifted curve

Cardiac Muscle

Has characteristics of both smooth and skeletal muscle types. Primarily uninucleated. May contain two nuclei. Involuntary and innervated by the autonomic nervous system. Appears striated. Respond to nervous input but do not require external signals to undergo contraction. Autonomic. Ca²⁺ required for contraction

Pancreas

Has endocrine and exocrine functions. Endocrine Functions: -Release of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin which are necessary for proper blood sugar levels Exocrine Functions: -Controlled by acinar cells

Language

Has five basic components: -Phonology -Morphology -Semantics -Syntax -Pragmatics

Information Processing Model

Has four key components: -Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli -Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain to be useful in decision-making -Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems -Problem-solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem

Cellular Portion of Blood

Has three major categories: erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

Small Intestine

Has three segments: -Duodenum -Jejunum -Ileum. It is quite long. Food leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter and enters the duodenum.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Has three stages. Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Somatic Symptom Disorder

Have at least one somatic symptom, which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition, and that is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it, or elevated levels of anxiety.

Testes

Have two functional components: -seminiferous tubules -interstitial cells. They secrete testosterone in response to stimuation by gonadotropins (LH and FSH)

Sick Role

He or she was not responsible for the illness, but still exempt from normal social roles. Further the patient had the obligation to want to become well and seek out help

Acoustic Encoding

Hear information to encode it

Diastole

Heart is relaxed, semilunar valves are closed, and blood from the atria fills the ventricles.

Mate Choice (Intersexual Selection)

Selection of a mate based on attraction

Tail Fibers

Help the bacteriophage to recognize and connect to the correct host cell

John Dewey

Helped create functionalism with one of his articles that summarized the reflex arc.

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

Helps regulate salt and water balance. Comes from the heart. Peptide.

Nature

Heredity or the influence of inherited characteristics on behavior

Reference Group

Self-concept often depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to.

Self-Schema

Self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities

Ventricles

Send blood to the lungs and the systemic circulation. Internal cavities of the brain.

Incomplete Dominance

Heterozygote expresses a phenotype that is intermediate between two homozygous genotypes

Beta Waves

High frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration.

Bipolar Cells

Highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones. Synapse with ganglion cells

Glomeruli

Highly convoluted capillary tufts derived from these different arterioles

Stomach

Highly muscular organ with a capacity of approximately two liters. Located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity. Uses hydrochloric acid and enzymes to digest food, it has a thick mucosa to prevent autodigestion. Has four divisions the fundus and the body contain mostly gastric glands. The atrium and pylorus contain mostly pyloric glands. The internal curvature is called the lesser curvature while the external curvature is called the greater curvature. Secretes six products: -HCl -Pepsinogen -Mucus -Bicarbonate -Water -Intrinsic Factor

Drug Addiction

Highly related to the mesolimbic reward pathway.

Reticular Formation

Hindbrain. Arousal and alertness. Neural structure.

Medulla Oblongata

Hindbrain. Vital functioning . Lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Sleep Paralysis

Sensation of being unable to move despite being awake

Ligaments

Hold bones together at joints. Pieces of fibrous tissue that connect bones to one another and consist of a synovial capsule which encloses the actual joint cavity

Biological Perspective

Holds that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain.

Monoamine or Catecholamine Theory of Depression

Holds that too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania, while too little leads to depression

Microtubules

Hollow polymers of tubulin proteins. Provide the primary pathways along which motor proteins like kinesin and dyenin carry vesicles.

Metaphase I

Homologous pairs (tetrads) align at the metaphase plate, and each pair attaches to a separate spindle fiber by its kinetochore. Homologous chromosomes are lined up across from each other at the metaphase plate and are held by one spindle fiber.

Tetrads

Homologous pairs of chromosomes and their sister chromatids

Anaphase I

Homologous pairs separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.

Disjunction

Homologous pairs separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell. Accounts for Mendel's first law (Segregation) which is displayed in anaphase I. Chromosome of paternal origin disjoins from its homologue of maternal origin and either chromosome can end up in the daughter cell.

Saltatory Conduction

Hopping of a signal from node to node

Enterogastrone

Hormone that slows motility through the digestive tract. Allows increased time for digestive enzymes to act on chyme

Oxytocin

Hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during labor, as well as milk during lactation. Has a positive feedback loop. Comes from the hypothalamus though is released by the posterior pituitary. Peptide.

Mate Bias

How choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate

Allele Frequency

How often an allele appears in a population

Religiosity

How religious one considers him or herself to be, and includes strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itslef

Syntax

How words are put together to form sentences

Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner's Theory. Seven defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

Chymotrypsin(ogen)

Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds; activated by trypsin. Produced in the pancreas by acinar cells. Function in the duodenum. Their nutrient is proteins.

Trypsin(ogen)

Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds; converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin; activated by enteropeptidase. Produced by acinar cells in the pancreas. Function in the duodenum. Their key nutrient is proteins.

(Pro)carboxy peptidases A and B

Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at carboxy end; activated by enteropeptidase. Functions in the duodenum. Produced in the pancreas by acinar cells. Nutrient is proteins

Diabetes Mellitus

Hyperglycemia or excess glucose in the blood.

Hypnotic Induction

Hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject's level of concentration

Bipolar II Disorder

Hypomania with at least one major depressive episode.

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Hypothesized that psychological arousal and feeling an emotion occur at the same time, not in sequence. Nervous system arousal and conscious emotion -> Action

Waste Products Excreted in Urine

H⁺, Urea, NH₃, and K⁺

Coagulation Factors

Sense tissue factor and initiate a complex activation cascade. The endpoint of the cascade is the activation of prothrombin to form thrombin which is achieved by thromboplastin. Thrombin can convert fibrinogen into fibrin which forms small fibers that create a cross-link structure that captures red blood cells and other platelets

Stanford-Binet IQ Test

IQ= (Mental age/ chronological age) X 100

Primacy Effect

Idea that first impression are more important than subsequent impressions

Adaptive

Idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expessed

Reciprocal Determinism

Idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation.

Chemoreceptors

Sensitive to carbon dioxide concentration

Teacher Expectancy

Idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students. A teacher who places high demands on students will more often see students succeed than a teacher who places the same demands but doubts that the students can achieve them

Michelangelo Phenomenon

Ideal self can be sculpted with the help from others

Sister Chromatids

Identical strands of DNA connected at the centromere

Frequency Summation

If a muscle fiber is exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulation it will have insufficient time to relax. The contraction will combine, become stronger and more prolonged.

Semicircular Canals

Sensitive to rotational acceleration. Arranged perpendicularly and ends in a swelling called an ampulla where hair cells are located.

Pacinian Corpuscles

Sensory organ in the skin that responds to deep pressure and vibration

Meissner's Corpuscles

Sensory organ in the skin that responds to light touch

Ruffini Endings

Sensory organ in the skin that responds to stretch

Merkel Cells (Disks)

Sensory receptors present at the epidermal-dermal junction. Connected to sensory neurons and are responsible for deep pressure and texture sensation within the skin

Thalamus

Sensory relay station for incoming sensory information for all senses except smell. Forebrain.

Secondary Response

If the same microbe is ever encountered again, the memory cells jump into action and produce the antibodies specific to that pathogen. More rapid and robust

Atrioventricular Vaves

Separate the atria from the ventricles

Semilunar Valves

Separate the ventricles from the vasculature

Collective Rationalization

Ignoring warnings against the idea of the group

Archetypes

Images of common experiences that have an emotional element.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Separates individual on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information. At one extreme are those who elaborate extensively: those who think deeply about information, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decisions based on this thought (Central Route Processing) . At the other extreme are those who don not elaborate and focus on superficial details (Peripheral Route Processing).

Aortic Valve

Separates the left ventricle from the aorta

Echopraxia

Imitating another's actions

Migration Rate

Immigration rate minus emigration rate

Active Immunity

Immune system is stimulated to process antibodies against a specific pathogen

Positive Sense Single-Stranded RNA Viruses

Implies that the genome may be directly translated to functional proteins by the ribosomes of the host cell

Thymosin

Important for proper T-cell development and differentiation. Comes from the Thymus. Peptide.

Lymphocytes

Important to the specific immune response or the body's targeted fight against particular pathogens. Help our body learn from experience. Its development occurs in either B-cells (bone marrow) or T-cells (thymus)

Alter-Casting

Imposing an identity onto another person

Segregation

Separating of the two homologous chromosomes

Gender Segregation

Separation of individuals based on perceived gender

Symbolic Ethnicity

Sepcific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life

Outer Membrane of the Mitochondria

Serves as a barrier between the cytosol and the inner environment of the mitochondrion.

Role

Set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status

Third Trimester of Gestation

Seventh and eighth months are characterized by continued rapid growth and further brain development. Antibodies are transported to the fetus for protection. The growth rate eventually slows and the fetus becomes less active

Blunting

Severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression

Libido

Sex drive

SRY

Sex-determining region Y which codes for a transcription factor that initiates testis differentiation and the formation of male gonads

Megakaryocytes

Shards released from cells in bone marrow. Their function is to assist in blood clotting

Denominations (Sects)

Share certain beliefs and practices but not others

Cultural Syndrome

Shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme. Influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions and can even influence the ways emotions are experienced.

Mass Hysteria

Shared, intense concern about the treats to society. Shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, and fear mongering

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

In males it causes the interstitial cells to produces testosterone. In females it triggers ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum. Comes from Anterior Pituitary. Peptide

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

In males: stimulates the Sertoli cells and triggers sperm maturation. In females: stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in the ovary. Comes from Anterior Pituitary. Peptide

McDonaldization

Shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies.

Bohr Effect

Shifts to the right due to increased PaCO₂, increased H⁺, decreased pH, and increased temperature

Threshold Value

In the range of -55mV to -40mV. Value where an action potential will be triggered.

Sleep Apnea

Inability to breathe during sleep

Disorganized Behavior

Inability to carry out activities of daily living, such as paying bills, maintaining hygiene, and keeping appointments.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

Egocentrism

Inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

Negative Cognitive Symptoms

Inability to recall keyfeatures of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others, and a persistent negative view of the world

Dissociative Amnesia

Inability to recall past experiences. Linked to trauma.

Alcohol Myopia

Inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world

Belief Perseverance

Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

Monarchies

Include a royal ruler, although the ruler's powers may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution and parliamentary system

Arousal Symptom

Include an increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior, and sleep disturbances.

Cortical Sex Hormones

Include androgens and estrogens.

Interkinesis

Short rest period between cell divisions during which the chromosomes partially uncoil

Hallcinogens

Include drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Complex interaction between various neurotransmitters especially serotonin. Cause distortions of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection. Increases heart rate and blood pressure, dilates pupils, causes sweating and an increased body temperature

Panic Attack

Include fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, and a sense of unreality. Sense of impending doom.

Movable Joints

Include hinge joints, ball-and-socket joints, and others. Permit bones to shift relative to one another. Strengthened by ligaments

Granulocytes

Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. They contain cytoplasmic granules. These granules are toxic to invading microbes.

Intrusion Symptoms

Include recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress

Monocular Cues

Include relative size of objects, partial obscuring of one object by another, convergence of parallel lines at a distance, position of an object in the visual field, and lighting.

Extrinsic Motivation

Include rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved.

Catecholamines

Includes epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Also known as monoamines or biogenic amines.

Behavioral Response

Includes facial expressions and body language.

Biomedical Approach

Includes interventions that rally around symptom reduction of psychological disorders. Assumes that any disorder has roots in biomedical disturbances and thus the solution should be biomedical.

Opium

Includes opiates and opioids. These compounds bind to opioid receptors in the PNS and CNS causing a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria.

Microtubule Organizing Centers

Includes the centrosome and the basal body of a flagellum or cillium

Primary Germ Layers

Includes the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

Mesolimbic Reward Pathway

Includes the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the connection between them called the medial forebrain bundle (MFB)

Gross Motor Skills

Incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion, such as sitting, crawling, and walking

Positive Reinforcers

Increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior. Ex. Money

Stimulants

Increase arousal in the nervous system. Increases frequency of action potentials

Sundowning

Increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening

Polydipsia

Increased frequency of thirst

Polyuria

Increased frequency of urination

Alcohol

Increases activity of the GABA receptor which causes generalized brain inhibition resulting in diminished arousal. Increases dopamine levels causing a sense of mild euphoria.

Extensor

Increases or straightens this angle

Divergent Evolution

Independent development of dissimilar characteristics in two or more lineages sharing a common ancestor

Convergent Evolution

Independent development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a recent common ancestor.

Identity

Individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong

That's-not-all Technique

Individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected.

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)

Individual is perfectionistic and inflexible tending to like rules and order.

Ego-Dystonic

Individual sees the illness as something thrust upon them that is intrusive

Projection

Individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others.

Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder

Individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonalization) or from their surrounding (derealization). Presents a feeling of automation and can lead to failure to recognize one's reflection.

Psychotic Disorder

Individuals suffer from one or more of the following conditions: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, and negative symptoms.

Reliance on Central Traits

Individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relative to the perceiver

P Generation

Individuals who are crossed

Peers

Individuals who are equals within a social group. Play an extremely important role in determining lifestyle, appearance, and social activities.

Variable Expressivity

Individuals with the same genotype may have different phenotypes

Gastrin

Induces the parietal cells in the stomach to secrete more HCl and signals the stomach to contract, mixing its contents

Sir Charles Sherrington

Inferred the existence of synapses.

Histamine

Inflammatory mediator by inducing vasodilation and the movement of fluid and cells from the bloodstream into tissues

Nurture

Influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior

Family

Influenced by a number of different factors including culture, value systems, beliefs, practices, gender, age, race, ethnicity, and others.

Perceiver

Influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state

Cristae

Infoldings in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Increase the surface area available for electron transport chain enzymes.

Somatostatin

Inhibitor of both insulin and glucagon secretion. Comes from Pancreas Delta cells. Peptide.

Primary Response

Initial activation that takes approximately seven to ten days

Primary Appraisal

Initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat. Identifies stress as irrelevant or stressful

Alarm

Initial reaction to a stressor and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. ACTH is later secreted by the hypothalamus which stimulates the adrenal glands and produces cortisol which maintains a steady supply of blood sugar necessary to deal with stress.

Upper Esophageal Sphincter

Initiates swallowing. Consists of the muscles of the oropharynx

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Innate ability to effortlessly understand transformations

Unconditioned Response

Innate or reflexive response

Instinct (Freud)

Innate physiological representation of a biological need. Propelling aspects of Freud's theory of personality. Fall into life and death instincts.

Instincts

Innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli

Retina

Innermost layer of the eye which contains the actual photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical information the brain can process. Screen consisting of neural elements and blood vessels. Converts incoming photons of light to electrical signals. Considered part of the central nervous system and is an outgrowth of brain tissue.

Endoderm

Innermost layer. Forms the epithelial linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts, including the lungs. Also the pancreas, thyroid, bladder, and distal urinary tracts, as well as parts of the liver, are derived from endoderm.

Myelin

Insulates nerve fibers. Prevents signal loss or crossing of signals.

Axon Hillocks

Integrates the incoming signals

Gender Inequality

Intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other

Primary Group

Interactions are direct, with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members. Last a long period and may include core friends, tight family.

Secondary Group

Interactions are superficial with few emotional bonds. Last a short period of time.

Endoskeletons

Internal but are not able to protect the soft tissue structures as well as exoskeletons. Handle growth well

Self-Concept

Internal list of answers to the question who am I?

Drives

Internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals. Thought to originate within an individual without requiring any external factors

Circadian Rhythms

Internally generated rhythms. Affected by external cues such as light.

Intersectionality

Interplay between multiple demographic factors-especially when it leads to discrimination or opression

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

Interspersed between cycles of the NREM sleep stages. Arousal levels reach that of wakefulness but muscles are paralyzed. Called paradoxical sleep because one's heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but the individual is still asleep.

Outbreeding (Outcrossing)

Introduction of unrelated individuals into a breeding group. Could increase variation and fitness

Neologisms

Invention of new words

Endocrine Signals

Involve secreted hormones that travel through the bloodstream to a distant target tissue

Negative Symptoms

Involve the absence of normal or desired behavior

Delusions of Reference

Involve the belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual

Fine Motor Skills

Involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes

Eosinophils

Involved in allergic reactions and invasive parasitic infection

Melatonin

Involved in circadian rhythms. Comes from the pineal gland. Peptide. Serotonin-derived hormone.

Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

Involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness. Promote the fight-or-flight response. Norepinephrine is more local while Epinephrine is more widespread.

Allantois

Involved in early fluid exchange between the embryo and the yolk sac. Surrounded by the amnion

Sympathetic Division and Digestion

Involved in inhibition of digestive, activities, decreasing secretions from exocrine glands

Parasympathetic Division and Digestion

Involved in stimulation of digestive, activities, increasing secretions from exocrine glands and promoting peristalsis

Ileum

Involved in the absorption of nutrients

Jujunum

Involved in the absorption of nutrients

Method of Loci

Involves associating each item in the list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized

Representativeness Heuristic

Involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Involves placing several electrodes on the scalp. Helps determine electrical activity patterns

Digestion

Involves the breakdown of food into its constituent organic molecules: starches and other carbohydrates into monosaccharides, lipids into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids. Can be divided into mechanical and chemical

Intracellular Digestion

Involves the oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy

Absorption

Involves the transport of products of digestion from the digestive tract into the circulatory system for distribution to the body's tissues and cells

Phobia

Irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid it

Prejudice

Irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity.

Incus (Anvil)

Is acted on by the malleus and acts on the stapes

Thyroid

It is controlled by thyroid-stimulating hormone. It is on the front surface of the trachea. It sets the basal metabolic rate and maintains calcium homeostasis.

Growth Hormone (GH)

It promotes the growth of bone and muscle. Excess of GH causes gigantism while a deficit causes dwarfism. Raises blood glucose levels. Comes from Anterior Pituitary. Peptide.

Rationalization

Justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society.

Stabilizing Selection

Keeps phenotypes within a specific range by selecting against extremes

Personal Construct Psychology

Kelly thought of the individual as a scientist, who devises and test predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life. Anxious people are those who have difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in the environment.

Stratum Granulosum

Keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei. Thin layer of cells in the epidermis

Object Permanance

Key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage. Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view.

Spreading Activation

Key to priming in which recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phase that is close to the desired semantic memory

Cortex

Kidney's outermost layer

T-Cells

Kill virally infected cells and activate other immune cells. Mature in the thymus. Agents of cell-mediated immunity because they coordinate the immune system and directly kill virally infected cells. Killer T-cells destroy an infected cell in which it detects the presence of antigens. Other help coordinate the immune response. Mature in thymus. There are three types: -Helper T-cells (Th) or CD4⁺ T-Cells -Cytotoxic T-cells (Tc) or CTL for Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes or CD8⁺ T-Cells -Suppressor or Regulatory T-cells (Treg)

HCl

Kills microbes, denatures proteins, and converts pepsinogen into pepsin

Long-Term Memory

Knowledge that we are able to recall on demand

Force Field Theory

Kurt Lewin. Puts very little stock in constraints on personalities such as fixed traits, habits, or structures such as the id. Focused little on the past or future. Focused on the present. Field is one's current state of mind which is simply the sum of the forces on the individual at the time.

Labeling Theory

Labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self-image

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

Lacks ribosomes and is utilized primarily for lipid synthesis. Also transports proteins from the RER to the Golgi Apparatus and detoxifies drugs and poisons.

Type B

Laid-back and relaxed

Door-in-the-face Technique

Large request is made at first and, if refused, a second, smaller request is made.

Church

Large, universal religious group that can be divided into multiple coexisting denominations

Chromosomal Mutations

Larger-scale mutations in which large segments of DNA are affected.

Species

Largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring

Concrete Operational Stage

Lasts from about 7 to 11 years of age. Understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others. Able to engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or information that is directly available. These children have not yet developed the ability to think abstractly.

Preoperational Stage

Lasts from about two to seven years of age, and is characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism and centration.

Mendel's Second Law

Law of Independent Assortment: -The inheritance of one gene does not affect the inheritance of another gene.

Mendel's First Law

Law of Segregation: -Genes exist in alternative forms (alleles) -An organism has two alleles for each gene, one inherited from each parent -The two alleles segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes that carry only one allele for any inherited trait -If two alleles of an organism are different, only one will be fully expressed and the other will be silent. The expressed allele is said to be dominant, the silent allele recessive

Hypodermis

Layer of connective tissue that connects the skin to the rest of the body. Contains fat and fibrous tissue.

Synovium

Layer of soft tissue that secretes synovial fluid which lubricates the movement of structure in the joint space

Bowman's Capsule

Leads to a long capsule with many distinct areas

Directional Selection

Leads to the emergence and dominance of an initially extreme phenotype

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced.

Systemic Circulation

Left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs by way of the pulmonary veins and forces it out to the body through the aorta

Mandated Reporter

Legally required to report suspected cases of elder or child abuse

Amino Acid-Derivative Hormones

Less common than peptide and steroid hormones. Include epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine

Trial-and-Error

Less sophisticated type of problem-solving in which various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work

Fitness

Level of reproductive success

Prestige

Level of respect shown to a person by others

Pons

Lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla.

Brainstem

Lies at the base of the brain. Responsible for basic life functions such as breathing. Hindbrain and midbrain.

Larynx

Lies below the pharynx and is only a pathway for air. Contains two vocal cords

Anterior Chamber

Lies in front of the iris

Corona Radiate

Lies outside the zona pellucida and is a layer of cells that adhered to the oocyte during ovulation

Lens

Lies right behind the iris and helps control the refraction of the incoming light.

Eros

Life instincts. Promote an individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual need.

Recombination Frequency

Likelihood that two alleles are separated from each other during crossing over. Roughly proportional to the distance between the genes on the chromosome. Max is 50

Ependymal Cells

Line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid, which physically supports the brain and serves as a shock absorber

Endothelial Cells

Lines blood vessels. Aids in vasodilation and vasoconstriction. Release certain chemicals when damaged that are necessary in the formation of blood clots to repair the vessel and stop bleeding

Rugae

Lining of the stomach

Operant Conditioning

Links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors

Plasma

Liquid portion of blood, an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, and blood proteins.

Emotional Support

Listening, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings

Pituitary Gland

Located at the base of the brain and is divided into the anterior and posterior

Occipital Lobes

Located at the very rear of the brain. Contain the visual cortex also known as the striate cortex.

Pineal Gland

Located deep within the brain where it secretes the hormone melatonin. Key player in biological rhythms.

Olfactory Chemoreceptors (Olfactory Nerves)

Located in olfactory epithelium in the upper part of the nasal cavity. Stimuli must bind to their respective chemoreceptor to cause a signal.

Mirror Neurons

Located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action

Liver

Located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen and contains two unique structures for communicating with the digestive system. Processes nutrients, produces urea, detoxifies chemicals, produces bile, and synthisizes albumin and clotting factors

Gallbladder

Located just beneath the liver and stores and concentrates bile. Upon release of CCK, the gallbladder contracts and pushes bile out into the biliary tree.

Somatosensory Cortex

Located on the postcentral gyrus (just behind the central sulcus). Involved in somatosensory information processing.

Primary Motor Cortex

Located on the precentral gyrus (just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes). Initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles.

Adrenal Glands

Located on top of the kidneys. Consists of a cortex and a medulla.

Parietal Lobe

Located to the rear of the frontal lobe

Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)

Located where the brain meets the spinal cord. Controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking. In charge of vital functions necessary for survival. Divides to form the medulla oblongata and the pons and cerebellum

Nucleoid Region

Location in prokaryotic cells where the chromosome is found

Spleen

Location of blood storage and activation of B-cells, which turn into plasma cells

Scrotum

Location of the testes. External pouch that hangs below the penis and maintains a temperature 2 to 4 degrees Celsius lower than the body.

Locus

Location on a specific chromosome

Columnar Cells

Long and thin

Axon

Long appendage that terminates in close proximity to a target structure.

Fornix

Long projection that allows the hippocampus to communicate with other portions of the limbic system.

Myocytes

Long, tubular cells that develop from myoblasts to form muscles in a process known as myogenesis

Implicit (nondeclarative or procedural) Memory

Long-term memories that consists of our skills and conditioned responses

Haversian Canals

Longitudinal channels

Cognition

Looks at how our brains process and react to the information overload presented to us by the word

Distant Networks

Looser and contain weaker ties. May include acquaintances

Dementia

Loss of cognitive function. Begins with impaired memory, but later progresses to impaired judgement and confusion.

Inbreeding Depression

Loss of genetic variation which causes reduced fitness

Cataplexy

Loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours

Agnosia

Loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, usually one of the three. Caused by physical damage to the brain.

Hyperglycemia

Low blood glucose concentration.

Hypoxemia

Low oxygen concentration in the blood

Undifferentiated

Low scores on both scales of masculinity and femininity

Cervix

Lower end of the uterus that connects to the vaginal canal, where sperm are deposited during intercourse.

Fetal vs Adult Circulation

Lungs and liver do not serve significant function prior to birth.

Luteal Phase

Luteinizing Hormones (LH) causes the ruptured follicle to form the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone. Levels of progesterone begin to rise which cause negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, and LH which prevents the ovulation of multiple eggs. Progesterone maintains the endometrium. FSH down, LH same, Estrogen up, Progesterone up

Lacteal

Lymphatic channel that takes up fats for transport into the lymphatic system

Chyle

Lymphatic fluid carrying many chymlomicrons

B-Cells

Lymphocytes. Responsible for antibody generation. Antigens stimulate this cell to divide and produce antibodies that neutralize invaders or tag them for killing. Mature in bone marrow. Activated in the spleen and lymph nodes

Thin Filaments

Made of actin along with troponin and tropomyosin which help to regulate the interaction between the actin and myosin filaments. (Acthin)

Microfilaments

Made of solid polymerized rods of actin. Play a role in cytokinesis. Forms cleavage furrow in mitosis.

Peptide Hormones

Made up of amino acids, ranging in size from quite small to relatively large. They are all derived from larger precursor polypeptides that are cleaved during posttranslational modification.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord, including all 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves. Connects the CNS to the rest of the body. Can be divided into into somatic and autonomic nervous systems

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Main role is to conserve energy. Associated with resting and sleeping states and acts to reduces heart rate and constrict the bronchi. Also responsible for managing digestion increasing peristalsis and exocrine secretions. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses. Rest and digest

Self-Discrepancy Theory

Maintains that each of us has three selves. -Actual -Ideal -Ought

Myelin Sheath

Maintains the electric signal within one neuron. Increases the speed of conduction in the axon

Na+/K+ ATPase

Maintains the negative internal environment. Outside the cell: Na+ >>> K+. Net positive charge Inside the Cell: K+>>>Na+. Net negative charge. Important for restoring this gradient after action potentials have been fired. Transports three Na+ out for every two K+ at the cost of one ATP. Cell becomes relatively more negative.

Fundamentalism

Maintenance of strict adherence to religious code

Lymph Nodes

Major component of the lymphatic system. Provide a place for immune cells to communicate and mount an attack. Filter lymph. Small bean-shaped structures along the lymphatic vessels. Contain a lymphatic channel as well as an artery and a vein.

Bilirubin

Major pigment in bile. Byproduct of the breakdown of hemoglobin

Bicarbonate Buffer System

Major regulator of blood pH. CO₂(g)+H₂O(l)⇌H₂CO₃(aq)⇌H⁺(aq)+HCO₃⁻(aq)

Bipolar Disorders

Major type of mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania. Biological factors include: -Increased norepinephrine and serotonin -Higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder -Higher risk for persons with multiple sclerosis

Stereotyping

Making assumptions about people based on the category in which they are placed

Aligning Actions

Making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses

Polygyny

Male having exclusive relationships with multiple females

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Males: Include facial and auxiliary hair. Deepening of the voice, and changes in growth patterns. Females: Breast growth, widening of the hips, changes in fat distribution

Anima

Man's inner woman

Prefrontal Cortex

Manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions. Supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning. Regulates attention and alertness. Anterior portion of the frontal lobes. Associated with planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, and making decisions. Left is associated with positive emotions, the right is associated with negative

Bipolar I Disorder

Manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes

Phenotype

Manifestation of a given genotype as an observable trait

Style of Life

Manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority

Cultural Transmission or Cultural Learning

Manner in which a society socializes its members

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)

Mapping procedure which detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain. Relies on assumption that using a certain part of the brain increases the blood flow to that area.

Representational Thought

Marked by object permanence. Child begins to create mental representations of external objects and events

Osponized

Marked with an antibody from a B-cell

Conflict Theory

Marx. Focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order

Persona

Mask that we wear in public. Way we present ourselves to the world. Adaptive to our social interactions.

Conformity

Matching one's beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors to societal norms. Also known as majority influences.

Artifacts

Material items that they make, possess, and value

Inbreeding

Mating between two genetically related individuals

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells

Avoidance Learning

Meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that is yet to happen

Inclusive Fitness

Measure of an organism's success in the population. Based on the number of offspring, success in offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others. Includes altruistic values

Neuroticism

Measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations

Psychoticism

Measure of nonconformity of social deviance

Extraversion

Measure of tolerance for social interaction

Hematocrit

Measurement of how much of the blood sample consists of red blood cells.

Sphygmomanometer

Measures blood pressure or the force per unit area exerted on the wall of the blood vessels. Normal blood pressure is between 90/60 and 120/80. Higher blood pressure lower bloodflow

Spirometer

Measures lung capacity and volume

Social Readjustment Rating Scale

Measures stress levels in life change units.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Membrane bound channels in the cytoplasm that transport proteins and lipids to various parts of the cell. Series of interconnected membranes that are actually contiguous with the nuclear envelope.

Archenteron

Membrane invagination into the blastocoel. Eventually forms the gut

Lysosomes

Membrane-bound structures containing hydrolytic enzymes that are capable of breaking down many different substrates.

Round Window

Membrane-covered hoe in the cochlea that permits the perilymph to actually move within the cochlea.

Retrograde Amnesia

Memory loss of events before brain injury

Chunking

Memory tricks that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning

Cretinism

Mental retardation or a developmental delay often caused by a deficiency in Thyroid hormones

Cognitive Process Dream Theory

Merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness.

Angiotensin I

Metabolized by angiotensin-converting enzyme in the lungs to form angiotensin II

Inferior and Superior Colliculi

Midbrain. Sensorimotor reflexes

Mesoderm

Middle layer. Develops into several different systems including the musculoskeletal, circulatory, and most of the excretory systems. Also gives rise to the gonads as well as the muscular and connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems and the adrenal cortex. Adrenal cortex

Threshold

Minimum amount of stimulus that renders a difference in perception.

Difference Threshold (Just-notable difference [jnd])

Minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum intensity at which a stimulus will be transduced (converted into action potentials). Sensation threshold.

Sarcoplasm

Modified cytoplasm located just outside the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Serotonin

Monoamine. Though to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming. Plays a role in depression (too little) and mania (too much).

Osteoclasts

Monocytes in bone. Chew bone

Langerhans Cells

Monocytes in the skin. Special microphages that reside within stratum spinosum. Capable of presenting antigens to T-cells in order to activate the immune system

Major Depressive Disorder

Mood disorder characterized by at least one major depressive episode

Negative Sense Single-Stranded RNA Viruses

More complicated. Require synthesis of an RNA strand complementary to the negative-sense RNA strand, which can then be used as a template for protein synthesis. Must carry an RNA replicase in the virion to ensure that the complementary strand is synthesized

Suppression

More deliberate, conscious form of forgetting.

Founder Effect

More extreme case of genetic drift in which a small population of a species finds itself in reproductive isolation from other populations as a result of natural barriers, catastrophic events, or other bottlenecks that drastically and suddenly reduce the size of the population available for breeding

Prolactin

More important in females. Stimulates milk production in the mammary glands. Comes from Anterior Pituitary. Peptide.

Crystallized Intelligence

More related to use of learned skills and knowledge. Peaks in middle adulthood.

Molecular Model Clock

More similar the genomes, the more recently the two species separated from each other

Codominance

More than one dominant allele exists for a given gene

High Penetrance

Most but not all of those with the allele show symptoms of the disease

Child Abuse

Most commonly manifests as neglect, although physical, sexual and psychological abuse are also common

Neutrophils

Most populous leukocyte in blood and are very short-lived. They are phagocytic and target bacteria. Use chemotaxis to follow bacteria.

Recency Effect

Most recent information is the most important in our impressions

Auditory Pathways

Most sound information passes through the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brainstem, where it ascends to the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus. From there it projects to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe for sound processing. Some information is sent to the superior olive which localizes the sound and the inferior colliculus which is involved in the startle reflex and helps keep the eyes fixed on a point.

Multipotent

Most specialized stem cells. Can differentiate into multiple types of cells within a particular group.

Drive Reduction Theory

Motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation that comes from within oneself

Needs

Motivators that influence human behavior

Wernicke's (Receptive) Aphasia

Motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension is lost.

Emigration

Movement away from a geographic space

Immigration

Movement into a new geographic space

Reabsorption

Movement of solutes from filtrate to blood.

Abductor

Moves a part away from the midline of the body

Adductor

Moves a part toward the midline

Secularizes

Moving of the world dominated by religion toward rationality and science

Brown Fat

Much less efficient electron transport chain, so more heat is released as fuel is burned. More common in infants.

Automatic Processing

Much of the information that we gain is passively absorbed from the environment.

Mucociliary Escalator

Mucus traps particulate matter and larger invaders. Underlying cilia then propel the mucus up the respiratory tract to the oral cavity where it can be expelled or swallowed.

Follicles

Multilayered sacs that contain, nourish, and protect immature ova

Stratified Epithelia

Multiple layers of cells

Nerve

Multiple neurons bundled together

Temporal Summation

Multiple signals are integrated during a relatively short period of time

Synergistic

Muscles working together to accomplish the same function.

Detrusor Muscle

Muscular lining of the bladder.

Lower Esophageal Sphincter

Muscular ring that relaxes and opens to allow the passage of food to the stomach

Esophagus

Muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach. Top third is composed of skeletal muscle and is under somatic motor control, the bottom third is composed of smooth muscle is under autonomic nervous control, and the middle third is a mix of both.

Depressive Disorders

Must meet certain severity an duration required for diagnosis. Markers include: -Abnormally high glucose metabolism -Hippocampal atrophy -High levels of cortisol -Decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine

Sex-Linked

Mutations in sex cells.

Retrieval

Name given to the process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained.

Vibrissae

Nasal hairs. Help filter

Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)

Natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising when an ESS is adopted by a given population.

Polymorphisms

Naturally occurring differences in form between members of the same population

Approach-approach

Need to choose between two desirable options

Avoidance-Avoidance

Need to choose between two negative options

Push Factors

Negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave

Cell Cycle

Specific series of phases during which a cell grows, synthesizes DNA, and divides. Consists of four stages: G1, S, G2, and M.

Niches

Specific ways of life, including habitat location and utilization of resources

Broca's (Expressive) Aphasia

Speech comprehension is intact but the patient will have a reduced ability to produce spoken language

Sympathetic Signals

Speed up the heart rate and increase the contractility of cardiac muscle

Gametes

Sperm or ovum; a cell that has half the number of chromosomes of a somatic cell and can fuse with another gamete to form a zygote

Ejaculation

Sperm travels through the vas deferens to the ejaculatory duct at the posterior edge of the prostate gland

Mature Sperm Development

Spermatogonium -> 1st degree spermatocyte -> 2nd degree spermatocyte -> spermatid -> spermatozoan

Cocci

Spherical bacteria

Spirilli

Spiral-shaped bacteria

Cochlea

Spiral-shaped organ divided into three parts called scalae. Sound entering the cochlea causes vibrations in perilymph which are transmitted to the basilar membrane. Tonotopically organized

Domestic Violence

Spousal abuse. Seen across all social classes and can include not only physical violence, but sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and financial abuse

Cultural Diffusion

Spread of norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture

Paracellularly

Squeezing between cells

Latency

Stage when libido is sublimated. Lasts until puberty

Non-rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep

Stages 1 through 4

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Standardized test to measure intelligence

Asters

Star-shaped structures that form around the centrosome during mitosis. Formed of microtubules that anchor the centrioles to the cell membrane

Formal Operational Stage

Starts around 11 years of age and is marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas. Marked by the ability to reason about abstract concepts and problem-solve.

Contraction Initiation

Starts at the neuromuscular junction, where the nervous system communicates with muscles via motor (efferent) neurons. The signal travels down the neuron until it reaches the nerve terminal (synaptic bouton) where acetylcholine is released into the synapse. The nerve terminal can also be called the motor end plate. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the sarcolemma causing depolarization. Each nerve terminal controls a group of myocytes; the nerve terminal and its myocytes constitute a motor unit. Depolarization triggers an action potential, which spreads down the sarcolemma to the T-tubules.The T-tubules travel into the muscle tissues to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ca²⁺ is ultimately released. Calcium ions bind to a regulatory subunit in troponin which triggers a change in the confirmation of tropomyosin to which troponin is bound. This change exposes the myosin-binding sites on the actin thin filament.

Deductive (top-down) Reasoning

Starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given.

Sinoatrial (SA) Node

Starts the spread of depolarization to the Atrioventricular (AV) Node

Stage 1

Starts when you sleep. Appears as theta waves in EEG. Irregular waveforms with slower frequencies appear on the EEG

Androgyny

State of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine

Alertness

State of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think. Able to perceive, process, access information, and express it verbally. Higher cortisol levels

Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion (Cognitive Arousal Theory) or (Two-Factor Theory)

States that both arousal and the labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced. Requires an environmental reaction. Nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal -> Conscious emotion

Arousal Theory

States that people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase arousal when it falls below optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above optimal level

Mendel's Second Law (Independent Assortment)

States that the inheritance of one allele has no effect on the likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes. Displayed in prophase I

Duplexity (Duplicity) Theory of Vision

States that the retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors: those specialized for light-and-dark detection, and those specialized for color

Biometric Techniques

Statistical analysis of biological data

Demographics

Statistics of populations and are the mathematical applications of sociology

Master Status

Status by which a person is most identified. Most important status the individual holds and affects all aspects of that person's life. Pervasive

Achieved Status

Status that is gained as a result of one's efforts or choices

Memory B-Cells

Stay in the lymph node, awaiting reexposure to the same antigen

Complete Regeneration

Stem cells migrate to the necessary part of the body to initiate regrowth

Cortisol

Steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex. Levels slowly increase during early morning because increasing light causes the release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus. CRF causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary which stimulates cortisol release.

Aldosterone

Steroid hormone that is secreted by the adrenal cortex in response to decreased blood pressure.

Glucocorticoids

Steroid hormones that regulate glucose levels. Two examples are cortisol and cortisone which raise blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis. Decrease protein synthesis and are anti inflammatory. Comes from the adrenal cortex.

Ecstasy

Stimulant that acts as a hallucinogen and amphetamine. Causes increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia. Causes feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, and sense of well-being

Amphetamines

Stimulant. Cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Increased heart rate and blood pressure. Causes euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia.

Cocaine

Stimulant. Originates from the coca plant. Decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.

Erythropoitetin

Stimulates bone marrow to increase production of erythrocytes (red blood cells). Secreted in response to low oxygen levels.Comes from kidneys. Peptide.

Andrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Stimulates the adrenal cortex to synthesize and secrete glucocorticoids. Comes from Anterior Pituitary. Peptide.

Neutral Stimuli

Stimuli that do not produce a reflexive response

Gastrointestinal Tract

Stomach has acid that eliminates most pathogens. There are also many bacteria in the gut which makes it hard for competing bacteria to survive

Glycogen

Storage form of glucose

Emotional Memory (Unconscious (Implicit) memory)

Storage of the actual feelings of emotion associated with an event.

Osteons

Structural units that contain concentric circles of bony matrix called lamellae surrounding a central microscopic channel.

Morphology

Structure of words.

Amygdala

Structure that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors like fear and rage. Small round structure that signals the cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions. Processes the environment, detects external cues, and learns from the person's surroundings. Part responsible for associating stimuli and their corresponding rewards or punishments.

Thoracic Cavity

Structure which is specially designed to perform breathing

Flagella

Structures involved in movement of the cell itself. Long whiplike structures that can be used for propulsion. Composed of a filament, basal body, and a hook. The filament is a hollow, helical structure composed of flagellin.

Neuropsychology

Study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.

Functionalism (Functional Analysis)

Study of the structure and function of each part of society

Symbolic Interactionism

Study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols.

Counterculture

Subculture group gravitates toward the identity that is at odds with the majority culture.

Epidermis

Subdivided into layers called strata. Deepest to outward: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum

Correct Negatives

Subject correctly identifies that no signal was given

Cognitive Appraisal

Subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress. Has two stages primary and secondary

Emotion

Subjective experience of a person in a certain situation. Often influences how a person thinks and makes decisions. Natural instinctive state of mind derived from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others. Has three elements: -Physiological Response -Behavioral Response -Cognitive Response

Cognitive Response

Subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced.

Episomes

Subset of plasmids capable of integrating into the genome of the bacterium.

Antigen

Substance that can be targeted by an antibody

Mutagens

Substances that can cause mutations

Teratogens

Substances that interfere with development, causing defects or even death. Genetics of the individual embryo influences the effects of the teratogen.The route of exposure, length of exposure, rate of placental transmission and the identity of the teratogen also play a role. Include alcohol

Osmotic Pressure

Sucking pressure generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water into the bloodstream. Dependent on the number of particles dissolved in the plasma

Dissociative Fugue

Sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily activities

Whorfian Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis)

Suggests that our preception of reality-the way we think about the world- is determined by the context of language. Language affects the way we think.

Stroma

Support structure.

Yolk Sac

Supports the embryo. Site of early blood cell development. The remnants of the yolk sac ultimately form the umbilical cord

Visceral Pleura

Surface adjacent to the lung

Rh Factor

Surface protein expressed on red blood cells. Refers to the absence or presence of a specific allele called D.

Antigens

Surface proteins expressed on red blood cells. It is a target to which the immune system can react

Trophoblast Cells

Surround the blastocoel and give rise to the chorion and later the placenta

Envelope of Viruses

Surrounds the capsid and is composed of phospholipids and virus-specific proteins. It is very sensitive to heat, detergents, and desiccation; thus, enveloped viruses are easier to kill. Viruses with an envelope are more resistant to sterilization and are more likely to persist on surfaces for an extended period of time

Zona Pellucida

Surrounds the oocyte and is an acellular mix of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and contain compounds necessary for sperm cell binding

Perilymph

Suspends the membranous labyrinth within the bony labyrinth

Culture Lag

Symbolic culture is usually slower to change than material culture

Reverse Trasncriptase

Synthesizes DNA from single-stranded RNA

Social Structure

System of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships

Functionalism

System of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments

Dictatorship

System where a single person holds power, and usually includes mechanism to quell threats to this power

Theocracy

System where power is held by religious leaders

Adaptive Immunity (Specific Immunity)

Target a specific pathogen. Slower to act. Can maintain immunological memory of an infection to mount a faster attack in subsequent infections

Unconditional Positive Regard

Technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment

Interaction Process Analysis

Technique for observing, classifying, and measuring interactions within small groups

Linkage

Tendency for genes to be inherited together and are more likely to under crossing over relative to each other.

Group Polarization

Tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group. Can lead to riskier or more cautious decisions. Form more extreme opinions. Originally known as risky shift. Now known as choice shift at the group level because more cautious opinions can evolve. Group polarization occurs to an individual.

Social Loafing

Tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually

Response Bias

Tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors

Mental Set

Tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

Overconfidence

Tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible. Lead us to take on tasks for which we are not ready, leading to frustration, humiliation, or sometimes even personal injury.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them

Centration

Tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation

Social Facilitation

Tendency to perform better on simple tasks in the presence of others. People naturally exhibit a performance response when they know they are being watched.

Expectancy-Value Theory

The amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal

Centrosomes

The area of a chromosome where sister chromatids are joined; it is also the point of attachment to the spindle fiber during mitosis and meiosis

Delusions of Persecution

The belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened.

Delusions of Grandeur

The belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way, such as being an inventor, historical figure, or religious icon

G2 Stage: Postsynthetic Gap

The cell passes through another quality control checkpoint. Cell checks to ensure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm to divide between two daughter cells. Cell checks to make sure that DNA replication proceeded correctly to avoid passing on an error to daughter cells that may further replicate in progeny.

Responder

The cell that is induced

Envelope

The cell wall and the cell membrane

Self-Esteem

The closer the actual, ideal, and ought self are together the higher our self worth. Those with a low self esteem are far more critical of themselves.

Illusion of Invulnerability

The creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking

Oxygen Debt

The difference between the amount of oxygen needed by the muscles and the actual amount present

Vital Capacity (VC)

The difference between the minimum and maximum volume of air in the lungs (TLC-RV)

Ego-Syntonic

The individual perceives her behavior as correct with their goals

Spacing Effect

The longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

The maximum volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely; usually around 6 to 7 liters

Residual Volume (RV)

The minimum volume of air in the lungs when one exhales completely

Primary Drives

The need for food, water, and warmth, motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis

Cell Wall

The outer barrier of the cell. Provides structure and controls the movement of solutes into and out of the bacterium. Allows the cell to maintain concentration gradients relative to the environment. There are two types of cell walls -Gram Positive -Gram Negative

Keratinocytes

The predominant cells of the skin that produce keratin

Extracellular Digestion

The process by which these nutrients are obtained from food occurs within the lumen of the alimentary canal and is

Self-Antigens

The proteins and carbohydrates present on the surface of every cell of the body

Shivering

The rapid contraction of skeletal muscle. Requires a lot of ATP. Much of this ATP is converted into thermal energy.

Hits

The subject correctly perceives the signal

Misses

The subject fails to perceive a given signal

False Alarms

The subject seems to perceive a signal when none was given

Cytoplasmic or Extranuclear Inheritance

The transmission of genetic material independent of the nucleus.

Lysogenic Cycle

The virus does not lyse the bacterium, it may integrate into the host genome as a provirus of prophage. The virus will be replicated as the bacterium reproduces because it is now a part of the host's genome. Environmental factors will cause the provirus to leave the genome, which allows transduction of genes from one bacterium to another.

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

The volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

The volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled a normal inhalation

Tidal Volume (TV)

The volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath

Learning

The way in which we acquire new behaviors

Natural Selection

Theory that certain characteristics or traits possessed by individuals within a species may help those individuals to have greater reproductive success, thus passing on those traits

Implicit Personality Theory

There are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related

Weber's Law

There is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a just noticeable difference and the magnitude of the original stimulus

Monosynaptic Reflex Arc

There is a single synapse between the sensory neuron that receives the stimulus and the motor neuron that responds to it

Gate Theory of Pain

There is a special gating mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off

Negative Reinforcers

They increase the frequency of a behavior but do so by removing something unpleasant. Ex. Aspirin

Pathogens or Parasites

They provide no advantage or benefit to the host, but rather cause disease

Archaea and Eukaryote Similarities

They start translation with methionine, contain similar RNA polymerases and associate their DNA with histones.

Extremophiles

They were most commonly isolated from harsh environments with extremely high temperatures, high salinity, or no light

Meninges

Thick sheath of connective tissue that covers the brain. Helps protect the brain and keeps it anchored within the skull, and resorbs the cerebrospinal fluid. Composed of three layers: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater.

Sclera

Thick structural layer that covers the exposed position of the eye. The white of the eye. Does not cover the frontmost portion of the eye

Amnion

Thin tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid that serves as a shock absorber during pregnancy which lessens the impact of maternal motion.

Diaphragm

Thin, muscular structure that divides the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. Under somatic control.

Atria

Thin-walled structures where blood is received from either the venae cavae (deoxygenated blood entering the right heart) or the pulmonary vein (oxygenated blood entering the left heart)

Symbols

Things to which we attach meaning, and are key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another

Paternalistic Stereotypes

Those in which the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed or ignored. High warmth and low competence

Envious Stereotypes

Those in which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust. Low warmth and high competence

Admiration Stereotypes

Those in which the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings. High warmth and high competence

Contemptuous Stereotypes

Those in which the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger. Low warmth and low competence

Situational (External) Attributions

Those that relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure

Dispositional (Internal) Attributions

Those that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics

Carl Jung

Thought of libido as psychic energy. Identified the ego as the conscious mind, and divided the unconscious into two parts: the personal unconscious (similar to Freud's) and the collective unconscious

Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex

Thought to play a substantial role in decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala

Unconscious

Thoughts that we have repressed

Preconscious

Thoughts we aren't currently aware of

Triads

Three member groups

Codons

Three-letter sequences

Latent period

Time between reaching threshold and the onset of contraction. Action potential spreads along the muscle and allows for calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. After this period the twitch is completed when the muscle then contracts and relaxes once calcium is cleared from the sarcoplasm.

Sensitive Period

Time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability

Canaliculi

Tiny channels that interconnect the lacunae. Allows for the exchange of nutrients and wastes between osteocytes and the Haversian and Volkmann;s canals

Calcitonin

Tones down calcium levels in the blood. Produced by C-cells. Acts to decrease plasma calcium levels in three ways: increased calcium excretion from the kidneys, decreased calcium absorption from the gut, and increased storage of calcium in the bone. High levels of calcium in the blood stimulate secretion of calcitonin from the C-cells. Comes from the Thyroid. Peptide. Promotes bone formation.

Cerebellum

Top of the hindbrain. Refined motor movements. Structure that helps maintain posture and balance and coordinate body movements

Cardiac Output

Total blood volume pumped by a ventricle in a minute. Product of heart rate and stroke volume. CO=HR x SV

Crude Rate

Total rate for a population

Pluripotent

Totipotent stem cells that started to differentiate into three germ cell layers. Can differentiate into any cell type except for those found in the placental structures

Somatosensation

Touch. Pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature.

Esteem Support

Touches more directly on affirming the qualities and skills of a person

Virulence Factors

Traits that increase how pathogenic a bacterium is, such as toxin production, projections that allow the bacterium to attach to certain kinds of cells, or evasion of the host's immune system

Displacement

Transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another.

Sublimation

Transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors.

Translation and Progeny Assembly

Translation must occur in order for the virus to reproduce. Requires translocation of the genetic material to the correct location in the cell. Most DNA viruses must go to the nucleus in order to be transcribed to mRNA. mRNA then goes to the cytoplasm where it is translated to proteins. Positive-sense RNA viruses stay in the cytoplasm where it is directly translated to protein by host cell ribosomes. Negative-sense RNA viruses require synthesis of a complementary RNA strand via RNA replicase which can then be translated to form proteins. DNA formed through reverse transcription can be integrated into the host genome. Viral RNA is translated into protein using the ribosomes, tRNA, amino acids, and enzymes of the host cell. Most of these proteins are structural capsid proteins which allow for the creation of new virions. The viral genome can be packaged within the capsid and must be returned to its original form before packaging. It can now invade a new cell

Action Potentials

Transmission of electrical impulses down the axon. All-or-nothing. The speed depends on the length and cross-sectional area of the axon. Longer length results in higher resistance. Greater cross-sectional area allows for decreased resistance. The cross-sectional area is a bigger factor.

Verbal Communication

Transmission of information via the use of words, whether spoken, written, or signed. Tied to nonverbal communication and is often dependent on nonverbal cues

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. Exit the cord on the way to the rest of the body.

Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)

Transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. Exit the spinal cord on their way to the rest of the body

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain. Ascend in the cord toward the brain.

Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)

Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain. Ascend the spinal cord toward the brain

Vertebral Column

Transmits nerves at the space between adjacent vertebrae

Hidden Curriculum

Transmitting social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students

Volkmann''s Canals

Transverse channels

Direct Therapy

Treatment that acts directly on the individual, such as medication

Socialist

Treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system. Profit is distributed equally to the workforce

Problem-Solving

Trial-and-error approach.

Noise Trials

Trials in which the signal is not presented

Catch Trials

Trials in which the signal is presented

Acrosomal apparatus

Tubelike structure which extends to and penetrates the cell membrane

Blastulation

Turns the morula into the blastula

Kidneys

Two bean-shaped structures located behind the digestive organs. Its functional unit is the nephron. Filter blood to form urine. Three processes: -Filtration -Secretion -Reapsorption

Recessive

Two copies are needed to express a given phenotype

Disruptive Selection

Two extreme phenotypes are selected over the norm

Dyads

Two member groups

Conjoined Twins

Two offspring are physically attached at some point.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

Two or more personalities recurrently take control of a person's behavior. Results when components of identity fail to integrate.

Universal Recipients

Type AB blood.

Universal Donors

Type O blood.

Classical Conditioning

Type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli. Works because some stimuli cause an innate or reflexive physiological response.

Network Support

Type of social support that gives a person a sense of belonging

Reaction Formation

Unconscious conversion into their exact opposites.

Intramembranous Ossification

Undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue is transformed into and and replaced by bone. Occurs in bones of the skull.

Latent Function

Unintended positive consequences on other parts of society. Often unrecognized

Recombination

Unlinks linked genes. Increases the variety of genetic combinations that can be produced via gametogenesis. Small segments of genetic material are swapped between chromatids in homologous chromosomes

Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed toward a certain body part.

Papillary Layer

Upper layer right below the epidermis. Consists of loose connective tissue.

Anaerobes

Use fermentation, or some other form of cellular metabolism that does not require oxygen. Three types exist: -Obligate anaerobes -Facultative anaerobes -Aerotolerant anaerobes

Chemical Synapses

Use small molecules called neurotransmitters to send messages from one cell to the next

Mineralocorticoids

Used in salt and water homeostasis; most profound effects are on the kidneys. An example is aldosterone which increases sodium reabsorption. Promote potassium and hydrogen excretion. Steroid. Comes from the adrenal cortex.

Impulse Propagation

Used to convey a signal to another neuron. It is the movement of an action potential from an axon that initiates a neurotransmitter release

Network

Used to describe the observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups.

Test Cross

Used to determine an unknown genotype. Organism with an unknown genotype is crossed with an organism known to be homozygous recessive.

Sanctions

Used to maintain social control and often include fines or incarceration

Availability Heuristic

Used when we try to decide how likely something is

Punishment

Uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior

Big Five

Uses dimensions of five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

Ingratiation

Using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over

Managing Appearances

Using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image

Base Rate Fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

Dominant Hemisphere

Usually the left. Primarily analytic in function

Nondominant Hemisphere

Usually the right. Associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing

Mitral or Bicuspid Valve

Valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle. LAB

Tricuspid Valve

Valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle. RAT

Pulmonary Valve

Valve that separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary circulation

Extirpation

Various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the consequences are observed

Role Set

Various roles associated with a status

Expressivity

Varying phenotypes despite identical genotypes

Countercurrent Multiplier System

Vasa recta and the nephron. Flow of filtrate is the opposite direction of the flow of blood.

Systole

Ventricular contraction and closure of the AV valves occurs and blood is pumped out of the ventricles.

Situation

Very important in developing perception

Capilaries

Vessels with a single endothelial cell layer and are so small that red blood cells must pass through the capillaries in a single-file line. Their thin walls allows easy diffusion of gases.

Eardrum (Tympanic membrane)

Vibrates in phase with incoming sound waves. Divides the outer ear from the middle ear.

Virions

Viral progeny which can be released to infect additional cells

Vector

Virus that carries genetic material from one bacterium to another

Bacteriophages

Viruses that infect bacteria. Do not enter bacteria; rather, they simply inject their genetic material, leaving the remaining structures outside the infected cell. Consist of nucleic acid, capsid, tail sheath, and tail fibers

Visual Encoding

Visual information to encode it

Stroke Volume (SV)

Volume of blood pumped per beat

Emesis

Vomiting

Zone of Proximal Deveopment

Vygotsky. Referring to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development. Requires a more knowledgeable other typically an adult.

Memory T-Cells

Wait until the next exposure to the same antigen

Na+

Wants to go into the cell because the cell is more negative inside and has a lower concentration of Na+ inside

Behavioral

Way a person acts with respect to something.

Affective

Way a person feels toward something. Emotional compnent

Cognitive

Way an individual thinks about something. Justification for the other two components

Hierarchy of Salience

Way of organizing our identities. We let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment.

Problem-Solving Dream Theory

Way to solve problems while you are sleeping.

Gestalt Principles

Ways to infer missing parts of an incomplete picture. Includes: -Proximity -Similarity -Good continuation -Subjective contours -Closure

Cognitive Neoassociation Model

We are more likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain.

Self-Reference Effect

We tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives

Synaptic Pruning

Weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information

Social Institutions

Well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture.

Values

What a person deems important in life, which dictates one's ethical principals and standards of behavior

Chromosmes

What all genes are organized into.

Conservation

When a child does not understand the concept they are unable to tell that the quantities of are equal and will focus mainly on the number of slices on the plate rather than the actual quantity

Opponent-Process Theory

When a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology.

Effector

When a neuron signals to a gland or muscle rather than another neuron

Word Salad

When a patient's speech is so disorganized that it has no structure

Disconfirmation Principle

When a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded

Law of Closure

When a space is enclosed by a contour it tends to be perceived as more complete than they really are

Spontaneous Recovery

When an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited

Identity Shift Effect

When an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms. This causes internal conflict because their behavior is outside the normal character of the individual.

Differential Reproduction

When mutation or recombination results in a change that is favorable to the organism's reproductive success, that change is more likely too pass on to the next generation; the opposite is also true

Prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF)

When released by the hypothalamus it causes a decrease in prolactin secretion. Also known as dopamine.

Conduction Aphasia

When the arcuate fasciulus is affected. Patient is unable to repeat something that has been said because the connection between Broca's and Wernicke's area has been lost.

Silent Mutations

When the change in nucleotide has no effect on the final protein synthesized from the gene. Occurs due to the degeneracy or wobble in the genetic code

Accomodation

When the ciliary muscle contracts and pulls on the suspensory ligaments and changes the shape of the lens

Extinction

When the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism becomes habituated to the conditioned stimulus

Knee-Jerk Reflex

When the patellar tendon is stretched, information travels up the sensory neuron to the spinal cord

Long-Term Potentiation

When the stimulus is repeated the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density

Arrector Pili

When these muscles contract the hairs of the skin stand up on end (piloerection). This helps to trap a layer of heated air near the skin. Arterioles that feed the capillaries of the skin constrict, limiting the quantity of blood reaching the skin.

Cocktail Party Phenomenon

When you are paying attention but can still hear your name

Nucleolus

Where Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized. 25% of the volume of the nucleus.

Nares

Where air enters the respiratory tract and passes through the nasal cavity

Compact Bone

Where bone's characteristic strength comes from. Dense and strong.

Lungs

Where gas exchange occurs. Contained in the thoracic cavity. Membranes known as pleurae surround each lung.

Stratum Spinosum

Where keratinocytes connect to each other. Site of Langerhans cells

Epididymis

Where sperm are passed on to and where the sperm flagella gain motility and are stored until ejaculation.

Characteristic Institution

Where the basic organization of society is found.

Dorsal Root Ganglia

Where the cell bodies of sensory neurons are found

Duodenum

Where the majority of the chemical digestion occurs. Contains brush-border enzymes, and secretes enteropeptidase which activates digestive enzymes.

Bone Matrix

Where the strength of compact bone comes from. Has organic and inorganic components. Organic components include collagen, glycoproteins, and other peptides. The inorganic components include calcium, phosphate, and hydroxide ions, which harden together to from hydroxyapatite crystals (Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂). Sodium, magnesium, and potassium are also stored in the bone.

Leukocytes

White Blood Cells. Comprise less than 1 percent of total blood volume. Increases during periods of infection. They are the defenders against pathogens, foreign cells, cancer, and other foreign materials. There are five types of leukocytes categorized into two classes: granulocytes and agranulocytes

Tactical Self

Who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us

Mores

Widely observed social norms

Ampulla

Widest part of the Fallopian tube. Where fertilization occurs

Renal Pelvis

Widest part of the ureter

Self-Censorship

Withholding of opposing views

Medulla

Within the cortex of the kidney.

Hippocampus

Within the temporal lobe. Vital role in learning and memory processes. Helps consolidate information to form long-term memories. Where short-term memories are housed. Helps aid in creating context for stimuli to lead to an emotional experience.

Animus

Woman's inner man

Glass Ceiling

Women are less frequently promoted in the workplace and may have more difficulty attaining top-level administrative positions

Patterns of Kinship

Words to describe family members

Jaundice

Yellowing of the skin

Stages of Development

Zygote -> 2,4,6,8,16 cell embryo -> morula -> blastula -> gastrua

Hardy-Weinberg Formulas

p+q=1 p^2+2pq+q^2=1

Acidemia

pH is lower and hydrogen ion concentration is higher