MCAT Prep
Menarche
1st menstrual cycle
Mitosis
2 identical cells created from a single cell
G1 Stage (pre-synthetic gap)
Cells create organelles for energy and protein production. increase their size must pass restriction point
Crossing Over
Chromatids of homologous chromosomes break at the chiasma and exchange pieces of DNA occurs b/w homologous chromosomes not sister chromatids allows each daughter cell to have a unique pool of alleles
Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity
Enzyme-catalyzed rxns double in velocity for every 10C increase in Temp. until optimum temp. is reached after this, activity decreases b/c enzyme denatures at higher temp.
oogenesis
Production of female gametes
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
physical interaction b/w enzyme & substrate
Prosthetic groups
tightly bound cofactors needed for enzyme function
Equipotential Line
*potential at every point is the same *potential difference b/w any 2 points on EP line is zero *look like concentric circles surrounding the source charge *No work is done when moving a test charge q from one point on an EP contour line to another point *Work is done when q from one line to another --> work depends only on potential difference of the 2 lines not on the pathway taken b/w them
Ionic Radii
*radius of the ion *metals lose e- so their radius gets smaller compared to atomic radius of neutral species (form cations) *Nonmetals gain e- forming anions so their e- cloud gets bigger --> larger ionic radius
Self-schema
*self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities *Ex: athlete self-schema carries qualities of youth, physical fitness, dressing & acting in certain ways
Metalloids
*semi-metals -form staircase in periodic table (boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, polonium, astatine) -their reactivities depend on the element w/ which they are reacting --> behave like metal when reacting w/ nonmetal
Enantiomer
*stereoisomers that are non-identical, non-superimposable mirror images of each other *Any molecule that contains chiral carbons and no internal place of symmetry has an enantiomer *Have opposite absolute configurations (biochemists use D and L but organic chemists use R/S) *same sugars but in different optical families (D-glucose and L-glucose)
Epimer
*subtype of diatereomers *differ in configuration at exactly one chiral carbon
Weber's Law
*there is a constant ratio b/w the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd and the magnitude of the original stimulus *ex: jnd-3Hz, original- 40Hz quantified as 3/40 = 0.68%
Glucagon
--peptide hormone -secreted by alpha cells of pancreas -secreted during times of fasting (glucose is gone) - when glucose levels are low, secretion of glucagon stimulates degradation of protein and fat, conversion of glycogen to glucose, and production of new glucose through gluconeogenesis -when glucose is high, glucagon release is inhibited
sp
*one p orbital combines with 1 s orbital *50% s character and 50% p character *oriented 180 apart * linear structure * have 2 un-hybridized p orbitals used to form 2 π bonds *if it has a triple bond, it must be sp hybridized
sp2
*one s-orbital mixed w/ 2 p-orbitals * 33% s character and 67% p character *oriented 120 degrees apart *the 3rd p orbital is unhybridized and participates in a π bond * trigonal planar geometry *molecules bonded via double bond are sp2
Endolymph
*potassium-rich fluid that bathes the membranous labyrinth in inner ear
Self-discrepancy theory
- each of us has 3 selves -the closer these selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem -Actual self: the way we see ourselves as we currently are -Ideal self: person we would like to be -Ought self: representation of the way others think we should be
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
- endocrine hormone (peptide) -released by heart when cells in atria are stretched from excess blood volume - regulates salt and water balance -promotes excretion of sodium and increases urine volume - lowers blood pressure
hyperglycemia (diabetes mellitus)
- excess glucose in the blood caused by underproduction, insufficient secretion, or insensitivity to insulin -excessive glucose in kidneys overwhelms the nephron's ability to reabsorb glucose resulting in its presence in the urine -presence of glucose in filtrate leads to excess excretion of water & an increase in urine volume -diabetics have polyuria (increased freq. of urination) and polydipsia (increased thirst)
Kholberg's Moral Reasoning Theory
- focuses on development of moral thinking -as our cognitive abilities grow, we think about world in more complex ways which affects how we think about moral dilemmas -3 phases *preconventional morality * conventional morality *Post-conventional morality
Foramen Ovale
-Fetal shunt that bypasses lung -1 way valve that connects right atrium to left atrium -allows blood entering the right atrium to flow into the left atrium (rather than the right ventricle) -causes the blood to be pumped through the aorta into systemic circulation directly
Cleavage
- zygote undergoes rapid mitotic cell divisions as it moves from fallopian tubes to uterus for implantation
Law of Conservation of Mass and Charge
-# of atoms of each element on the reactant side must equal the number of atoms of that element on the product side
Equivalent Weight
-# of molecules of the thing we are interested in (protons, hydroxide ions, e-, ions) produced by one mole of a given compound - ex: Na donates 1 mole of e- (1 equivalent) but Mg donates 2 moles of e- (2 equivalents)
Ductus Arteriosus
-Fetal shunt that bypasses lung -shunts leftover blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta & into systemic circulation
Blood type A
-Genotype: I^AI^A or I^Ai -recognizes type A protein as self (produces antigen A) -produces anti-bodies for B (recognizes B and AB as foreign) -can donate to A and AB -can receive from A and O
Blood type B
-Genotype: I^BI^B or I^Bi -Recognizes type B protein as self (produces antigen B) -Produces antibodies for A (recognizes A and AB as foreign) -Can donate to B and AB -can receive from B and O
Universal Emotions
-Happiness: smile, wrinkling around eyes, raised cheeks -Sadness: frown, inner eyebrows pulled up and together -Contempt: one corner of the mouth pulled upwards -Surprise: eyes widen, eyebrows are pulled up and curved, jaw opens -Fear: eyes widen, eyebrows pulled up and together -Disgust: nose wrinkling, raising of upper lip -Anger: eyebrows pulled down and together, lips pressed together
Motor Proteins
-Have enzymatic activity - act as ATPases that power the conformational change needed for motor function -have transient interactions with actin or microtubules
Vitamin K
-Koagulation -involved in post-translational modifications that form prothrombin (important clotting factor) -required to introduce calcium-binding sites on several calcium dependent proteins
From optic chiasm info goes to many places in brain
-Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus (for light) -Visual cortex in occipital lobe -Superior colliculus
Imine Formation
-Nitrogen and nitrogen-based groups are good nucleophiles b/c there is a lone pair of e- on N which react w/ electrophilic carbonyls of aldehydes and ketones -Ammonia adds to the carbon atom & water is lost producing an imine *NH3 reacts with carbon forming a tetrahedral and breaking the pi bond *the e- from the pi bond are accepted by the O in carbonyl group *2 of the H from NH3 react with O to form water (leaves) *NH is left double bonded to C
Regulation of Neurotransmitters
-Nts can be broken down by enzymatic reactions *ex: acetylcholinesterase breaks down Acetylcholine -Nts can be brought back into the presynaptic neuron using reuptake carriers * ex: serotonin can be taken back -Nts can simply diffuse out the synaptic cleft *ex: nitric oxide (NO)
Types of Hormones
-Peptide Hormones -Steroid Hormones -Amino Acid Derivative Hormones
Trajectory of Sound
-Pinna --external auditory canal -- tympanic membrane --malleus -- incus -- stapes -- oval window -- perilymph in cochlea -- basilar membrane -- hair cells -- vestibulocochlear nerve -- brainstem -- MGN -- auditory cortex
Coping w/ stress
-Problem focused strategies: working to overcome stressor like reaching out to family for social support, confronting the issue -Emotionally focused strategies: changing one's feelings about stressor such as distancing yourself from the issue or using positive reappraisal to focus on + outcomes instead of the stressor
cells of the retina
-Rods and cones connect w/ bipolar cells - bipolar cells connect w/ ganglion cells -ganglion cells group together to form the optic nerve
Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction
-SN1 and SN2 -nucleophile forms a bond with a carbon and a leaving group leaves
Jean Piaget
-Said that infants learn mainly through instinctual interaction w/ the environment -organize patterns of behavior and thought into schemata -Schema: concept, behavior, or sequence of events -cognitive development is divided into 4 stages -passage through each of these stages is a continuous & sequential process - completion of each stage prepares person for stage that follows -sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
Circulatory system is under autonomic control
-Sympathetic signals speed up the heart rate & increase the contractility of cardiac muscle -Parasympathetic signals (provided by vagus nerve) slow it down
Taste Trajectory
-Taste info travels from taste buds to brainstem - ascends to taste center in thalamus -higher order brain regions
Continuity Equation
-The rate at which a given volume of fluid passes by one point is the same for all other points in the closed system Q = A1v1 = A2v2 -fluid flows more quickly (higher speeds) through narrow passages and more slowly through wider ones
Information Processing Model
-Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli -Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain to be useful in decision-making -Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated & adjusted to help solve new problems -Problem solving depends on context and complexity of the problem
Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia
-Wernicke's area is damaged -motor production and fluency of speech is retained -comprehension of speech is lost
Oxidation of Aldehydes
-When aldehydes are further oxidized, they form carboxylic acids (any oxidizing agent stronger than PCC) -ketones cannot be oxidized further
Hemiketal or Hemiacetal Formation
-When an alcohol is added to an aldehyde or ketone, a hemiacetal or hemiketal is formed *alcohol (ROH) is a nucleophile that has e- attached to its O so it is attracted to the partial + charge on the carbonyl carbon) *ROH reacts w/ the carbonyl carbon forming a tetrahedral and breaking the pi bond * the e- from the pi bond are accepted by O * O becomes - charged so it reacts w/ the H of the ROH
Phonology
-actual sound of language -Children learn to produce and recognize sounds of language separating them from environmental noises and other human created sounds like coughing -Must learn when subtle differences represent a change in meaning (categorical perception)
Summation
-additive effect of multiple signals -A postsynaptic neuron may receive info from several different presynaptic neurons (some inhibitory and some excitatory)
Spatial summation
-additive effects based on the number of location of incoming signals ex: large # of inhibitory signals firing directly on the soma cause profound hyperpolarization
Positive Punishment
-adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce the behavior (thief arrested for stealing meant to stop him from stealing again)
Schachter-Singer Theory (cognitive arousal theory)
-both arousal and the labeling of arousal based on environment must occur for an emotion to be experienced -To feel an emotion, you need to consciously analyze the environment in relation to nervous system arousal
Bottom-Up Processing
-brain takes the individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is
Hypothalamus (endocrine system)
-bridge b/w nervous and endocrine systems -releases tropic hormones -Located above pituitary gland -close proximity allows hypothalamus to control pituitary gland through paracrine release of hormones into hypophyseal portal system -Hormones released from hypothalamus into this portal bloodstream travel down the pituitary stalk & bind to receptors in anterior pituitary stimulating release of other hormones -Release of hormones by hypothalamus is regulated by negative feedback
Non-metals
-brittle -little or no metallic luster -high electronegativities -poor conductors of electricity (don't easily give up e-)
Cortical Reaction
-calcium ion released after penetration of sperm into egg -calcium ions depolarize the membrane of the ovum -prevents fertilization of ovum by multiple sperm cells
Poiseuille's law
-calculates rate of flow through a pipe of confined space (laminar flow) Q= (πr^4 ∆P)/8ηL η: viscosity of the fluid Q: flow rate (volume flowing per time) ΔP: pressure gradient r: radius of tube L: length of tube
Protic Solvents
-can hydrogen bond - ex: carboxylic acids, amines, ammonia, water, alcohol
Reversible Reactions
-can proceed in either forward or reverse directions •Forward: toward the products or to the right -Reverse: toward the reactants or to the left •don't proceed to completion b/c products can react together to reform reactants
Depth perception
-can rely on both monocular or binocular cues
Aprotic Solvents
-can't H bond -acetone, dimethylformamide
Capacitors in Parallel
-capacitances add to yield equivalent capacitance -equivalent capacitance increases as more capacitors are added in parallel - same voltage across each parallel capacitor *Cequiv = C1 + C2 + ...
Glycogen
-carbohydrate storage unit in animals -has α-1,6 glycosidic bonds (1 for every 10 glucose molecules while amylopectin has 1 for every 25) -highly branched which optimizes energy efficiency and makes it more soluble
Most reactive centers of carbonyl containing compounds
-carbonyl carbon (electrophilic) and α-hydrogens (acidic)
Anhydrides
-carboxylic acid derivative -had water molecule removed during formation -formed from 2 carboxylic acid molecules -named by replacing acid with anhydride in the name of the carboxylic acid if anhydride is formed from only 1 type of carboxylic acid -if anhydride is not symmetrical, both carboxylic acids are named before the anhydride is added to the name (ex: ethanoic propanoic anhydride) ex: pentanoic acid becomes pentanoic anhydride
Amide
-carboxylic acid derivative -hydroxyl group replaced by an amino group (contains N) -oic acid is replaced with -amide
Ganglioside
-complex sphingolipid -glycolipid that have polar head groups composed of oligosaccharides with one or more N-acetylneuraminic acid (NANA; sialic acid) at the terminus and a negative charge -glycosidic linkage -no phosphate group
Triacylglycerols
-composed of 3 fatty acids bonded by ester linkages to glycerol - nonpolar and hydrophobic -used for energy storage -more reduced than carbohydrates --> oxidation of TAG yields twice more energy -stored as fat globules in adipose tissue
Hyperthyroidism
-excess of thyroid hormone due to tumor or thyroid overstimulation -leads to increased body temp., increased respiratory & heart rate, increased activity levels
- ΔG
-exergonic - energy given off
Opponent Process Theory
-explains motivation for drug use - when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body attempts to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology leading to tolerance (decreased in perceived drug effect over time) and withdrawal symptoms
Second Trimester
-fetus undergoes a lot of growth - face takes on human appearance - toes and fingers elongate -moves within amniotic fluid -30-36 cm long
Intermediate Filaments
-filamentous proteins -withstand great amount of tension (like springs in mattress) -provide structural support for cell
Blood type AB
-genotype for AB: I^AI^B -universal recipient -can receive from all blood types (doesn't produce antibodies so it doesn't recognize any blood antigen as foreign) -produces A and B antigens so it can donate to AB only
Empirical Formula
-gives simplest whole-number ratio of the elements in the compound
Molecular Formula
-gives the exact # of atoms of each element in the compound - multiple of the empirical formula
Inducers
-growth factors - peptides that promote differentiation & mitosis in certain tissues -function only on specific cell types or in certain areas
Ecstasy
-hallucinogen combined w/ amphetamine -increased heart rate and blood pressure -blurry vision, sweating, nausea - euphoria & increases alertness -overwhelming sense of well-being & connectedness
Unsaturated Fatty Acid Tails
-has 1 or more double bonds -double bonds introduce kinks in the chain making it difficult for them to stack & solidify -liquids at room temperature
p-orbital
-has 2 lobes located symmetrically about the nucleus - dumbbell oriented along the x, y, and z axis -contains a node
Combination Reaction
-has 2 or more reactants forming one product (A+B --> C)
Self-concept
-internal list of answers to the question Who am I? -includes our appraisal of who we used to be and who we will become (our past & future selves)
DNA Topoisomerases
-introduce negative supercoils to alleviate torsional strain produced by the + supercoiling created when helicase unwinds DNA and to reduce risk of strand breakage -Create nicks on the strands to allow relaxation of torsional pressure and then reseal the cut strands
Monocular cues
-involve 1 eye -relative size of object, convergence of parallel lines, position of object in visual field, lighting
Binocular cues
-involve both eyes -slight differences in images projected on both retinas & the angle required b/w both eyes to bring object into focus
Allantois
-involved in early fluid exchange b/w embryo & yolk sac (umbilical cord forms from remnants of yolk sac & allantois)
Combustion Reaction
-involves a fuel (hydrocarbon) and an oxidant (oxygen) -typically a hydrocarbon combines with oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water
Representativeness Heuristic
-involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category
Weak Electrolyte
-ionizes or hydrolyzes incompletely in aqueous solution (weak acids and bases)
Rationalization
-justification of attitudes, beliefs or behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to self & society
Memory
-knowledge accumulated over lifetime -formation of memories is divided into 3 processes
Prokaryotic Cells
-lack nucleus -lack membrane bound organelles -single celled organisms -no nuclear envelope -DNA is carried in single circular chromosomes -asexual reproduction (binary fission)
Cellulose
-main structural component of plants -homopolysaccharide -chain of β-D glucose molecules linked by β-1, 4 glycosidic bonds - humans lack cellulase (enzyme that hydrolyzes cellulose to glucose monomers) so they can't digest cellulose
Myelin
-maintains electrical signal within one neuron -increases speed of conduction -produced by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schawnn cells in PNS
First Trimester
-major organs begin to develop -heart begins to beat at 22 days - cartilaginous skeleton begins to harden into bone by 7th week - embryo becomes fetus -9 cm long
Blastocyst
-mammalian blastula - consists of the trophoblast & inner cell mass
Secondary Circular Reactions
-manipulation is focused on something outside the body - ex: repeatedly throwing toys -behavior is repeated b/c child gets a response from environment
Molar Mass
-mass of 1 mole of a compound (g/mol)
Avoidance Learning
-meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen (studying to avoid unpleasantness of poor score on MCAT)
Olfactory Pathway
-molecules inhaled into nasal passages -contact olfactory nerves in olfactory epithelium -receptor cells activated -signal is sent to olfactory bulb -signals relayed to higher regions of brain via olfactory tract
Morphocells
-molecules that may cause nearby cells to follow a particular developmental pathway
Amphoteric Molecules
-molecules w/ ability to act as either bronsted-lowry acids or bases
Secondary Drives
-motivate us to fulfill non-biological (emotional) desires
Primary Drives
-motivate us to sustain necessary biological processes (maintain homeostasis) -need for water, food, and warmth
Extrinsic Motivation
-motivation that comes from outside yourself (external forces) -includes rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if desired behavior is not achieved -Result in external, tangible rewards
Intrinsic Motivation
-motivation that comes from within yourself -can be driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment -View of motivation include instincts that elicit natural behaviors, the desire to maintain optimal levels of arousal, the drive to reduce uncomfortable states, and the goal of satisfying physiological & psychological needs
Myosin
-motor protein that interacts w/ actin -thick filament in myofibril -involved in cellular transport -composed of head & neck -neck movement causes power stroke of sarcomere contraction
Polyacrylamide Gel
-porous matrix mixture used in electrophoresis -particles move faster if they are small, highly charged, or placed in large electric field -proteins move slower if they are bigger, electrically neutral, or placed in small electric field
First Order Reaction
-rate is directly proportional to only one reactant Rate = k [A]^1 or rate = k [B]^1 k has units of s-1 ln [A] vs. time line slope = -k concentration of radioactive substance A at a given time: [A]t = [A]0e^(-kt)
Second Order Reaction
-rate is proportional to either the concentrations of 2 reactants or to the square of the concentrations of a single reactant *Rate = k[A]1[B]1 or rate = k [A]2 or rate = k [B]2 1/([A]) vs time line slope = k
Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics
-rate of a reaction is proportional to the # of collisions per second b/w the reacting molecules
Zeroth Order Reactions
-rate of formation of product is independent of the changes in concentrations of any reactants -Rate equals to the rate constant *Rate = k [A]^0 [B]^0 rate = k -Rate constant itself depends on temp. *k has units M/s [A] vs. time line slope = -k
Dynamic Equilibrium
-rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction (haven't stopped) - no net change in concentrations of products or reactants
Pressure
-ratio of force per area -scalar quantity P= F/A SI unit: Pascal (Pa) 1Pa = 1N/m^2 1.013 X 10^5 Pa =760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1 atm
Density
-ratio of mass to volume - scalar quantity -no direction ρ=m/V SI units: kg/m^3 also expressed as g/mL or g/〖cm〗^3
Limiting Reagent
-reactant consumed first -limits the amount of product that can be formed in the reaction
Excess Reagent
-reactant that remains after all the limiting reagent is used up
Mixed Order Reaction
-reaction changes order over time -Also includes broken order reactions: reaction with non-integer orders (fractions)
Q = Keq (ΔG = 0)
-reaction is in dynamic equilibrium -forward and reverse rates are equal
Q > Keq (ΔG > 0)
-reaction proceeds in reverse direction (to the left; consuming products to form reactants until equilibrium is reached) -greater conc. of products than at equilibrium
Q < Keq (ΔG < 0)
-reaction proceeds in the forward direction (to the right; consuming reactants to form products until equilibrium is reached) - has greater conc. of reactants than at equilibrium
DNA Polymerases
-read the DNA template or parental strand in 3' to 5' direction -synthesize the new daughter strand
Tautomerization
-rearrangement of bonds in a compound -by moving a Hydrogen and forming a double bond
Amacrine and horizontal cells
-receive input from multiple retinal cells - accentuate slight differences b/w visual info - important for edge detection -increase perception of contrast
Pacinian Corpuscles
-receptors that respond to deep pressure & vibration
Meissner corpuscles
-receptors that respond to light touch
Capacitors in Series
-reciprocal capacitances are added -equivalent capacitance decreases as more capacitors are added in series -same current -voltages add
Erythrocytes
-red blood cells -specialized cells designed for O transport -Each erythrocyte contains 250 million molecules of hemoglobin (each binds to 4 molecules of O) -each red blood cell carries 1 billion molecules of O -Erythrocytes are biconcave (indented on both sides) - shape helps them travel through tiny capillaries & increases the cell's surface area allowing for greater gas exchange -When erythrocytes mature, the nuclei & mitochondria are lost
Depressants
-reduce nervous system activity -result in sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety -includes alcohol and benzodiazepines
Ubiquinol
-reduced form of ubiquinone after it accepts electrons
Stress Management
-reduces levels of stress -exercise improves health, enhances mood, and relieves stress -Relaxation techniques like meditation & diaphragmatic breathing reduce stress
Negative Punishment
-reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed (forbidding child from watching TV for bad behavior w/ goal of preventing the behavior from happening again)
Centromeres
-region of DNA found in the center of chromosomes - composed of heterochromatin (made of tandem repeat sequences w/ high GC content)
epiphyseal plates
-regions of the bone where growth originates -seal during puberty
Autonomic Nervous System
-regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, & glandular secretions -Manages involuntary muscles associated w/ internal organs and glands -Independent of conscious control -manages automatic functions -Has 2 subdivisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic Nervous systems (antagonistic)
Escape Learning
-role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists (like a headache)
Hormones
-signaling molecules -secreted directly into bloodstream to travel to distant target tissue -At the tissue, hormones bind to receptors inducing a change in gene expression or cellular functioning
Fischer Projection
-simple, 2D drawing of stereoisomers -Horizontal lines: wedges (out of the page) -Vertical lines: dashes (into the page)
Ceramide
-simplest sphingolipid - has a single hydrogen atom as its head group
Archaea
-single celled organism -common evolutionary origin with eukaryotes -divide by binary fission -contain single circular chromosome
Decomposition Reaction
-single reactant breaks down into 2 or more products A --> B+C
Yolk Sac
-site of early blood cell development -supports the embryo
Structural Formula
-skeletal representations of compounds - show bonds b/w constituent atoms
Sleep 3 of Sleep
-slow-wave sleep (SWS) - low frequency, high voltage sleep waves (delta waves) -associated w/ cognitive recovery and memory consolidation
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
-slowed cognitive development and distinct craniofacial features (short nose, small eye opening, small head circumference, thin upper lip, indistinct philtrum (groove b/w nose and upper lip)
Rate Determining Step
-slowest step in any proposed mechanism - prevents the overall reaction from proceeding any faster than that slower step
histones
-small basic proteins around which DNA is wound -Histone proteins (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) form a histone core & about 200 base pairs of DNA are wrapped around this protein complex forming a nucleosome -The last histone (H1) seals off the DNA as it enters and leaves the nucleosome adding stability to the structure *H1 is not part of the histone core
Nodes of Ranvier
-small breaks in the myelin sheath with exposed areas of axon membrane -critical for rapid signal conduction
Viroids
-small pathogens -have short circular single stranded RNA that infects plants -bind to RNA sequences and silence genes -prevent synthesis of necessary proteins causing structural & metabolic problems
Synaptic Cleft
-small space b/w neurons into which NTs are released
Morula
-solid mass of cells (how embryo looks like after several divisions) - looks like mulberry
Electrolytes
-solutes that enable solutions to carry currents - electrical conductivity is governed by presence & concentrations of ions in solution
Visual Pathways
-sound info passes through vestibulocochlear nerve to the brainstem where it ascends to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus (music) -From there it projects to: *Auditory cortex in temporal lobe: sound processing *Superior olive: localizes sound *Inferior colliculus: keeps eyes fixed on a point while head is turned
Human voice
-sound is created by passing air b/w vocal cords - as air moves past vocal cords, they vibrate causing the air to vibrate at the same frequency -pitch of sound is controlled by varying the tension of the cords
Electronic geometry
-spatial arrangement of all pairs of e- around central atom (both bonding e- and lone pairs of e-)
Magnocellular Cells
-specialized cells that determine motion -High temporal resolution -Low spatial resolution -much of the rich detail of an object cannot be seen once it is in motion
parvocellular cells
-specialized cells that determine shape -3-D geometry of object and ability to discriminate object of interest from background by detecting its boundaries -high color spatial resolution (allow us to see very fine details) -have low temporal resolution (only work w/ stationary or slow moving objects)
Pilot Tubes
-specialized measurement devices that determine the speed of fluid flow by determining the difference b/w static and dynamic pressure of the fluid at given points along the tube
Baroreceptors
-specialized neurons that detect changes in the mechanical forces on the wall of the vessel -regulate BP -When blood pressure it too low, baroreceptors stimulate Sympathetic Nervous System causing vasoconstriction which increases BP
Eye
-specialized organ used to detect light in the form of photons
Spirili
-spiral-shaped bacteria
Cochlea
-spiral-shaped organ -divided into 3 parts called scalae -contains the organ of corti, the tectorial membrane
Defense Mechanisms (Freud)
-way in which ego relieves anxiety caused by clash of id and superego -distort reality *Repression *suppression *regression *reaction formation *projection *rationalization *displacement *sublimation
Hierarchy of salience
-way in which our identities are organized -we let situations dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment
locus of control
-way we characterize the influences in our lives -people w/ an internal locus of control view themselves as controlling their own fate -people w/ external locus of control feel that events in their lives are caused by outside influences
Gestalt Principles
-ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete
Constancy
-we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same despite differences in environment
Spontaneous recovery
-weak conditioned response if an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again after some time
Law of Closure
-when a space is enclosed by a contour it tends to be perceived as a complete figure
Ohm's Law
V = IR -measured in Ω -As current flows through a set of resistors in a circuit, the voltage drops some amount in each resistor
Electric Potential
V = U/q V = kQ/r
Affinity Chromatography
beads are coated w/ a receptor that binds the protein of interest (high affinity) - protein is retained in column - can be eluted by washing the column w/ a free receptor that competes w/ the bead bound receptor & frees protein -eluted also by changing pH or salinity levels to disrupt bond b/w ligand & protein
Proto-oncogenes
before oncogenes become mutated
Follicular Phase
begins when menstrual flow begins GnRH increases in response to decreased levels of estrogen & progesterone high GnRH causes increased secretions of FSH and LH these hormones work together to develop ovarian follicles the follicles produce estrogen causing GnRH, LH, and FSH to level off estrogen regrows endometrial lining
Irreversible Inhibition
active site is made unavailable for prolonged period of time or enzyme is permanently altered
Sensory Neurons
afferent neurons transmit sensory info from receptors to spinal cord and brain
States of Consciousness
alertness, sleep, dreaming, altered states of consciousness
harmonic series
all the possible frequencies that the string can support
calorie
amount of heat required to raise 1 g of water one degree Celsius
Calorie
amount of heat required to raise 1 kg of water one degree Celsius
Retention Time
amount of time a compound spends in stationary phase
Reaction formation
an unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite
Glycolipid
any lipid linked to a sugar
Natural (resonant) frequency
any solid object, when hit, struck, or disturbed in any way will begin to vibrate
Unconditioned Stimulus
any stimulus that causes a reflexive response
Stimulus
anything to which an organism can respond
Synaptic pruning
as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered increases efficiency of our brain's ability to process info
Left prefrontal cortex
associated w/ + emotions
Right prefrontal cortex
associated w/ - emotions
Pegword system
associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the number
Method of loci
associating each item in a list w/ a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized
Rorschach Inkblot Test
assumes that client projects unconscious feelings onto the shape
Adhesion
attractive force that a molecule of a liquid feels toward the molecules of some other substance
Incentive Theory
behavior is motivated by desire to pursue rewards & avoid punishments
Misinformation effect
being exposed to misinformation or leading language can change our memories of events
Bond Length
average distance b/w the 2 nuclei of atoms in a bond -as # of shared e- pairs increases, the 2 atoms are pulled closer together and bond length decreases
Alpha
awake but relaxing w/ eyes closed
Tract
axons bundled together
White matter
axons encased in myelin sheaths
Bicuspid valve (mitral valve)
b/w left atrium and left ventricle (2 leaflets)
Tricuspid valve
b/w right atrium and right ventricle (3 leaflets)
2 microtubule organizing centers
basal body of a flagellum or cilium centrosome
Selectins
bind to carbohydrate molecules that project from other cells -expressed in white blood cells & endothelial cells that line blood vessels -role in host defense (inflammation & white blood cell migration)
Hypophyseal portal system
blood leaving capillary beds in hypothalamus travels to a capillary bed in anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones
Renal Portal System
blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole to a capillary network called the vasa recta (in nephron)
Hepatic portal system
blood travels from the gut capillary beds to the liver capillary beds via the hepatic portal vein
Central sleep apnea
brain fails to send signal to the diaphragm to breathe
Obligate Anaerobes
cannot survive in oxygen-containing environment
Acrosome
cap that covers sperm head needed to penetrate the ovum
closed system
capable of exchanging energy but not matter w/ their surroundings
reversible process
capable of returning to initial state
Aldoses
carbohydrates containing an aldehyde group *Aldehyde group: H—C =O *CHO at the end of the chain on the first carbon
Tetroses
carbohydrates w/ 4 carbons
Pentoses
carbohydrates w/ 5 carbons
Hexoses
carbohydrates w/ 6 carbons
Strong oxidizing agents oxidize primary alcohols to
carboxylic acids *with other oxidizing agents than PCC, aldehydes can be hydrated to form geminal diols which can be oxidized to carboxylic acids
Umbilical Veins
carries blood toward the fetus from the placenta
Plasmids
carry DNA not needed for survival of prokaryote
Ligases
catalyze addition or synthesis reactions involved in nucleic acid synthesis and repair
Hydrolases
catalyze breaking of compound into 2 molecules by adding water
Lyases
catalyze cleavage of a single molecule into 2 products don't require water as substrate
Transferases
catalyze movement of functional group from one molecule to another
Oxidoreductases
catalyze oxidation-reduction rxns (transfer of e- b/w biological molecules)
Isomerases
catalyze rearrangement of bonds within a molecule
hypoglycemia
caused by excess insulin low blood glucose concentration
Nuclei
cell bodies of neurons in same tract grouped together
G2/S checkpoint
cell checks if it has achieved adequate size and if organelles have been properly replicated controlled by p53
G1/S checkpoint
cell determines if DNA is in good condition for synthesis controlled by protein p53
Haploid (n)
cells that contain only 1 copy of each chromosome example-germ cells
Equilibrium position
central point around which waves oscillate
Metaphase
centriole pairs at opp. ends of cell kinetochore fibers align chromosomes at the metaphase plate (equatorial plate) which is equidistant b/w 2 poles of the cell
Anaphase
centromeres split each sister chromatic has its own distinct centromere they are pulled toward opp. poles of cell sister chromatids separate
∆S= Qrev/T
change in entropy of system Q = heat gained or lost by reversible process
law of conservation of charge
charge can never be created or destroyed
Direct Current
charge flows in one direction only
Prophase (mitosis)
chromatin condenses into chromosomes centriole pairs separate, move toward opposite sides of the cell, and form spindle fibers made of microtubules the fibers radiate outward from the centrioles nuclear membrane dissolves which allows spindle fibers to contact chromosomes
α-amylase
cleaves amylose randomly along the chain to yield shorter polysaccharide chains
Ganglia
collection of neuron cell bodies found outside CNS
Column Chromatography
column filled w/ beads (stationary phase), gravity moves the solvent & compounds down the column - the less polar the compound the faster it elutes - solvent polarity, pH, and salinity can be changed to help elute protein of interest -different particles that leave the column are collected over time
Molecule
combination of 2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
Imine
compound w/ a N atom double-bonded to a carbon atom
Attention
concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment (sensorium)
Suppression
consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
Isobaric process
constant pressure
isothermal process
constant temperature no change in internal energy (ΔU =0) Q=W
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (α)
constant that characterizes how a specific material's length changes as temp. changes (unit of K-1)
Coefficient of Volumetric Expansion (β)
constant that characterizes how a specific material's volume changes as the temperature changes (β = 3α)
Diploid (2n)
contain 2 copies of each chromosome
Monoterpenes
contain 2 isoprene units
Intrapleural space
contains a thin layer of fluid which helps to lubricate the 2 pleural surfaces
Seminal Vesicles
contribute fructose to nourish sperm
Cancer
damaged cells are allowed to undergo mitosis
Aphasia
deficit of language production or comprehension
Retrieval
demonstrates that something that has been learned has been retained
process functions
describe path taken to get from one state to another work and heat
Ovulation
developing follicles secrete more & more estrogen threshold for estrogen is reached causes GnRH, LH, and FSH levels to rise surge of LH induces ovulation, the release of ovum from ovary into abdominal cavity
Cognitive Development
development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan
Free energy change of the reaction (ΔGrxn)
difference b/w free energy of the products & free energy of the reactants
Vital capacity
difference b/w minimum and maximum volume of air in lungs
conduction
direct transfer of energy from molecule to molecule through molecular collisions -there must be direct physical contact b/w the objects
Transverse waves
direction of particle oscillation is perpendicular to the propagation (movement) of the wave
Wavelength
distance from one maximum (crest) of the wave to the next
metastasis
distant spread of cancerous cells through the bloodstream or lymphatic systems
Problem solving dream theory
dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping
Cognitive process dream theory
dreams are the sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness
Fundamental unit of charge
e = 1.60 x 10-19
Bonding electrons
e- in valence shell involved in covalent bonding
Nonbonding electrons
e- in valence shell not involved in covalent bonding
covalent bonding
e- pair shared b/w 2 atoms with similar electronegativities -weaker intermolecular interaction -lower BP and MP -covalent compounds don't break down into ions --> poor conductors of electricity
Motor neurons
efferent neurons transmit motor info from brain to spinal cord to muscles and glands
Self-reference effect
encode better if we put info in the context of our own lives
Acoustic encoding
encoding info by the way it sounds
energy dispersion
energy of some form goes from being localized/concentrated to being spread out or dispersed
second law of thermodynamics
energy spontaneously disperses from being localized to becoming spread out
If # of microstates increases
entropy increases
Third Law of Thermodynamics
entropy of a perfectly organized crystal at absolute zero is zero
∆S(universe )=∆S(system )+∆S (surroundings) >0
entropy of universe is always increasing
Feed-forward Regulation
enzyme regulated by intermediate that precedes the enzyme in the pathway
Lock and Key Theory
enzyme's active site (lock) is already in appropriate conformation for the substrate (key) to bind substrate easily fits into active site no alteration is needed upon binding of substrate
Covalently Modified Enzymes
enzymes can be activated or deactivated by phosphorylation or dephosphorylation Can also be modified by covalent attachment of sugar groups (glycosylation)
Holoenzymes
enzymes containing their cofactors
Apoenzymes
enzymes w/o their cofactors
Open system
exchange both matter and energy with environment
vulva
external female anatomy
scrotum
external pouch that hangs below penis maintains proper temp. in testes for sperm development
Behavioral response
facial expressions and body language
Semantic memory
facts and concepts
Alternating Current
flow changes direction periodically
Fluids
flow, conform to the shape of their container
Selective Attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
Pascal's Principle
for fluids to be incompressible (fluids w/ volumes that can't be reduced through application of force), a change in pressure will be transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container P= F1/A1 =F2/A2 F2 = F1 A2/A1
Antibonding orbital
formed when the signs of the 2 atomic orbitals are different
Bonding Orbital
formed when the signs of the 2 atomic orbitals are the same
Condensation
gas to liquid
Deposition
gas to solid
SRY (sex determining region Y)
gene on Y chromosome that codes for transcription factor that initiates testis differentiation & formation of male gonads
Alleles
genes coding for alternative forms of a trait
Blood type O
genotype for O: ii -universal donor -don't produce any antigens so they won't initiate an immune response regardless of recipient's actual blood type -produce antibodies for A and B so they can receive blood from O only
Seminal Vesicles + Prostate gland
give the fluid mildly alkaline properties to survive acidity of female rep. tract
Coulomb's Law
gives magnitude of electrostatic force b/w 2 charges k: coulomb's constant = 8.99 x 10^9 〖N*m ^2/C^2 Direction of Fe --> unlike charges attract and like charges repel
Phosphatidylcholine
glycerophospholipid w/ a choline head group
Phosphatidylethanolamine
glycerophospholipid w/ an ethanolamine head group
Cadherins
glycoproteins that mediate calcium-dependent cell adhesion - hold similar cell types together -diff. cells have type-specific cadherins (epithelial cells have E-cadherins & nerve cells have N-cadherin)
Mitochondria
has 2 layers --> outer and inner membrane outer membrane serves as barrier b/w cytosol and inner environment inner membrane has infoldings (contains enzymes needed for e- transport chain)
β-anomer
has OH group cis to the CH2OH substituent (equatorial and up)
Somatic nervous system
has sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, muscles, and joints
Allosteric enzymes
have active site and at least one other site that regulates availability of active site (allosteric site) Binding of allosteric activator or allosteric inhibitor causes conformational shift in the protein Activator makes active site more available for binding to substrate Inhibitor makes active site less available
Parts of Mature Sperm
head contains genetic material midpiece generates ATP from fructose (has mitochondria) flagellum for motility
Cardiovascular System
heart, blood vessels, & blood
q = mL
heat added or removed during phase change
q=mc∆T
heat added or removed from system
relaxed state (R)
high affinity
low Km
high affinity for substrate low [S] required for 50% enzyme saturation
Serial position effect
higher recall for both the first few and last items on a list
seminiferous tubules (testes)
highly coiled produce sperm
Synapsis (Prophase I of Meiosis I)
homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine
Displacement (x)
how far a point on the wave is from the equilibrium position
Cognition
how our brains process and react to info presented to us by the world
Pregnancy
if fertilization occurs, zygote develops into a blastocyst that implants in the uterine lining and secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
if object A is in thermal equilibrium with B and B is in thermal equilibrium with object C, then object A and C are also in thermal equilibrium
Reductional Division
in meiosis I, homologous chromosomes are separated generating haploid daughter cells
Functional Fixedness
inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
Anterograde Amnesia
inability to form new memories
Effect of Salinity on Enzyme Activity
increasing levels of salt disrupts hydrogen & ionic bonds leads to partial change in conformation of the enzyme & denaturation in some cases
Storage
information must be stored after encoding if it is to be remembered
Microglia
ingest and break down waste products
Mendel's 2nd Law of Independent Assortment
inheritance of one allele has no effect on the likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes
Uncompetitive Inhibition
inhibitor binds only to enzyme-substrate complex locks substrate in enzyme preventing its release (increasing affinity b/w enzyme and substrate so it lowers Km) Lower Km and vmax
Noncompetitive Inhibition
inhibitor binds to allosteric site (non-catalytic region) instead of active site which induces a conformational change The 2 molecules don't compete for same site cannot be overcome by adding more substrate Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to enzyme or enzyme-substrate complex decreases vmax (less enzyme available to react) Doesn't alter Km (any part of the enzyme that is still active maintains same affinity for substrate)
Mixed Inhibition
inhibitor binds to allosteric site in either enzyme or enzyme-substrate complex vmax decreases If inhibitor binds to enzyme, it increases Km (lowers affinity) If inhibitor binds to enzyme-substrate complex, it lowers Km (increases affinity
Instincts
innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli
Factors that influence motivation
instincts, arousal, drives, and needs
Drives
internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals (original within individual w/o requiring external factors to motivate behavior)
Circadian Rhythms
internally generated rhythms that regulate our daily cycle of waking and sleeping
Chunking
involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements w/ related meaning
Centrifugation
isolates proteins from smaller molecules
Hybridization
joining of complementary base pair sequences
DNA Libraries
large collections of known DNA sequences
Corona Radiata
layer of cells that adhered to the oocyte during ovulation outside the zona pellucida
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
leads to release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) -FSH stimulates follicle maturation in females and spermatogenesis in males -LH stimulates ovulation in females and testosterone synthesis in males
Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
leads to release of growth hormone (GH) which stimulates bone and muscle growth
Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH)
leads to secretion of Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone which stimulates the thyroid to produce hormones
Corticotropin-Releasing Factor (CRF)
leands to the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticosteroids
Systemic circulation
left side of heart receives oxygenated blood from lungs via pulmonary veins & forces it out to the body via the aorta
fallopian tube (oviduct)
lined w/ cilia which propels egg forward
Endometrium
lining of uterus
Operant Conditioning
links voluntary behaviors with consequences to alter the frequency of those behaviors
boiling, evaporation, vaporization
liquid to gas
freezing
liquid to solid
active site
location in enzyme where substrate is held during chemical rxn
Axon
long appendage that terminates in close proximity to a target structure (muscle, gland, or another neuron)
Forgetting
loss of memorized information
Retrograde Amnesia
loss of previously formed memories
tense state (T)
low affinity
high Km
low affinity for substrate high [S] is required for enzyme to be half-saturated
cervix
lower end of uterus, connects to vaginal canal where sperm is deposited during intercourse
hyperpolarization
lowering of membrane potential from its resting potential
Immune System
made up of different cells and proteins rids the body of foreign invaders
Cytoskeleton
made up of proteins anchored to the cell membrane intracellular support
circular loop of current-carrying wire of radius r
magnitude of magnetic field at center of circular loop is B =μI/2r
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
maintains the corpus luteum, which secretes estrogen & progesterone needed to keep uterine lining in place (critical during 1st trimester)
Functions of cardiovascular system
maintenance of blood pressure, gas & solute exchange, coagulation, & thermoregulation
androgens
male sex hormones
Amplitude
maximum displacement from equilibrium position to the top of a crest or bottom of a trough
Total lung capacity
maximum volume of air in lungs when you inhale completely
Normality (N)
measure of concentration (units of equivalents/L) ex: 1N solution of acid has 1 mole per liter of H ions ex: 2N sol'n of acid has 2 moles per liter of H ions
entropy
measure of how much energy is spread out or how widely spread out energy becomes in a process
Hematocrit measurement
measurement of how much of blood sample consists of red blood cells (41-53% for males & 36-46% females)
Hemoglobin measurement
measures the quantity of hemoglobin in blood (normal levels are 13-17 for males and 12-16 for females)
Visceral pleura
membrane adjacent to the lung
Lysosomes
membrane bound structures that contain hydrolytic enzymes (break down substrates)
Explicit (declarative) memories
memories that require conscious recall
Context effects
memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place
Residual volume
minimum volume of air in lungs when you exhale completely
Pulmonary circulation
right side of heart accepts deoxygenated blood returning from the body & moves it to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries
Turbulent Flow
rough and disorderly
l = 0
s subshell spherical shape
Lev Vygotsky
said that cognitive development is driven by the child's internalization of his/her culture including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language
α-cells
secrete glucagon
β-cells
secrete insulin
δ-cells
secrete somatostatin
interstitial cells of Leydig
secrete testosterone and other male sex hormones
Progesterone
secreted by corpus luteum in response to LH involved in development & maintenance of endometrium
Estrogen
secreted in response to FSH thickening of lining of uterus (endometrium)
Atrioventricular valves
separate the atria from the ventricles
Chromatography
separates & identifies compounds in mixture -sample is placed in stationary phase (solid medium) - run mobile phase through stationary phase - allow sample to run through stationary phase & elute - components w/ high affinity for stationary phase will barely migrate - components w/ high affinity for mobile phase migrate quickly
Aortic valve
separates the left ventricle from the aorta
Pulmonary valve
separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary circulation
Disjunction (anaphase I)
separation of homologous pairs, pulled to opp. poles of cell
Equatorial Division
separation of sister chromatids (in meiosis II)
Endoplasmic Reticulum
series of interconnected membranes folded into many invaginations
Replisome (or Replication Complex)
set of specialized proteins that assist DNA polymerases
coordinate covalent
shared e- are contributed by only 1 of the 2 atoms -found in Lewis acid/base reactions --> base donates e- and acid accepts them
Heuristic
simplified principles used to make decisions
Coordinated, rhythmic contractions of cardiac muscle follow a pathway
sinoatrial node (SA node), atrioventricular node (AV), the bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers
Implicit (non-declarative or procedural) memory
skills and conditioned responses
Coenzymes
small organic groups vitamins or derivatives like NAD+, FAD, or coenzyme A
Arterioles
smaller, muscular arteries
sublimation
solid to gas
melting or fusion
solid to liquid
Zymogens
some enzymes are secreted in this inactive form contain active domain and regulatory domain regulatory domain must be removed or altered to expose active site
Ultrasonic waves
sound waves with frequencies above 20000 Hz
Infrasonic waves
sound waves with frequencies below 20 Hz
S-orbital
spherical, symmetrical, centered around nucleus
Telophase and Cytokinesis
spindle apparatus disappears nuclear membrane reforms around each set if chromosomes nucleoli reappears chromosomes uncoil cytoplasm and organelles separate so that each daughter cell has supplies to survive on its own (cytokinesis) results in 2 identical daughter cells
Cytokinesis
splitting of cytoplasm and organelles into 2 daughter cells
Deductive Reasoning
starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from info given
Androgyny
state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine
Deprotection
step where the acetal or ketal is reverted back to a carbonyl after reducing other functions
Eustress
stressful but positive events (getting married, graduating from college)
Hydrostatics
study of fluids at rest & forces and pressures associated w/ standing fluids
Thermodynamics
study of the flow of energy in universe
Electrophoresis
subjects compounds to an electric field which moves them according to their charge & size
Nucleolus
subsection of the nucleus where ribosomal RNA is made
Competitive Inhibition
substrate can't access the binding site b/c there is an inhibitor occupying it overcome by adding more substrate doesn't alter value of vmax increases Km ([S] has to be higher to reach ½ vmax)
Lorentz Force
sum of electrostatic and magnetic forces
Zona pellucida
surrounds oocyte itself acellular mixture of glycoproteins protects oocyte contains compounds needed for sperm cell binding
Primacy effect
tendency to remember early items
Recency effect
tendency to remember late items
Ligand-Gated Channel
the binding of a specific substance (ligand) to channel leads to transition in the protein causing it to open or close (neurotransmitters act at ligand gated channels at post-synaptic membrane)
Heterogeneous Catalysis
the catalyst is in a different phase
Homogeneous Catalysis
the catalyst is in the same phase (solid, liquid, gas) as the reactants
First Law of Thermodynamics
the change in the total internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of energy transferred as heat to the system minus the amount of energy transferred as work from system ∆U=Q-W
stationary test charge q
the charge placed in the electric field
stationary source charge Q
the charge that creates the electric field
fundamental frequency
the lowest frequency (longest wavelength) of a standing wave that can be supported in a given length of string
Theoretical Yield
the maximum amount of product that can be generated as predicted from balanced equation (rarely attained)
Induced Fit Model
the substrate induces a change in the shape of the enzyme at first, substrate & active site don't fit together when the substrate is ready to interact and starts binding to enzyme, it induces a conformational shift in enzyme and active site become complementary
If volume is increased (pressure decreased)
the system moves towards side w/ greater # of moles of gas
If volume is decreased (pressure increased)
the system moves towards side w/ lower total # of moles of gas
Expiratory Reserve Volume
the volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation
Absolute Zero
theoretical temp. at which there is no thermal energy (0 reference point)
Relative Refractory Period
there must be greater than normal stimulation to cause an AP b/c the membrane is starting from a potential that is more - than its resting value
Stage 2 of Sleep
theta waves, sleep spindles, K complexes
Radiation
transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves
Convection
transfer of heat by the physical motion of a fluid over a material
Heat
transfer of thermal energy from object with higher temp. to object with lower temp.
Gq
type of G protein activates phospholipase C cleaves a phospholipids to form PIP2 (PIP2 is cleaved into DAG and IP3) opening calcium channels in ER (increases Ca levels in cell)
Gi
type of G protein -inhibits adenylate cyclase -decreases cAMP
Repression
unconsciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
Object Permanence
understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view
Grey Matter
unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites
Mnemonics
use acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of the info we are trying to remember
Facultative Anaerobes
use oxygen if present and switch to anaerobic metabolism if not present
Spirometer
used to assess lung capacity and volume
Doppler ultrasound
used to determine flow of blood within the body by detecting the frequency shift that is associated w/ movement toward or away from receiver
Michaelis Menten Equation
v = (vmax [S])/ (Km+[S])
Propagation speed
v = f*λ
Migration velocity
v=E/f
Dipole Moment
vector p = qd points from + to -
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation
Tidal volume
volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath
∆V= βV∆T
volumetric thermal expansion β --> coefficient of volumetric expansion V --> original volume
Principle of superposition
wave disturbances add together
Sinusoidal waves
waves where the individual particles oscillate back & forth with a displacement that follows a sinusoidal pattern
Retroactive interference
when new info causes forgetting of old info
Spreading activation
when one node of our semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated
learned helplessness
when placed in a consistently helpless scenario, self-efficacy diminishes significantly
Feedback Regulation
when products further down a metabolic pathway regulate enzymes
ΔL = αLΔT
when temperature of object changes, its length changes A Lot α ---> coefficient of linear expansion L --> original Length
Disconfirmation Principle
when the potential solution to a problem fails during testing, it should be discarded
Molecular Orbitals
when two atomic orbitals combine
Supercoiling
wrapping of DNA on itself
Consciousness
your level of awareness of the world and of your own existence within the world
Empirical Formula for Sugars
Cn(H2O)m
Endorphins
-decrease perception of pain -naturally occurring -can promote euphoria
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
-decreased blood pressure causes the juxtaglomerular cells of kidneys to secrete renin which converts angiotensinogen (inactive) to angiotensin I (active) which is then converted into angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) -Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone - leads to absorption of Na and increased blood pressure -once blood pressure is restored, there is a decreased drive to stimulate renin release
Cocaine
-decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin - has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties -used in surgeries in highly vascularized areas like nose -Vasoconstrictive properties can lead to heart attack and stroke when used recreationally
Hypothyroidism
-deficiency in iodine or inflammation of the thyroid - thyroid hormones are secreted in insufficient amounts or not at all -lethargy, decreased body temp., weight gain, slowed respiratory and heart rate
Dwarfism
-deficit of growth hormone
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
-displayed as pyramid -most primitive, essential needs are at the base -First 4 levels: physiological needs, safety, love/belonging, and esteem -Highest level: self-actualization: need to realize one's fullest potential -Needs are satisfied based on priority
Strong Electrolyte
-dissociates completely into constituent ions (ex: NaCl)
Varicose veins
-distended veins due to pooling of blood caused by failure of venous valves -Pregnant women are susceptible due to higher total blood vol. & compression of inferior vena cava by fetus
Solids
-do not flow, rigid -maintain shape independent of container
Non-electrolytes
-do not ionize at all in water -retain their molecular structure in solution -ex: nonpolar gases & organic compounds like O2, CO2, and glucose
Neutral Stimuli
-do not produce an innate or reflexive response
Closed boundaries
-don't allow oscillation -places of nodes -ex: closed end of a pipe or secured ends of a string
Lewis Structures
-draw the backbone (central atom is the least EN atom) -count # of valence e- in each atom and calculate total # of valence e- -draw single bonds b/w central atoms an atoms surrounding it -complete the octets using remaining valence e- -place any extra e- on central carbon (if central carbon has less than octet, try to write double or triple bonds using lone pairs of e- on surrounding atoms)
Activation-synthesis theory
-dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry -this activation mimics sensory info and consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs ... -Cortex tries to stitch this unrelated info together - results in bizarre but familiar dream
Motivation
-driving force behind your actions -Can be directed toward minimizing pain, maximizing pleasure, or it can be rooted in a need such as eating, drinking, sleeping, or sex
Lewis Base
-e- donor when covalent bond forms - nucleophiles -have a lone pair of e- that can be donated
Lewis Acid
-e- pair acceptor when covalent bond forms - electrophiles -have vacant p-orbitals into which they can accept an e- pair -acidity increases down the periodic table
Monochorionic/ diamniotic twins
-each have their own amnion but share same chorion
Relearning
-easier to rememorize things the second time you are exposed to them - the longer the amounts of time b/w sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of info later on (spacing effect)
Oxidizing Agent
-element in redox reaction that accepts an e- from another species -it gains e- so it becomes reduced while making the other species oxidized - often contain metals bonded to a large # of oxygen atoms
Law of Proximity
-elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
Reducing Agents
-elements in redox reactions that donates e- to another species -it losses e- so it becomes oxidized while reducing other species -contain metals bonded to a large # of hydrides
Law of Good Continuation
-elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together -We see continuous patterns rather than abrupt changes
Tumor suppressor genes (p53 or Rb)
-encode proteins that inhibit the cell cycle or participate in DNA repair processes -function to stop tumor progression (also called anti-oncogenes) -Mutation of tumor suppressor genes results in loss of tumor suppression activity which promotes cancer
Visual Encoding
-encoding info by visualizing it -weakest
Nerve terminal or synaptic bouton
-end of axon -releases neurotransmitters
+ΔG
-endergonic - energy is absorbed (required)
Erythropoietin
-endocrine hormone (peptide) -produced by kidneys -stimulates bone marrow to increase production of erythrocytes (red blood cells) -secreted in response to low oxygen levels in blood
Thymosin
-endocrine hormone (peptide) -released by the thymus - stimulates T cell development and differentiation -levels drop by adulthood b/c the thymus atrophies
Power
-energy expenditure over time P = W/t P=∆E/t P = IV P= (I^2)R P = (V^2)/R
Bond energy
-energy required to break a bond -the greater the # of pairs of e- shared, the more energy is required to break the bonds
Ionization Energy
-energy required to remove an e- -increases left to right and bottom to top *the greater the Zeff, the more tightly bound the valence e- are to the nucleus so more energy is required to remove them -requires input of heat (endothermic process) *as you continue to remove e-, the species becomes more + and it is more difficult to remove e- so the amount of energy required increases * group I and II metals have low IE (easily give their e-) *Halogens (group 7) have high IE (don't want to lose e) *Noble gases have highest IE *Be & N have higher IE than expected (happy with the configuration of their subshells) * it takes a lot of energy to remove core e- (closer to nucleus) --> seen as big jump in IE in graph -
oval window of cochlea
-entrance to inner ear
Gram + Bacteria
-envelope absorbs crystal violet stain and appears deep purple -have thick layer of peptidoglycan (made of AA and sugar) -contain lipoteichoic acid (activates human's immune system so it provides protection from host's immune system)
Gram - Bacteria
-envelope absorbs safranin and appears pink-red -contain smaller amount of peptidoglycan -contains lipopolysaccharides (triggers immune system response in humans)
retroviruses
-enveloped, single stranded RNA viruses -carry reverse transcriptase which is the enzyme that makes DNA from single stranded RNA -the DNA created from RNA integrates into host cell's genome where it is replicated and transcribed as if it were the host cell's own DNA -cell is infected indefinitely -ex: HIV
Glycogen Phosphorylase
-enzyme that cleaves glucose from the non-reducing end of a glycogen branch by phosphorylating it -glycogen is more branched (branches occur more frequently) --> more points where enzymes can come in & break down glycogen *permits rapid release of glucose from glycogen stores *animals require rapid mobilization of glucose (more than plants)
Helicase
-enzyme that unwinds the DNA - generates 2 single stranded template strands
Vitamin
-essential nutrient that cannot be adequately synthesized by the body & must be consumed by the diet -Lipid soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) can accumulate in stored fat & excess water-soluble vitamins are excreted through the urine
Saponification
-ester hydrolysis of TAG using a strong base -Based used is typically lye: common name for sodium or potassium hydroxide -Ester bonds are broken
Waxes
-esters of long-chain fatty acids w/ long chain alcohols - form pliable solids at room temp. - function as protection for plants and animals
acromegaly
-excess Growth Hormone after long bones are sealed -causes enlargement of hands, feet, & head
Gigantism
-excess of Growth Hormone released in childhood (before closure of epiphyseal plates)
Polar Molecule
-if compound has molecular geometry such that the bond dipole moments do not cancel each other out
Sympathetic Nervous System
"fight or flight" - activated by stress - increases heartrate - redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion -increases blood glucose concentration -decreases digestion and peristalsis -dilates eyes to maximize light intake -Stimulates orgasm -releases epinephrine into bloodstream -preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine and postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine
Parasympathetic Nervous System
"rest and digest" -conserves energy - associated w/ resting and sleeping states -constricts pupils -stimulates flow of saliva -constricts bronchi - slows heartbeat -stimulates digestion by increasing peristalsis and secretions - release of acetylcholine from both preganglionic and postganglionic neurons -vagus nerve is responsible for most of parasympathetic innervation of thoracic and abdominal cavity
Period
# of seconds per cycle * T = 1/f
Frequency
# of wavelengths passing a fixed point per second (measured in Hertz)
Percent Yield
(Actual Yield)/(Theoretical Yield) X 100
Equivalent
(mass of compound)/(gram equivalent weight)
Prostaglandins
* 20 carbon molecules *unsaturated carboxylic acids derived from arachidonic acid *contain 1 five carbon ring * act as paracrine or autocrine signaling molecules *regulate synthesis of cAMP (intracellular messenger that regulates action of other hormones) *influence sleep-wake cycles, have effects on smooth muscle, involved in elevation of body temp due to fever
Ketoses
* Carbohydrates with a ketone group *Keto group: C=O in b/w 2 carbons (typically in the middle of the chain)
Atomic Radius
* Radius of the neutral species *half of the distance b/w the centers of 2 atoms * decreases left to right in periodic table * as Zeff increases left to right, the e- cloud is pulled closer to nucleus * increases down a group *increasing quantum number means you are increasing the number of shells separating valence e- from nucleus
Carbonyl group
* carbon double bonded to an oxygen -aldehydes and ketones contain a carbonyl group but they differ in its placement
Alkali Metals
* group I * react w/ non-metals * have 1 loosely bound e- *low IE, low e- affinity, low electronegativity *low Zeff, large atomic radius *easily lose e- to form cation
Exceptions of Octet Rule
* incomplete octet: elements that are stable w/ fewer than 8 e- in valence shell --> H(2), He (2), Li (2), Be (4), and B (6) *Expanded Octet: elements in period 3 or greater can hold more than 8 e- in valence shell --> P(10), S (12), Cl (14) *Odd # e-: any element w/ odd # of e- won't be able to distribute e- to give 8 to each atom
sesquiterpenes
* sesqui means ½ *contain 3 isoprene units
Electric Dipoles
*2 equal and opposite charges being separated a small distance d from each other (+q and -q separated by d) V = kqd/r^2 cosθ p =q*d -SI unit of dipole moment: C*m *vector pointing from the - charge to the + charge
Perception of Color
*object absorbs a color of light and reflects all others *brain mixes subtraction frequencies and we perceive complementary color *red/cyan *green/magenta *blue/yellow *Yellow lemon absorbs blue light --> brain interprets color of lemon as white -blue = yellow light
Time line of language acquisition
*9-12 months --> babbling *12-18 months --> add 1 word per month *18-20 months --> explosion of language (quickly learn many words) --> begin to combine words *2-3 years --> speak in longer sentences --> vocabulary grows --> grammatical error increase *Have errors of growth apply grammatical rule in situation where it doesn't apply (runned instead of ran) *5 years: language rules largely mastered
Watson-Crick Model
*DNA is a double helix w/ 2 linear polynucleotide chains wound together in spiral orientation along a common axis *Antiparallel strands (oriented in opposite directions) *Sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside of the helix w/ nitrogenous bases on the inside *Adenine always pairs with thymine via 2 H bonds *Guanine always pairs with Cytosine via 3 H bonds *Hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions b/w bases provide stability to the double helix *DNA is a right handed helix (B-DNA) *turns at every 10th base pair
Voltage
*Potential difference (Vb-Va) ΔV = Vb-Va = Wab/q *Wab: work needed to move a test charge q through an electric field from point a to b
sp3
*all 4 orbitals (s, px, py, and pz) point toward the vertices of a tetrahedron to minimize repulsion *has 25% s character and 75% p character *tetrahedral geometry *109.5 bond angle *molecules bonded via single bond are sp3 *hybridization is accomplished by promoting one of the 2s e- into the 2pz orbital
Conjugation (O-chem)
*alternating single & multiple bonds * this pattern aligns unhybridized p-orbitals down the backbone of the molecule *π e- then delocalize through this p orbital system adding stability to molecule
Electronegativity
*attractive force b/w atoms and e- in a chemical bond *the greater the electronegativity of an atom the more it attracts e- * F is most electronegative element *elements get more electronegative as they approach F (left to right and bottom to top) *O and Cl are equidistant from F but O is more electronegative *lower IE --> low electronegativity *higher IE --> high electronegativity (except noble gases)
Electric dipole placed in uniform electric field
*b/c the charges are equal and opposite, the forces acting on the charges are also equal in magnitude and opposite in direction --> translational equilibrium *there is a torque: τ=pEsinθ *the torque causes the dipole to reorient itself so that its dipole moment (p) aligns w/ the electric field (E)
Tosylate
*contain functional group -SO3C6H4CH3 -derived from toluenesulfonic acid -mesyl and tosyl groups can serve as protecting groups when we don't want alcohols to react -will not react with many of the other reagents that would attack alcohols
Mesylate
*contain functional group -SO3CH3 -derived from methanesulfonic acid -prepared using methylsulfonyl chloride and an alcohol in presence of a base -mesyl and tosyl groups can serve as protecting groups when we don't want alcohols to react -will not react with many of the other reagents that would attack alcohols
Magnetic Field
*created by a single electron traveling through space or by a current through conducting material *SI unit: tesla (T) *If the magnetic field is small, it is measured in gauss 1T = 10^4 gauss
Electrophiles
*e- loving -have a positive charge - accept an e- pair when forming new bonds w/ nucleophiles - act like a Lewis acid -a greater degree of + charge increases electrophilicity -Alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids acts as electrophiles --> good targets for nucleophilic attack
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
*e- repel each other forcing molecule to adopt certain shapes *uses Lewis dot structures to predict the molecular geometry covalently bonded molecules -electron pairs arrange themselves as far apart as possible to minimize repulsive forces STEPS -Draw Lewis Dot Structure -Count total # of bonding and nonbonding e- -arrange e- around central atom such that they are as far away as possible -total number of e- pairs tell you the electronic geometry -# of bonding e- pairs tells you the molecular geometry
Octet Rule
*elements are most stable w/ 8 e- in valence shell * gain or lose e- to achieve stable configuration *atoms bonds w/ another atom so that each atom has 8 e- in outermost shell
Electron Affinity
*energy released when species gains e- *exothermic process *increases left to right (stronger pull b/w e- and nucleus) and decreases top to bottom (increasing quantum # so valence shell e- are farther from nucleus) *noble gases have 0 e- affinity (don't want to accept e-) *Groups I and II metals have low e- affinities (prefer to lose rather than gain e-) *halogens have high e- affinities
Perpendicular Bisector of the Dipole
*equipotential line that lies halfway b/w +q and -q *electrical potential at any point along this line is zero E = kp/r^3
Noble Gases
*filled valence shell * minimal reactivity *high IE *no electronegativity *no tendency to gain or lose e- *low boiling points
Chemical Bonds
*formed via interaction of valence e- *hold atoms within molecule together
Halogens
*group 7 *nonmetals (7 valence e-) *gain an e- to complete octet *high electronegativity and e- affinity
Alkaline Earth Metals
*group II *2 e- in valence shell (easily removed) * form divalent cations
α-anomer
*has OH trans to the CH2OH substituent (axial and down)
Chalcogens
*have 6 e- in valence shell *small atomic radius * large ionic radius (gain e-)
David McClelland
*humanist identified a personality trait:need for achievement (N-Ach) *People high in N-Ach are concerned w/ achievement & have pride in their accomplishments
Transition Metals
*low IE *low e- affinity *low electronegativity *ability to form different ionic compounds --> capable of losing different # of e-
Diamagnetic Materials
*no unpaired e- *no net magnetic field *ex: wood, plastic
monocytes
- phagocytize foreign matter like bacteria -once they leave the bloodstream & enter an organ, monocytes are renamed macrophages
Atria
*thin-walled structures where blood is received from either the vena cavae (deoxygenated blood entering the right heart) or the pulmonary veins (oxygenated blood entering the left heart) *Atria contract to push blood into the ventricles -after the ventricles fill, they contract to send blood to the lungs & the systemic circulation ventricles are more muscular than the atria which allows for more powerful contractions needed to push blood through the rest of the cardiovascular system
Veins
*thin-walled, inelastic vessels that transport blood to the heart -All veins carry deoxygenated blood (except for pulmonary & umbilical veins) -Stretch to accommodate large quantities of blood -Even though the vol. of arterial blood is less than vol. of venous blood, the total vol. passing through either side of the heart per time (cardiac output) is the same -Bloodflow in most veins is upward from lower body back to the heart against gravity -Large veins have valves to push blood forward & prevent backflow (as blood moves forward, valves open and when blood tries to move backward, they close) -Small amount of smooth muscle in veins creates challenge for propelling blood forward -To overcome this challenge, most veins are surrounded by skeletal muscles which squeeze the veins as the muscles contract forcing the blood up against gravity
SN1 Reaction
*unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions: 2 steps 1. Leaving group leaves forming a positively charged carbocation (rate limiting step) *The rate of rxn depends only on the concentration of the substrate rate = k [R-L] R-L is the alkyl group containing the leaving group *Anything that accelerates the formation of the carbocation increase the rate of rxn 2. Nucleophile attacks the carbocation (unstable) *results in substitution product
pyranose ring
- 6 membered ring -has 6 sides not 6 carbons
Long term potentiation
- As a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and the number of receptor sites increases - neurophysiological basis of long term memory -strengthening of neuronal connections
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes
- Corticotropin-Releasing Factor (CRF) causes release of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) which causes adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol -high levels of cortisol inhibit release of CRF and ACTH from anterior pituitary and hypothalamus (cortisol receptors are present in these organs)
Hydration
- In the presence of water, aldehydes and ketones react to form germinal diols (2 OH groups on the same carbon) -The nucleophilic O in a water molecule attacks the electrophilic carbonyl carbon forming a covalent bond w/ carbon - π bond is broken and O accepts e- becoming - charged -then, one of the H in water molecule reacts w/ O to form OH
Bohr effect
- Increased CO2 production causes bicarbonate buffer equation to shift right, resulting in decreased pH (high H+) -protons bind to hemoglobin reducing its affinity for O -Caused by high O demand (high rates of cellular metabolism) which results in increased CO2 production and accumulation of lactic acid which decreases pH -decreased affinity of hemoglobin to O allows more O to be unloaded at tissues
Kirchhoff's Loop Rule
- Sum of the voltages for all elements in a loop must be 0 -voltage must be accounted for at all times in a loop -Sum of voltage sources equal sum of voltage (potential) drops (Vsource = Vdrop) -All the electrical energy supplied by a source gets fully used up by the other elements within that loop
Effects of Compression and Expansion on Gases
- When a system expands, the volume increases and the pressure decreases -When a system is compressed, its volume decreases & its total pressure increases
Heteropolysaccharide
- a polymer made up of more than 1 type of monosaccharide
Inhalation
- active process -uses diaphragm & external intercostal muscles to expand the thoracic cavity
Atrial kick
- additional volume of blood in ventricles causes by atrial systole -accounts for 5-30% of cardiac output
Nationality
- based on political borders - result of shared history, media, national symbols
Single Stranded DNA Binding Proteins
- bind to the unraveled strand preventing the re-association of the DNA strands & degradation of DNA by nucleases -Unpaired strands of DNA are very "sticky" so proteins are required to hold the 2 strands apart
Ubiquinone (coenzyme Q)
- biologically active quinone -vital electron carrier associated w/ complexes I, II, and II of the e- transport chain -very oxidized
Functions of Calcium
- bone structure & strength -release of NTs from neurons - regulation of muscle contraction - cofactor that helps in blood clotting
closed pipes
- closed at one end and open at the other -closed end has node and open end has antinode λ = 4L/n f = nv/4L n: can only be odd integers (1,3,5) v: wave speed -when presented w/ a closed pipe, count the # of quarter wavelengths contained in the pipe to determine the harmonic
Cannon-Bard Theory
- cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in the behavioral component of emotion (or action)
Rickets
- condition seen in children caused by Lack of vitamin D - underdeveloped, curved long bones, impeded growth
Sensory memory
- consists of iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory - maintained by occipital and temporal lobes - lasts a very short time (less than 1 second) -fades quickly - lost if not attended to
Out of Phase
- crests of one wave coincides with the troughs of the other -phase difference is ½ of the wave (λ/2)
Inhalation
- diaphragm contracts -chest wall and rib cage expand
Instinctive drift
- difficulty overcoming instinctual behaviors - difficult to teach animals behaviors that work against their natural instincts
Gender identity
- person's appraisal of himself/herself on scales of masculinity and femininity -established by age 3 -may morph and change over time -not necessarily tied to biological sex or sexual orientation
Humanistic Perspective
- focuses on the value of individuals -person centered approach: describes ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization -Associated with Gestalt therapy: therapist sees each individual as a complete person rather than educing him to behaviors or drives -says that personality is the result of conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals
Hydrostatic pressure
- force per unit area that blood exerts against the vessel walls - generated by contraction of heart and elasticity of arteries -pushes fluid out of the vessels
Pi (π) bond
- formed when 2 p-orbitals line up in a parallel fashion (side by side overlap) -only made from p orbitals *Double bond consists of a π bond on top of existing σ bond *Triple bond consists of a σ bond and 2 π bonds *Double and triple bonds hinder rotation
Duncker's Candle Problem
- given a box of matches, tacks, and candle -asked to mount the candle on wall so that no wax drops on floor -people don't realize that they could tack box to wall & put the candle in box
Taste Buds
- groups of cells that function as receptors for taste -found in papillae (little bumps on tongue)
The Type Perspectives
- humanistic theory -Type A personality: display competitive & compulsive behaviors -Type B personality: laid back and relaxed
Force Field Theory
- humanistic theory -focuses on situations in the present -Field: current state of mind --> sum of the forces (influences) of the person at that time -These forces are those assisting in our attainment of goals & those blocking the path to them
Personal Construct Psychology
- humanistic theory -people are scientists that devise & test predictions about behavior of significant people in their lives - people experience anxiety when they have difficulty constructing & understanding variables in environment
Starling forces
- hydrostatic and oncotic pressures -balance of these forces maintains proper fluid volumes & solute concentrations inside & outside the vasculature -Imbalance of these pressures results in too little or too much fluid in tissues
Law of Mass Action
- if a system is at equilibrium at a constant temperature, the following ratio is const Kc: concentrations Kp: partial pressures -Equal to the concentrations of the products divided by the concentrations of the reactants, with each concentration term raised to the stoichiometric coefficient of each respective species Keq is temp. dependent
Short term memory
- if we pay attention some of the info we are exposed to enters short term memory -fades quickly (30 seconds w/o rehearsal) -limited capacity to 7 items (7±2) -capacity is increased by clustering info -duration is increased by maintenance rehearsal -info is housed in hippocampus
milk ejection
- infant latches on to breast -nipple stimulation causes activation of hypothalamus -oxytocin is released from posterior pituitary leading to contraction of smooth muscle of breast and milk ejection -hypothalamus stops releasing dopamine on anterior pituitary allowing prolactin release (produces milk and regulates milk supply)
Lipids
- insoluble in water -soluble in non-polar solvents -predominantly hydrocarbon based (H-C) -Major component of the phospholipid bilayer -amphipathic molecules *has hydrophilic region (polar head) and hydrophobic region (Fatty Acid tails)
Gene Therapy
- intended for diseases where gene is mutated or inactive resulting in pathology -by transferring normal copy of gene into affected tissues the pathology should be fixed -Efficient gene delivery vectors must be used to transfer the cloned gene into the target cells' DNA (modified viruses) -A portion of the viral genome is replaced w/ the cloned gene so that the virus can infect (inserting the genetic material) but not complete its replication cycle -Randomly integrated DNA poses risk of integrating near a host oncogene and activating it
Ependymal cells
- line the ventricles of the brain -produce cerebrospinal fluid (serves as shock absorber)
Sound
- longitudinal wave transmitted by oscillation of particles in a deformable medium -Sound can travel through solids, liquids, and gases but not through vacuum *Speed of sound: v = √(B/ρ) -Sound travels fastest through a solid and slowest through a gas *Speed of sound in air is ~343 m/s
T-cells
- lymphocytes that mature in the thymus -kill virally infected cells & activate other immune cells
Phospholipids
- made of a phosphate & an alcohol that comprise the polar head group joined to a hydrophobic fatty acid tail by phosphodiester linkages - can be classified according to the backbone on which the molecule is built (glycerol or sphingosine)
Self-determination theory
- need-based motivational theory -focuses on 3 universal needs -Autonomy: need to be in control of your actions & ideas -Competence: need to complete and excel at difficult tasks -Relatedness: need to feel accepted & wanted in relationships
Object Relations Theory
- object refers to representation of caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy -these objects persist into adulthood & impact our relationships
Fixation
- occurs when child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development -Child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage -persists into adulthood as mental disorder (neurosis
Pitch
- our perception of frequency (rate at which a particle or wave completes a cycle) -Lower frequency sounds have lower pitch and higher frequency sounds have higher pitch
Reciprocal determinism
- our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact w/ each other to determine our actions in a given situation -People choose environments that suit their personalities and their personalities determine how they will react in those environments
Arousal Theory of Motivation
- people perform actions to maintain an optimal level of arousal -Seek to increase arousal if it falls below optimal level -Seek to decrease arousal if it rises above their optimal level
Neurotransmitter Release
- prior to release, neurotransmitter molecules are stored in membrane-bound vesicles in nerve terminal -when AP reaches nerve terminal, voltage gated calcium channels open allowing calcium to flow into cell -sudden increase in Ca triggers fusion of vesicles w/ the membrane at the synapse causing exocytosis of the neurotransmitter -once released into synapse, NT molecules diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors on post-synaptic membrane
Hematopoiesis
- production of blood cells & platelets -triggered by some hormones, growth factors, & cytokines
Mole
- quantity of any substance equal to the # of particles found in 12 g of carbon-12 moles = mass/(molar mass)
Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule
- reinforce behavior after a varying number of performances of that behavior - rat rewarded after 2 button presses, then 8, then 4 -Very Rapid for learning behavior -Very Resistant to extinction
Fixed Interval Schedules
- reinforces the first instance of a behavior after a specific time period has elapsed - rat gets a pellet every 60 seconds -pressing the bar during those 60 seconds accomplishes nothing
In Phase
- respective crests and troughs line up with each other -phase difference is 0 if waves are perfectly in phase
Amygdala
- signals cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions -processes the environment, detects external cues, learns from surroundings to produce an emotion -associated w/ fear & interpretation of facial expressions
Zone of proximal development
- skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development - gaining these skills successfully requires help of a more knowledgeable other (adult)
Autonomic Nervous System
- specific physiological reactions are associated w/ specific emotions -Skin temp., heart rate, breathing rate, & blood pressure are affected when experiencing emotions -Decreased skin temp --> fear -Increased skin temp -->anger -Increased heart rate --> anger and fear -decreased heart rate --> happiness -Diastolic blood pressure increased the greatest by anger
James-Lange Theory
- stimulus results in physiological arousal which then leads to the cognitive labeling of the emotion -Predicts that people w/ spinal cord injury (no sympathetic response) would have decreased levels of emotions --> false (they experience same level of emotion as before)
Working memory
- supported by hippocampus - enables us to keep a few pieces of info in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that info -we must integrate short term memory, attention, and executive function (involves frontal & parietal lobes)
Rh factor
- surface protein expressed on red blood cells *Rh+ and Rh- refer to presence or absence of a specific allele called D *Rh+ is dominant so if present, it is expressed *If a woman is Rh+ and her fetus is Rh-, her immune system will make antibodies against it *Not a problem for 1st child b/c mother starts producing the antibodies after the child is born *Any subsequent pregnancies in which fetus is Rh+ will be problematic b/c maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross the placenta and attack fetal blood cells (erythroblastosis fetalis (fatal) ) -Avoided by giving the Rh- mother Rh-immunoglobulin during pregnancy & immediately after delivery *immunoglobulin absorbs the fetus's Rh+ cells preventing production of anti-Rh antibodies by mother
DNA polymerase δ
- synthesize DNA in eukaryotes -adds DNA nucleotides to fill in the gaps left when RNA primers were removed (eukaryotes)
negative pressure breathing
- the driving force is the lower pressure in the intrapleural space compared w/ the lungs -during inhalation, as the diaphragm flattens & chest wall expands outward, the intrathoracic volume (vol. of chest cavity) increases -Volume increases first in intrapleural space (due to proximity w/ chest wall) which leads to decrease in intrapleural pressure (Volume and Pressure are inversely proportional) -Gas in lungs is initially at atmospheric pressure which is now higher than pressure in intrapleural space -causes the lungs to expand into the intrapleural space (increases vol.) which decreases pressure in lungs which causes air to be drawn into the lungs
Timbre
- the quality of the sound -determined by the natural frequency of the object -Some objects vibrate at a single frequency producing a pure tone -Other objects vibrate at multiple frequencies that have no relation to one another ( not musical)
Dishabituation
- the recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred - occurs after a different stimulus has been presented -refers to changes in response to the original stimulus not the new one
Kirchhoff's Junction Rule
- total current flowing into the junction equals total current flowing out of the junction I into junction = I leaving junction
Sublimation
- transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors
Cerebroside
- type of glycosphingolipid - have a single sugar -no net charge at physiological pH (neutral)
Systole
- ventricular contraction occurs, AV valves close, and blood is pumped out of the ventricles -higher pressure
Capillaries
- vessels w/ a single endothelial cell layer -very small - their thin wall allows easy diffusion of gases (CO2 and O), nutrients (glucose), and wastes (urea) -Allow endocrine signals (hormones) to arrive at their target tissues -Very delicate -when capillaries are damaged, blood leaves the capillaries & enters the interstitial space (causes bruise)
Physiological response
- when a feeling is experiences, arousal is stimulated by the ANS -leads to changes in heart rate, breathing rate, skin temp. and blood pressure
Bonding Orbital
- when the signs of the wave functions are the same - lower energy (more stable)
Destructive interference
- when waves are perfectly out of phase, troughs line up with crests so the amplitudes cancel - 0 amplitude -0 intensity -no energy is delivered
Conjugation
-2 cells form a conjugation bridge b/w them that allows for transfer of genetic material -from donor male (+) to recipient female (-) -the bridge is made from appendages called sex pili -to form pilus, bacteria must contain plasmids called sex factors (Fertility factor (F)) F+ cell repliacates its F factor and donates a copy to the recipient converting it into F+ cell
Diastereomers (biochem)
-2 sugars in the same family (both are either ketoses or aldoses; have same # of carbons) but are not identical and are not mirror images of each other
Ossicles
-3 bones of the middle ear (malleus, incus, stapes) -transmit and amplify vibrations from tympanic membrane to inner ear -Malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and acts on the incus (anvil) which acts on the stapes (stirrup) -Stapes rests on oval window of cochlea
Parathyroid Gland
-4 small pea-sized structures on the posterior surface of the thyroid -regulates calcium levels - produce parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Taste
-5 basic tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami) -detected by taste chemoreceptors which are sensitive to dissolved compounds
Furanose ring
-5 membered ring -has 5 sides
Thyroxine (T4)
-AA derivative hormone -produced by follicular cells of thyroid -stimulates metabolic activity
Triiodothyronine (T3)
-AA derivative hormone -produced by follicular cells of thyroid -stimulates metabolic activity
Alcohols can be used as protecting groups for other functional groups
-Aldehydes & ketones can be reacted w/ alcohol to form acetals (primary carbons w/ 2 -OR groups and a H atom) or to form ketals (secondary carbons with 2 -OR groups) -Carbonyls are very reactive w/ strong reducing agents like LiAlH4 (acetals & ketals don't)
Purines and pyrimidines are aromatic heterocycles
-Aromatic compounds are cyclic, planar, and conjugated (alternating single & multiple bonds) -Contain 4n+2 π electrons (where n is any integer) -Have extra stability due to delocalized π electrons that travel throughout the compound using available molecular orbitals -Very stable, fairly unreactive -Nucleic acids are aromatic so they have a lot of stability which is useful for storing genetic info
maintenance of blood pressure by cardiovascular system
-Blood pressure must be kept sufficiently high to propel blood forward -Blood pressure is a measure of the force per unit area exerted on the wall of blood vessels -measured w/ a sphygmomanometer -Expressed as ratio of the systolic (ventricular contraction) and diastolic (ventricular relaxation) pressures -Pressure gradually drops from arterial to venous circulation -largest drop occurs at arterioles (thin-walled, unable to withstand too much pressure) -Normal blood pressure is b/w 90/60 and 120/80 -pressure gradient (ΔP) across circulatory system drives cardiac output (CO) through a given total peripheral (vascular) resistance (TPR) ΔP = CO * TPR -The longer the blood vessel, the greater the resistance -The larger the cross-sectional area of a blood vessel, the lower the resistance -Capillary beds are in parallel w/ each other so opening capillary beds decreases vascular resistance (like resistors in parallel) which increases cardiac output
Glycosidic Bond
-Carbon-Oxygen bonds - water is lost (condensation reaction) - to break this bond, water must be added
Nativist (biological) Theory
-Chomsky said that there is an innate capacity for language -Theorized that there is a pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules (language acquisition device)
Resistors in Parallel
-Current splits into parallel branches so they add - same voltage drop in each branch b/c all pathways start and end at a common point I1 = I2 + I3 V = V1 = V2 -Reciprocal resistances add Requiv = (R1*R2)/(R1+R2 ) -Equivalent resistance decreases as more resistors are added in parallel -Sum of the currents going into each division must equal the total current going out
structural differences b/w RNA and DNA
-DNA is double stranded and RNA is single stranded -DNA contains thymine and RNA contains uracil -DNA contains deoxyribose and RNA contains ribose
Pathway of Bloodflow through the Heart
-Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through the tricuspid valve & enters right ventricle -On contraction, blood from right ventricle passes through pulmonary valve & enters pulmonary arteries where it travels to lungs -Blood reaches capillaries that line alveoli & participates in gas exchange (CO2 leaves & O enters the blood) -Blood travels into pulmonary venules & into pulmonary veins which carry blood to left side of heart -Oxygenated blood enters left atrium, travels through mitral valve, & enters left ventricle -On contraction, blood from left ventricle passes through aortic valve & enters aorta -From aorta, blood enters arteries, then arterioles, & then capillaries -After gas & nutrient exchange occurs at capillaries, blood enters venules which lead into larger veins -Veins empty into the SVC or IVC for return to right side of heart
Carbonyl has dipole
-Dipole of the carbonyl is stronger than the dipole of an alcohol b/c the double bonded O is more e-withdrawing than the single bond to O in the hydroxyl group -Dipole moment increases intermolecular interactions making the boiling point of aldehydes and ketones higher than parent alkanes -B.P is lower in aldehydes & ketones than in alcohols b/c H-bonding is stronger -Aldehydes & ketones act as electrophiles b/c the electron withdrawing properties of the carbonyl O leaves a partial + charge on the C (good targets for nucleophiles) -Aldehydes are more reactive toward nucleophiles than ketones b/c they have less steric hindrance
DNA Denaturation
-Double helix can be denatured by conditions that disrupt H bonding & base-pairing -results in separation of double helix into 2 single strands -heat, alkaline pH, and chemicals like formaldehyde & urea are used to denature DNA -the higher the G-C content, the higher the temperature required to denature DNA -denatured, single stranded DNA can be reannealed (brought back together) if the denaturing condition is slowly removed
Intimacy vs Isolation
-Erickson's Stage of Psychosocial Development -young adulthood (20-40 years) -if resolved, person feels loved and has ability to form intimate relationships with others - if unresolved, person avoids commitment, distances himself from others
Nucleophile attack on Aldehyde
-When nucleophile attacks, it forms a covalent bond to carbon, breaking the π bond in carbonyl -tetrahedral is formed -The e- from the π bond are pushed onto the O atom (accepts e- due to high EN) -Any time a carbonyl is opened ask: can I reform the carbonyl? -If no leaving group is present (case of aldehydes & ketones), the carbonyl won't reform ( rather, the O accepts a proton from solvent & forms OH) -If a good leaving group is present (case of carboxylic acids), the carbonyl double bond can reform pushing off the leaving group
Proofreading
-When the complementary strands have incorrectly paired bases, the H bonds b/w the strands are unstable and that instability is detected when DNA passes through proofreading part of DNA polymerase -Incorrect base is excised and replaced w/ correct one -To differentiate b/w the template strand and the incorrectly paired daughter strand, DNA polymerase looks at the level of methylation *template strand is older so it is more heavily methylated -DNA ligase (closes gaps b/w okazaki fragments) lacks proofreading ability ( greater likelihood of mutations in lagging strand)
Ketal or Acetal Formation
-When two alcohols are added, the reaction goes to completion and forms an acetal or ketal -one alcohol group is added first forming a hemiketal or hemiacetal -then, another alcohol group is added (the H on the ROH group reacts with the OH group of the hemiacetal or hemiketal forming a water molecule that leaves) -The OH group of a hemiacetal or hemiketal is protonated & a water molecule is lost -Acetals and ketals are used as protecting groups
Nucleosides
-a 5 carbon sugar (pentose) linked to a nitrogenous base - formed by covalently linking the base to C-1' of the sugar
Heterolytic Reactions
-a bond is broken and both e- are given to one of the 2 products
ventilation center
-a collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata that regulate ventilation - fire rhythmically to cause regular contraction of respiratory muscles - contain chemoreceptors that are sensitive to carbon dioxide concentration -as the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood rises (hypercarbia), the respiratory rate increases so that more CO2 is exhaled causing CO2 levels in the blood to fall -also respond to changes in oxygen concentration --> only significant during period of hypoxemia (low [O] in blood)
Lactone
-a cyclic ester w/ a carbonyl group persisting on the anomeric carbon
Conditioned Stimulus
-a normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response (conditioned response)
Sinoatrial Node (SA node)
-a small collection of cells located in the wall of the right atrium -Impulse initiation occurs at SA node (generates 60-100 signals per min w/o requiring neurological input)
Regenerative Capacity
-ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body -varies from species to species
Induction
-ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of other nearby cells
Intuition
-ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence
Conservation
-ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size
Divided Attention
-ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time -New or complex tasks require undivided attention and use controlled effortful processing -Familiar and routine actions are performed w/ automatic processing -allows brain to focus on other tasks w/ divided attention
Competent
-ability to respond to the inducing signal
Theory of mind
-ability to sense how another person's mind works - as children grow, they become able to see how others perceive them and to imagine themselves from the outside (we begin to recognize & react to how others think about us)
Parallel Processing
-ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion - these features are compared to our memories to determine what is being viewed
Capacitance
-ability to store energy C = Q/V Q = CV SI unit: Farad (1F = 1 C/V)
Kinesthetic Sense (proprioception)
-ability to tell where one's body is in space - you know where the position of your hand is even w/ your eyes closed -found in muscles & joints -play a role in coordination, balance & mobility
Perceptual Organization
-ability to use top-down and bottom-up processing combined with all of the other sensory clues about an object to create a complete picture or idea
Acid Base Reactions
-acid & base react resulting in formation of conjugate base of acid & conjugate acid of base -The reaction proceeds as long as the reactants are stronger (more reactive) than the products they form
Bronsted-Lowry Definition
-acid is a species that can donate a proton (H+) & a base is a species that can accept a proton
Paracrine Signals
-act on cells in the local area
Autocrine Signals
-act on the same cell that secreted the signal
Impulse propagation
-action potential travels down the axon - initiates neurotransmitter release
Marijuana
-active chemical is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) - acts at cannabinoid receptors, opioid receptors, and glycine receptors -increases GABA activity (causing neural inhibition) and dopamine activity (causing pleasure) -Causes eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, lowered blood pressure -It is a stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen
Controlled (Effortful) Processing
-active memorization -with practice, controlled processing can become automatic (ex: learning a new language)
Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
-assume unconscious internal states motivate overt actions of individuals & determine personality -include Freud, Jung, Adler, Horney, object relations theory
Viral Translation
-after infection, viral genetic material is translated -DNA viruses go to the nucleus to be transcribed into mRNA which then goes to cytoplasm to be translated into proteins -Positive sense RNA viruses stay in cytoplasm and their genetic material is translated directly to protein by host cell ribosomes -negative sense RNA viruses require synthesis of complementary RNA strand via RNA replicase *complementary strand is then translated to form proteins
Diols
-alcohols with 2 hydroxyl groups
Open boundaries
-allow maximal oscillation - places of antinodes - ex: open end of a pipe or free end of a string
Recombinant DNA Technology
-allows DNA fragment from any source to be multiplied by gene cloning or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) -Recombinant DNA is made of nucleotides from 2 different sources
Transgenic Mice
-altered at their germ line by introducing a cloned gene into fertilized ova or into embryonic stem cells -Transgene is a cloned gene that is introduced -If transgene is a disease-producing allele, the transgenic mice are used to study the disease process from early embryonic development through adulthood
Ketone
-always internal -can never be a terminal functional group -has 2 alkyl groups -Named by replacing the -e w/ the suffix -one -When naming ketones by their common names, the 2 alkyl groups are named alphabetically followed by -ketone
Gram Equivalent Weight
-amount of a compound that produces 1 equivalent of the particle of interest Gram Equivalent Weight= (molar mass)/n n : # of particles produced or consumed per molecule
Specific Heat
-amount of energy required to raise one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius -Specific heat of water = 1 cal/(g*K)
Expectancy-Value Theory
-amount of motivation needed to reach a goal results from the individual's expectation of success in reaching that goal and the degree to which he values succeeding at that goal
Actual Yield
-amount of product you actually obtain during the reaction
Limbic System
-amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, fornix, septal nuclei, parts of cerebral cortex -plays a role in motivation and emotion
Native PAGE (polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis)
-analyzes proteins in native (folded) state - compares molecular size or charge of proteins known to be similar in size - allows complete protein to be recovered
Cortical Sex Hormones
-androgens and estrogens - made by adrenal glands -Males secrete a lot of androgens in testes so adrenal testosterone plays a small role - excess androgen production in females leads to masculinized genitalia
echolocation
-animal emits sound which serves as both the source and the detector of the sound -the sound bounces off of a surface and is reflected back to the animal -how long it takes for the sound to return& the change in frequency of the sound are used to determine the position of objects and the speed at which they are moving
Z-DNA
-another form of DNA -has zig-zag appearance - left handed helix -turns every 12th base pair - unstable
Benzodiazepines
-anxiety-reducing (anxiolytic) drugs -increase GABA activity -cause sense of relaxation -highly addictive
Reducing Sugar
-any monosaccharide w/ a hemiacetal ring (since they can be oxidized, they are considered reducing agents)
Law of Constant Composition
-any pure sample of a given compound will contain the same elements in an identical mass ratio -Every sample of water has 2 H atoms for every 1 O atom
Pseudostratified Epithelia
-appear to have multiple layers due to difference in cell height but are only 1 layer
Stage 1 of Sleep
-appearance of theta waves - irregular waveforms w/ slower frequencies & higher voltages
Dendrites
-appendages emanating from the soma -receive incoming messages from other cells
Conduction aphasia
-arcuate fasciculus is damaged (connects Broca's area to Wernicke's area) -speech production and comprehension are intact (broca's and wernicke's areas are intact) - unable to repeat something that has been said b/c the connection b/w these 2 regions has been lost
Node
-area where probability of finding an e- is zero
Phenols
-aromatic alcohols -Hydroxyl groups can be attached to aromatic rings (these hydroxyl hydrogens are very acidic due to possible resonance b/w the ring & the lone pairs on the O atom) -Two groups on adjacent carbons are called ortho- or o- -Two groups separated by a carbon is called meta- or m- -Two groups on opposite sides of the ring are called para- or p-
Vitamin E
-aromatic ring w/ a long isoprenoid side chain - hydrophobic - aromatic ring reacts w/ free radicals destroying them (biological antioxidant) -prevent oxidative damage (contributor to cancer and aging)
Venturi Effect
-as the area decreases from point 1 to point 2, the linear speed increases -as the dynamic pressure increases, the absolute pressure decreases at point 2 -with a lower absolute pressure, the column of fluid sticking up from the Venturi tube is lower at point 2
Binary Fission
-asexual reproduction -circular chromosome attaches to the cell wall and replicates while the cell grows -plasma membrane and cell wall begin to grow inward and produces 2 identical daughter cells
Pre-frontal Cortex
-associated w/ planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, & making decisions -Receives arousal from brainstem: coordinates arousal
Elaborative rehearsal
-association of info to knowledge already stored in long term memory -enables consolidation of info into long term memory -controlled by hippocampus -very old memories are moved to the cerebral cortex
Polar Covalent Bonds
-atoms differ moderately in EN -unequal sharing of e- -EN difference b/w 0.5 to 1.7 -most EN element acquires more e- and becomes partially negative -least EN element gets fewer e- and becomes partially positive -to indicate difference in charge, an arrow is used (pointing from + to - molecule)
DNA Cloning
-attempts to produce large quantities of homogeneous DNA -Requires ligation of DNA of interest into a piece of nucleic acid called vector which forms recombinant vector -Restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases) recognize specific double-stranded DNA sequences and once the specific sequence has been identified, the restriction enzyme cuts both the plasmid and the fragment -Once the fragment binds to plasmid, it can be introduced into a bacterial cell and permitted to replicate which generates many copies of fragment of interest -Vectors contain an origin of replication, the fragment of interest, and at least 1 gene for antibiotic resistance (which allows selection of that colony after replication)
Effective Nuclear Charge (Z eff)
-attraction b/w e- in valence shell and nucleus *e- and protons are added left to right one at a time -positivity of nucleus increases causing e- surrounding nucleus to experience stronger pull toward nucleus so e- cloud moves closer & binds more tightly to nucleus -this pull is mitigated by non-valence e- residing closer to nucleus -Z eff increases left to right in same period -increases bottom to top
Cohesion
-attractive force that a molecule of liquid feels toward other molecules of the same liquid -occurs b/w molecules with the same properties (oil is cohesive w/ other oil molecules)
London Dispersion Forces
-attractive interaction b/w short-lived and rapidly shifting dipoles (in non-polar molecules) -weak -large molecules have greater LDF b/c their e- can be easily shifted around
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
-automated process that can produce millions of copies of a DNA sequence from a small sample -DNA of interest is denatured, replicated, and then cooled to allow reannealing of daughter strands w/ the parent strands -this process is repeated several times doubling the amount of DNA w/ each cycle until enough copies of the DNA sequence are available for further testing
Intensity
-average rate of energy transfer per area across a surface that is perpendicular to the wave (power over area) I = P/A SI units: W/m2 -Intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude -Intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source *The softest sound that the average human ear can hear has intensity of 1 x 10^-12 W/m^2 *Intensity of sound at threshold of pain: 10 W/m^2
Changing the temperature changes Keq (not Q)
-b/c Keq is now a different value, Q no longer equals Keq -system moves in direction that allows it to reach equilibrium -if reaction is endothermic (ΔH >0), heat functions as a reactant -if reaction is exothermic (ΔH < 0), heat functions as a product -thinking about heat as reactant or product allows us to apply the same principles used w/ concentrations changes
lytic Cycle
-bacteriophage makes maximal use of cell's machinery -little regard for survival of host cell -once host is swollen with virions, the cell lyses and other bacterial is infected -bacteria in lytic phase are virulent
Erickson's Psychosocial Development
-based on a series of crises that derive from conflicts b/w needs and social demands -successful resolution of a stage is marked by answering an essential existential question (individual gains skills & traits that are carried through subsequent stages) *Trust vs Mistrust *Autonomy vs shame and doubt *Initiative vs. guilt *Industry vs Inferiority *Identity vs role confusion *Intimacy vs Isolation *Generativity vs Stagnation *Integrity vs Despair
Id
-basic, primal urges to survive & reproduce -aims to achieve immediate gratification to relieve tension
Size Exclusion Chromatography
-beads contain tiny pores -small molecules enter the pores & get stuck so they elude later -large molecules don't fit in the pores so they move around taking a shorter path & elude faster
Lens
-behind iris -controls refraction of incoming light -contraction of the ciliary muscle pulls on the suspensory ligaments and changes the shape of the lens (accommodation)
Carl Rogers
-believed that people have the freedom to control their own behavior -Developed the client-centered therapy whichhelps client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, & determine his destiny *Unconditional positive regard: therapeutic technique by which therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy to promote positive therapeutic environment
SN2 Reaction
-bimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions - only 1 step (concerted reaction) -nucleophile attacks the compound at the same time as the leaving group leaves -Nucleophile actively displaces the leaving group in a backside attack for this to occur, nucleophile must be strong & substrate can't be sterically hindered -concentrations of substrate & nucleophile have role in determining the rate --> rate = k[Nu][R-L] -Position of the substituents around the substrate carbon is inverted
Senescence
-biological aging -occurs when molecular & cell structural changes accumulate
Stressor
-biological element, external condition, or event that leads to a stress response - common stressors: *Environmental factors like inclement weather *Daily events like running late, losing items *Workplace or academic setting like an assignment or time management *Social expectations: demands placed on oneself by society, family, & friends *Chemical & biological stressor like alcohol, drugs, medical conditions
Deuterostomes
-blastopore develops into the anus (orifice associated w/ #2) -like humans
Implantation
-blastula moves through fallopian tube to the uterus & burrows into the endometrium
Deep Vein Thrombosis
-blood clot in deep veins of the leg -may become dislodged & travel through the right heart to lungs (leads to pulmonary embolus - life threatening)
Heterochromatin
-compacted, dense chromatin - appears dark under microscope -transcriptionally silent (remains compacted so it cannot be accessed for transcription)
Esters
-carboxylic acid derivatives -hydroxyl group is replaced with an alkoxy group (OR where R is a hydrocarbon chain) -first term in the alkyl name based on the identity of the R group (like an adjective describing the ester) -the second term is the name of the parent acid with -oate replacing -oic acid
Vitamin A
-carotene -unsaturated - important in vision, growth, development, & immune function -Important metabolite of vitamin A is retinal: component of light sensing molecular system in the human eye -Retinol (the storage form of vitamin A) is oxidized to retinoic acid --> hormone that regulates gene expression during epithelial development
Oxygen
-carried primarily by hemoglobin in blood (hemoglobin is made of 4 cooperative subunits -each contains a heme group that binds to an oxygen molecule) - exhibits cooperative binding (results in sigmoidal curve)
Auditory (vestibulocochlear) nerve
-carries electrical signal from organ of corti (in cochlea) to the CNS
Umbilical Arteries
-carry blood away from the fetus toward the placenta
Arteries
-carry blood away from the heart to lungs & other parts of the body -have more smooth muscle than veins -Most arteries contain oxygenated blood (only the pulmonary arteries & umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood) -Highly muscular & elastic -After arteries are filled w/ blood, the elastic recoil from their walls maintains a high pressure & forces blood forward
Pinna (auricle)
-cartilaginous outside part of the ear - channels sound waves into the external auditory canal
Hallucinogens
-cause distortions of reality and fantasy & enhancement of sensory experiences - increased heart rate and blood pressure -dilation of pupils -sweating - increased body temp.
Necrosis
-cell death due to injury -internal substances can be leaked
Juxtacrine Signals
-cell directly stimulates receptors of adjacent cell
Responder
-cell that is induced (responsive cell) in differentiation
Cell Migration
-cells disconnect from adjacent structures & migrate to their anatomically correct location
Stem Cells
-cells that have not yet differentiated - exist in embryonic & adult tissue
Adipocytes
-cells that store large amounts of fat - found under the skin
Totipotent
-cells w/ greatest potency -include embryonic stem cells -differentiate into any cell type either in fetus or placental features
Fovea
-centermost point of macula -contain only cones -place of best visual acuity
Macula
-central section of the retina - has high concentration of cones
Displacement
-changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same
Conductors
-charges distribute evenly upon surface of conductor -transfer and transport charges - used in circuits and electrochemical cells - metals and ionic solutions are conductors
Periodic Law
-chemical & physical properties of elements depend on their atomic #s in a periodic way
Smell
-chemical sense -responds to incoming chemicals from the outside world -responds to volatile compounds
Neurotransmitters
-chemicals that transmit info b/w neurons
Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment
-children watched an adult kick inflatable toy -when children were allowed to play in the room, they inflicted similar violence on doll -Not imitation - can be used to teach individuals to avoid behavior -Children who watched the adult get scolded for punching doll were less likely to be aggressive toward doll
Anomeric Carbon
-chiral carbonyl carbon in cyclic form -carbon is bonded to both the ring O and a hydroxyl group
Vitamin D
-cholecalciferol -consumed or formed in a UV light driven reaction in the skin -vitamin D is converted to calcitriol which increases calcium and phosphate intake in intestines (promotes bone production) -Regulates calcium so it is added to milk to aid in absorption of calcium
Sphingomyelin
-class of sphingolipids and phospholipids (sphingophospholipids) -have either phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine as a head group (contain phosphodiester bond) -its head groups have no charge - major component of Schawnn cells and oligodendrocytes (cells that produce myelin)
Cornea
-clear window in front of the eye - gathers and focuses incoming light
β-amylase
-cleaves amylose at the non-reducing end of the polymer
Thematic Apperception Test
-client is asked to make up a story about a series of pictures (story elucidates the client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings)
Creation of Transgenic Mice using Fertilized Ova
-cloned gene is microinjected into nucleus of newly fertilized ovum -ovum is implanted into surrogate mother -resulting offspring will contain the transgene in all of their cells including gametes so they will pass it on to their offspring
Circulatory System (Physics)
-closed loop that has a non-constant flow rate -non-constant rate results from valves, gravity, and elasticity of vessels - this rate can be felt & measured as a pulse
Iris
-colored part of the eye - continuous w/ the choroid -composed of 2 muscles: Dilator pupillae & constrictor pupillae
Determination
-commitment of a cell to having a particular function in the future -cell commits to a specific lineage -occurs due to presence of specific mRNA & protein molecules and due to secretion of specific molecules from nearby cells
Clot
-composed of coagulation factors (proteins) and platelets -minimize blood loss -When the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, it exposes the underlying connective tissue which contains collagen & tissue factor (protein) -When platelets come into contact with exposed collagen, they sense this as evidence of injury so they release their contents & begin to clump together -At the same time, coagulation factors are secreted by liver which sense tissue factor and initiate a complex activation cascade -Endpoint of cascade is activation of prothrombin which forms thrombin which converts fibrinogen into fibrin -Fibrin forms small fibers that aggregate and cross link into a woven structure (like a net) that capture red blood cells and other platelets forming a stable clot over the area of damage -Clot is broken down by plasmin
Enol
-compound w/ a double bond and an alcohol group
Optical Isomers (stereoisomers)
-compounds that have the same chemical formula but have different spatial arrangement of atoms
law of pragnanz
-conceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible -regulate Gestalt Principles
Umbilical Cord
-connects embryo to placenta -consists of 2 arteries & 1 vein encased in gelatinous substance -vein carries oxygenated blood rich w/ nutrients from placenta to embryo -arteries carry deoxygenated blood & waste to placenta
Eustachian Tube
-connects middle ear to nasal cavity -equalizes pressure b/w middle ear & environment
Constrictor Pupillae
-constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation
Complementary DNA (cDNA) Libraries
-constructed by reverse-transcribing processed mRNA - lack non-coding regions (introns) - only include genes that are expressed in the tissue from which mRNA was isolated -also called expression libraries
Carboxylic Acids
-contain a carbonyl group (C=O) and a hydroxyl group (OH) on a terminal carbon -very oxidized (have 3 bonds to O) -named by replacing -e in the name of the parent alkane with -oic acid
Ketones
-contain carbonyl group somewhere in the middle of the carbon chain -always assign a number to the carbonyl carbon -named by replacing -ane in the name of the parent alkane with the suffix -one -give the carbonyl carbon the lowest possible # since it is the highest priority group
Bacteria
-contain cell membrane and cytoplasm
Peroxisomes
-contain hydrogen peroxide -break down long chain fatty acids
Genomic Libraries
-contain large fragments of DNA - include both coding (exon) and non-coding (intron) regions of DNA
Deoxy Sugar
-contains a H that replaces a OH on the sugar
Dorsal Root Ganglia
-contains cell bodies of sensory neurons that bring info from periphery (enter the back side of the spinal cord)
Inner Ear
-contains the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals
Third Trimester
-continued rapid growth & further brain development at 7-8 months -At 9 months, antibodies are transported from mother to fetus for protection against foreign matter in preparation for birth
Thyroid
-controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary -located on front surface of trachea -sets the basal metabolic rate and maintains calcium homeostasis
Superior Colliculus
-controls some responses to visual stimuli & reflexive eye movements
Transduction (Behavioral Sciences)
-converts information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in nervous system -related to sensation
Epithelial Tissue
-covers body and lines cavities -provides protection against pathogen invasion and dessication -in some organs, it is involved in absorption and secretion
major groove & minor groove in DNA
-created by twisting of DNA -provide binding site for regulatory proteins
Inductive Reasoning
-creates a theory via generalizations -starts w/ specific instances and then draws conclusions from them
Associative Learning
-creation of a pairing or association either b/w 2 stimuli or b/w a behavior and a response
Cuboidal Cells
-cube-shaped cells
Meniscus
-curved surface formed when liquid is placed in container -the liquid crawls up the side of the container a small amount - forms when the adhesive forces are greater than the cohesive forces
Nucleotide Excision Repair
-cut-and-patch process -specific proteins scan the DNA molecule & recognize the lesion b/c of a bulge in the strand -an excision endonuclease (enzyme) makes nicks in the phosphodiester backbone of the damaged strand on both sides & removes defective oligonucleotide -DNA polymerase fills in the gap by synthesizing DNA using the undamaged strand as template - nick in strand is sealed by DNA ligase -Used when thymine dimers are formed which distort the shape of the double helix
Broca's (expressive) Aphasia
-damage to Broca's area -speech comprehension is intact - patient has reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language
Archimedes' Principle
-deals w/ buoyancy of objects placed in fluid -says that a body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid will cause a volume of fluid to be displaced equal to the volume of the object
Damping or attenuation
-decrease in amplitude of a wave during each oscillation caused by non-conservative forces (friction, air resistance, viscous drag) - doesn't have an effect on the frequency of the wave so the pitch won't change
Reduction
-decrease in oxidation state -gain of e- -increase in # of bonds to hydrogen
Habituation
-decrease in response after repeated exposure to the same stimulus
Alzheimer's disease
-degenerative brain disorder -linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to hippocampus -progressive dementia (loss of cognitive function) and memory loss and atrophy of the brain -loss of recent memories before distant memories -Have neurofibrillary tangles and β amyloid plaques *β amyloid plaques: incorrectly folded proteins ( insoluble β pleated sheets form and deposit in the brain) -Extreme shrinkage of cerebral cortex and hippocampus -Severely enlarged ventricles
Specific Gravity
-density of a fluid compared to that of pure water at 1 atm and 4C SG ρ/(1 g/〖cm〗^3 )
Pragmatics
-dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge -The manner in which we speak depends on the audience and the relationship w/ audience -Affected by prosody: rhythm, cadence, and inflection of voices
Fertilization Membrane
-depolarized & impenetrable membrane
Steroids
-derivatives of terpenes -have 4 cycloalkane rings fused together (3 cyclohexane, 1 cyclopentane) -have a large # of carbons and hydrogens (makes steroid nonpolar)
Terpenoids
-derivatives of terpenes -have undergone oxygenation & rearrangement of the carbon skeleton -contribute to steroid biosynthesis -similar characteristics w/ terpenes
Amino Acid Derivative Hormones
-derived from 1 or 2 amino acids w/ additional modifications -Include epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine -Catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) bind to G protein coupled receptors --> fast onset & short lived -Thyroid hormones bind intracellularly (slower onset & longer duration) -Have names that end in -in or -ine (thyroxine)
Steroid Hormones
-derived from cholesterol -produced by gonads and adrenal cortex -Bind to intracellular receptors -function by binding to DNA to alter gene transcription -Slower and longer lived (have direct actions on DNA) -Not water soluble --> must be carried by proteins in bloodstream --> inactive while attached to carrier protein (must dissociate from carrier to function) -Have names that end in -one, -ol, or -oid (testosterone, cortisol, glucocorticoids)
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
-describes orbitals - ranges from -l to +l -each orbital has a specific shape -describes orientation
Doppler effect
-describes the difference b/w the actual frequency of a sound and its perceived frequency when the source of the sound and the sound's detector are moving relative to one another -if the source and the detector are moving toward each other, the perceived frequency (f') is greater than actual f -if the source & detector are moving away from each other, the perceived frequency is less than actual f f` = f (v±v_d)/(v∓v_s ) *upper sign should be used when the detector or source is moving toward the other object (Top sign for Toward) *the lower sign should be used when the detector or the source is moving away from the other object (bottom for away)
Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
-describes the subshells -ranges from 0 to (n-1) -energy increases as azimuthal quantum # increases -describes shape o l = 0 s subshell l = 1 p subshell l = 2 d subshell l = 3 f subshell
Adaptation
-detection of stimulus changes over time -focus attention on only the most relevant stimuli which are changes in environment around us
Benedict's Reagent
-detects presence of reducing sugar -aldehyde group of an aldose is readily oxidized indicated by a red precipitate of Cu2O
Tollen's Reagent
-detects presence of reducing sugar -uses Ag(NH3)2+ as oxidizing agent *in a + test, aldehydes reduce Ag+ to metallic silver
Ideal bond Angle
-determined by electronic geometry -lone pairs of e- are closer to the nucleus so they exert more repulsion -presence of lone pairs of e- makes ideal angle smaller
Absolute Configuration
-determined by the 3D arrangement of the groups attached to the chiral carbon
Potency
-determines the tissues a particular stem cell can differentiate into
Gibb's Free Energy
-determines whether the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous
Neurulation
-development of the nervous system -begins after the 3 germ layers are formed
protostomes
-develops into the mouth
Exhalation
-diaphragm relaxes -chest wall and rib cage contract -During passive exhalation, diaphragm & external intercostals relax causing chest cavity to decrease in volume -In active exhalation, the internal intercostal muscles & abdominal muscles are used to forcibly decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity, pushing out air
Pluripotent
-differentiate into any cell type except for those found in placental structures
Multipotent
-differentiate into multiple types of cells within a particular group
Insomnia
-difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep -may be related to anxiety, depression, medications
Vicinal Diols
-diols with hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons
Geminal Diols
-diols with hydroxyl groups on the same carbon
external auditory canal
-directs sound waves to the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Extinction
-disappearance of conditional response after conditioned stimulus is presented w/o the unconditioned stimulus several times -if bell rings enough times w/o the dog getting meat, the dog stops salivating when the bell sounds
Dyssomnias
-disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep -insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy
Euchromatin
-dispersed chromatin (accessible for DNA replication during S phase) -appears light under microscope -contains genetically active DNA
Base Excision Repair
-fixes non-deforming lesions of the DNA helix by removing the base leaving an apurinic/apyrimidinic site (AP) -AP endonuclease removes the damaged sequence which is can be filled in w/ the correct bases by DNA polymerase (strand is sealed by DNA ligase) -Used to correct cytosine deamination * loss of amino group from cytosine resulting in conversion of cytosine to uracil
Squamous Cells
-flat and scalelike cells
Current
-flow of positive charge - amount of charge Q passing through a conductor per unit time (I = Q/∆t) SI unit: Ampere (1A = 1 C/s ) -Charge is transmitted by the flow of e- in a conductor (move from point of lower electrical potential to a point of higher electrical potential) -Direction of current is opposite to the direction of actual e- flow (from higher to lower potential)
Blastocoel
-fluid filled inner cavity during blastulation
Laminar flow
-fluid flow is smooth and orderly -modeled as layers of fluid that flow parallel to each other
Superego
-focused on ideal self -judges out actions, responds w/ pride at accomplishment and guilt at our failures
Social Cognitive Perspective of Personality
-focuses on how our environment influences our behavior & how we interact with the environment -Reciprocal determinism: our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact w/ each other to determine our actions in a given situation
Vytgotsky's Cultural and Biosocial Development
-focuses on understanding cognitive development (driven by child's internalization of various aspects of culture) -Zone of proximal development: skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development --> gaining these skills successfully requires help of a more knowledgeable other (adult)
Dizygotic (Fraternal) Twins
-form from fertilization of 2 different eggs released in 1 ovulatory cycle by 2 different sperm -each zygote implants in uterine wall & develops its own placenta, chorion, & amnion -no more genetically similar than any other pair of siblings
Monozygotic (Identical Twins)
-form when a single zygote splits into 2 -genetic material is identical
sigma bonds
-form when orbitals overlap head to head -allow free rotation
Pi bonds
-form when orbitals overlap such that there are 2 parallel e- densities -no rotation
Hybrid Orbitals
-formed by mixing different types of orbitals
Nucleotides
-formed when one or more phosphate groups are attached to C-5' of a nucleoside -named according to # of phosphates present (adenosine triphosphate has 3 phosphate groups attached to the nucleoside adenosine) *Nitrogenous base + pentose sugar + phosphate groups *high energy compounds due to energy associated w/ repulsion b/w closely associated - charges on the phosphate groups
Blastulation
-forms the blastula with a fluid filled inner cavity (blastocoel)
Alditol
-forms when the aldehyde group of an aldose is reduced to an alcohol
Algorithm
-formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem - set of instructions
Neural Crest Cells
-found at the tip of each neural fold -migrate outward to form the peripheral nervous system
Interneurons
-found b/w other neurons - located predominantly in brain and spinal cord - linked to reflexive behavior
DNA Polymerase III
-found in prokaryotes -begin synthesizing the daughter strand of DNA in the 5' to 3' manner
Hair cells
-found in the Organ of Corti in cochlea in inner ear -convert physical stimulus into an electrical signal -contain stereocilia on top surface -As vibrations reach basilar membrane under the organ of corti, the stereocilia in hair cells sway back and forth within the endolymph - swaying of hair cells/movement of fluid causes opening of ion channels which leads to depolarization of the neuron associated w/ that hair cell
Preoperational Stage
-from 2 to 7 years old - characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism and centration
Concrete Operational Stage
-from 7 to 11 years old - able to understand conservation and to consider perspectives of others -engage in logical thought as long as they are working w/ concrete objects or info directly available -cannot think abstractly
Sensorimotor Stage
-from birth to 2 years -child learns to manipulate environment to meet physical needs -circular reactions begin -development of object permanence
Formation of Ketone
-from oxidation of secondary alcohols (reaction stops at ketone stage) -reagents used: sodium or potassium dichromate salts, chromium trioxide, PCC
Formation of Aldehyde
-from the partial oxidation of a primary alcohol by pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) -With any stronger oxidizing agents, aldehydes are oxidized to carboxylic acids
functions of the Respiratory System
-gas exchange -thermoregulation -prevents invaders from gaining access to blood stream -controls blood pH by controlling CO2 concentrations
Voltage Gated Channel
-gate regulated by membrane potential change near channel -example: neurons have voltage gated sodium channels
Knockout Mice
-gene is intentionally deleted (knocked out) - used to study human diseases
Gastrulation
-generation of 3 distinct cell layers (after the cell mass implants) -begins w/ invagination in the blastula -cells move toward the invagination & blastocoel is eliminated -the two membranes merge creating a tube in the middle
Transposons
-genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome
Positive Sense RNA Viruses
-genome is directly translated to functional proteins by ribosomes in host cell
Cholesterol
-has 4 fused rings (steroid nucleus) -has hydrocarbon tail and polar head group -more hydrophilic due to the OH group - serves as precursor to important molecules like steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D -component of phospholipid bilayer -stabilizes membrane fluidity by preventing sharp transitions when temp. changes -at warm temp. (high KE, a lot of movement) cholesterol restricts movement of phospholipids reducing fluidity -at cool temp. there is less KE so the phospholipids move less and pack tightly which makes the membrane lose its fluidity which is bad --> cholesterol maintains its fluidity by preventing tight packing
d orbital
-has 4 symmetrical lobes -has 2 nodes
Pancreas
-has both endocrine and exocrine functions -exocrine tissue: secrete substances directly into ducts *pancreas produces digestive enzymes -endocrine function: pancreas has small groups of hormone producing cells grouped together into Islets of Langerhans that contains alpha, beta, and delta cells
Transition State (Activated Complex)
-has greater energy than both reactants and products - energy required to reach this state is Ea - Once the activated complex forms, it can either dissociate into the products or revert to reactants
Rough ER
-has ribosomes -translation of proteins
Antigen-binding region
-has specific polypeptide sequences that bind only one specific antigenic sequence -at the tips of the "Y"
Hydroxyquinones
-have 2 carbonyls and a variable number of hydroxyl groups -named by indicating the position of the OH group with a number & indicating the total number of OH groups by a prefix (di- or tri-) with the substituent name hydroxyl- (ex: 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone) - To convert phenols to hydroxyquinones, they must be converted to quinones to an oxidation step first and then another oxidation is required to further oxidize the quinones (total of 2 oxidation steps)
Purines
-have 2 rings -PURe As Gold *adenine and guanine * 2 gold wedding rings needed for wedding
triterpenes
-have 6 isoprene units -can be converted to cholesterol & various steroids
Aldehydes
-have a carbonyl group found at the end of the carbon chain (attached to C1) -named by replacing -e of the parent alkane with suffix -al
Glycerophospholipids
-have a glycerol backbone bonded by ester linkages to 2 fatty acids & by a phosphodiester linkage to a highly polar head group -named according to the polar head group b/c the head group determines the membrane surface properties -Has FA group at positions 1 and 2 & polar or charged head group in a phosphodiester linkage to position 3
Sphingolipid
-have a sphingosine backbone -amino group at C2 through an amide bond * 2 OH groups at C1 & C3
Meso Compounds
-have chiral centers -overall molecule is achiral -have internal plane of symmetry -not optically active --> don't rotate plane polarized light -each chiral center rotates light in opposite directions so overall the rotations cancel out
Pyrimidines
-have only 1 ring -CUT the PYe *include cytosine, thymine, and uracil * pie has only 1 ring of crust -Thymine is only found in DNA & uracil is only found in RNA
Dichorionic/diamniotic twins
-have their own chorion & amnion
Organ of Corti
-hearing apparatus -found in middle scala of cochlea -rests on basilar membrane (thin, flexible membrane) - made of thousands of hair cells -bathed in endolymph
Diastole
-heart relaxes, semilunar valves close, and blood from atria fills ventricles -lower pressure
Valence electrons
-high PE -far from nucleus (held less tightly) -involved in chemical bonds w/ valence e- of other atoms
Rapid Eye Movement
-high arousal levels -paralyzed muscles -dreaming occurs -Called paradoxical sleep: heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness but person is still asleep -Associated w/ memory consolidation
Kinetic Products
-higher in free energy than thermodynamic products -can form at lower temp. - referred to as "fast" products b/c they form more quickly
shock wave
-highly condensed wave front - causes physical disturbances as it passes through objects -an object that is producing sound while traveling at or above the speed of sound allows wave fronts to build upon one another at the front of the object -creates a larger amplitude at that point
Blastula
-hollow ball of cells
Microtubules
-hollow polymers of tubulin proteins -radiate throughout cell providing pathways for motor proteins (kinesin) to carry vesicles -found in cilia, flagella, and centrioles
Synthax
-how words are put together to form sentences - child must notice effects of word order on meaning
Abraham Maslow
-humanist - studied lives of people who had lived productive lives and said that all of them had a non-hostile sense of humor, originality, creativity, & spontaneity -Said that self-actualized people are more likely to have peak experiences which are profound and deeply moving experiences that have lasting effects on the individual
Trait Perspective
-humanist - uses clusters of behaviors to describe individuals - group behaviors that typically occur together and assign levels to those groups Big 5 traits of Personality: OCEAN • Openness • Conscientiousness • Extraversion: measure of tolerance for social interaction & stimulation • Agreeableness • Neuroticism: measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations
Endocrine Glands
-hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads, pineal glands -Capable of synthesizing and secreting hormones
Le Chatelier's Principle
-if a stress is applied to a system, the system shifts to relieve the applied stress -Reaction is temporarily moved out of its equilibrium state so the reaction responds by reacting in whichever direction results in reestablishment of equilibrium state
Monosynaptic Reflex Arc
-if there is a single synapse b/w sensory neuron receiving stimulus and motor neuron responding to it -ex: knee jerk reflex: when patellar tendon is stretched w/ reflex hammer, info travels up the sensory neuron to the spinal cord where it interfaces w/ the motor neuron that contracts the quadriceps muscles
Polysynaptic reflex arc
-if there is at least one interneuron b/w the sensory and motor neurons -Ex: withdrawal reflex
Effects of Chronic Stress
-impaired memory, deteriorated immune response, elevated blood pressure, higher risk of cardiovascular disease
Broca's area
-in inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe - controls motor function of speech via connections to motor cortex
Hippocampus
-in temporal lobe -creates long-term memories -storage and retrieval of emotional memories is key in producing an emotional response
Sleep Apnea
-inability to breathe during sleep
Egocentrism
-inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
Belief Perseverance
-inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
Positive Reinforcers
-increase a behavior by adding positive consequences or an incentive following the desired behavior
Stimulants
-increase arousal in nervous system -increase frequency of action potentials -includes amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy
Oxidation
-increase in oxidation state -loss of e- -increase in # of bonds to oxygen
Catalysts
-increase reaction rate w/o themselves being consumed in the reaction - reduce Ea -Return to their original chemical state upon formation of products -Increase the frequency of collisions b/w reactants -Decrease the Ea for both the forward and reverse reactions
Amphetamines
-increase release of dopamine, norepinephrine & serotonin and decrease their reuptake - increased arousal - reduction in appetite and decreased need for sleep -increased heart rate and blood pressure - euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions, paranoia -Prolonged use of high doses could result in stroke or brain damage -Withdrawal leads to depression, fatigue, and irritability
Negative Reinforcers
-increase the frequency of a behavior by removing something unpleasant -taking an aspirin reduces headache so next time you have a headache you are more likely to get an aspirin
Effects of Acute Stress
-increased alertness, less perception of pain, immune system readies for possible injury -heart beats faster -adrenal glands secretes hormones to mobilize energy supplies
Alcohol
-increases activity of GABA receptor (chloride channel that hyperpolarizes membrane) -causes generalized brain inhibition -areas that prevent inappropriate behaviors are depressed so person may seem less inhibited -increases dopamine levels leading to mild sense of euphoria -Inability to recognize consequences of actions leading to alcohol myopia (short sighted view of world) -Logical reasoning and motor skills are affected -Long term consequences: cirrhosis, liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric ulcers, and Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (caused by thiamine deficiency; severe memory impairment w/ loss of motor skills)
Identity
-individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong -We have one all-encompassing self-concept but have multiple identities that define who we are & how we should behave in a given context
Projection
-individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others
Prions
-infectious proteins -nonliving -trigger misfolding of proteins (conversion of alpha helical structure to beta pleated sheet) -reduces solubility of protein -cell is unable to degrade the misfolded protein leading to formation of protein aggregates -cause Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Automatic Processing
-information passively absorbed from environment -gained w/o effort
Unconditioned Response
-innate or reflexive response
Endoderm
-innermost layer -forms the epithelial lining of the digestive & respiratory tracts including the lungs, pancreas, bladder, parts of liver
Retina
-innermost layer of eye -in the back of eye - contains photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical signals - made of neural elements and blood vessels - part of CNS - develops as outgrowth of brain tissue
Ohmmeter
-inserted around a resistive element to measure resistance - are self-powered and have negligible resistance
Voltmeter
-inserted in parallel in a circuit to measure voltage drop -have very large resistances
Ammeter
-inserted in series in a circuit to measure current - have negligible resistance & no voltage drop across them
Adrenal Medulla
-inside the adrenal cortex -derivative of nervous system -produces epinephrine and norepinephrine -Both increase heart rate and alter blood flow -release of catecholamines causes vasodilation of blood vessels in skeletal muscle, heart, lungs, and brain which increases blood flow to these organs -catecholamines also lead to vasoconstriction of blood vessels in gut, kidneys, and skin which decreases blood flow
Dielectric Material
-insulator (air, glass, plastic) -introduced b/w the plates of a capacitor - increases capacitance by a factor called dielectric constant (k)
Type I diabetes Mellitus
-insulin dependent - caused by autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas leading to little or no production of insulin - require regular injections of insulin to permit entry of glucose into cells
Axon hillock
-integrates incoming signals from the cell body
Transformation
-integration of foreign genetic material into the host's genome -many gram - bacteria have this ability
Narcolepsy
-lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep -Display cataplexy: loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours --> caused by emotional trigger -Display sleep paralysis --> unable to move despite being awake -Hypnagogic hallucinations: hallucinations when going to sleep -Hypnopompic hallucinations when awakening (popping out of bed)
viruses
-lack organelles -acellular -don't fit definition of living things -cannot reproduce independently -lack ribosomes to do protein synthesis -must replicate genetic info within host cell -after hijacking cell's machinery, virus replicates and produces viral progeny (virions) which can be released to infect other cells
Smooth ER
-lacks ribosomes -used for lipid synthesis, detoxification of poisons & drugs -transport of proteins from RER to Golgi apparatus
Latent Learning
-learning that occurs w/o a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced -Rats carried through a maze and then incentivized w/ food reward for completing the maze performed better than (or same) rats who were trained to run the maze & rewarded along the way
Resonance
-lewis structure shows same bond connectivity -difference in arrangement of e- pairs - the arrangement that minimizes the # and magnitude of formal charge is the most stable
Posterior Chamber
-lies b/w iris and lens
Anterior Chamber
-lies in front of the iris
Long term Memory
-limitless warehouse for knowledge - recall on demand
Surface tension
-liquid forms a thin but strong layer (like a "skin) at the liquid's surface -results from cohesion
Backwards (convex) meniscus
-liquid level is higher in the middle than at the edges -occurs when cohesive forces are greater than adhesive forces mercury forms convex meniscus
Plasma
-liquid portion of blood -aqueous mixture of nutrients (glucose, fatty acids), salts (Na, K, Cl, bicarbonate), respiratory gases, hormones, & blood proteins (immunoglobulins, albumin)
Olfactory Chemoreceptors
-located in olfactory epithelium in upper part of nasal cavity -Chemical stimuli bind to specific chemoreceptors to cause signal
Wernicke's area
-located in superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe -responsible for language comprehension
Adrenal Glands
-located on top of kidneys -consists of a cortex and a medulla
Columnar Cells
-long and thin cells
Polysaccharides
-long chains of monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds
Flagella
-long structures used for propulsion -composed of filament (composed of flagellin), basal body (motor, anchors flagellum to membrane), and hook (connects filament to basal body)
Agnosia
-loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds - caused by physical damage to the brain
Complete Regeneration
-lost or damaged tissues are replaced w/ identical tissues
Thermodynamic Products
-lower in free energy than kinetic products so they are more stable -form at higher temp. -thermodynamic pathways proceed more slowly than kinetic pathways but are more spontaneous (more - ΔG)
Surfactant
-lowers the surface tension at the surface of a liquid, serving as detergent or emulsifier -form micelles in aqueous solutions --> tiny aggregates of soap with the hydrophobic tails in interior and the hydrophilic heads in exterior * allows hydrophilic heads to interact w/ water in environment and shielding hydrophobic tails
immune function in lungs
-lungs fight off potential invaders (pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi) -vibrissae (small hairs in nasal cavity) help to trap particulate matter & potentially infectious particles -nasal cavity contains lysozyme: enzyme that attacks peptidoglycan walls of gram + bacteria -internal airways are lined with mucus which traps particulate matter & larger invaders -mucociliary escalator: mechanism through which cilia propel mucus up the respiratory tract to the oral cavity where it is expelled or swallowed -lungs & alveoli contain macrophages which engulf & digest pathogens & signal to the rest of the immune system that there is an invader -mucosal surfaces contain IgA antibodies which protect against pathogens that contact the mucous membranes -lungs have mast cells which have pre-formed anti-bodies on their surfaces so when the right substance attached to the antibody, the mast cell releases inflammatory chemicals to promote immune response
B-cells
-lymphocytes that mature in the spleen or in the lymph nodes -generate antibodies
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
-macromolecule -found mainly in chromosomes in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells - stores genetic info
Viral Structure
-made of genetic material, a protein coat, and an envelope containing lipids -capsid --> protein coat -envelope (if present) surrounds capsid *sensitive to heat, detergents, and dessication *enveloped viruses are easier to kill
Microfilament
-made of solid rods of actin -actin filaments are organized into networks (resistant to compression and fracture) -during mitosis, cleavage furrow is formed from microfilaments (in splitting of cytosplasm)
Peptide Hormones
-made up of amino acids -derived from larger polypeptides that are cleaved into smaller units -transported to Golgi apparatus for modification (activation) -packaged into vesicles and released by exocytosis -charged so they cannot pass through plasma membrane -bind to an extracellular receptor (first messenger) and trigger transmission of a second signal (second messenger) -Rapid and short lived effects *act through transient 2nd messengers -Water soluble so they travel freely in bloodstream (do not require carriers) Have names that end in -in or -ine (insulin, vasopressin)
Starches
-polysaccharides - chain of α-D glucose monomers - digestible by humans -2 types: amylopectin and amylose
dielectric constant (k)
-measure of insulating ability of a material (vacuum has dielectric constant of 1) -A dielectric material never decreases the capacitance so k can never be less than 1 (C' = kC) -When a dielectric material is placed in an isolated, charged capacitor (disconnected from any circuit) the voltage across the capacitor decreases (by lowering the voltage, the dielectric increases the capacitance) -When a dielectric material is placed in a charged capacitor within a circuit (connected to voltage source), the charge of the capacitor increases * voltage remains constant (equal to the voltage source) *by increasing the amount of charge stored on the capacitor the dielectric increases capacitance
Entropy
-measure of the distribution of energy throughout a system or b/w a system & its environment -Reaction reaches equilibrium when the system's entropy is at a maximum & the Gibbs free energy of the system is at a minimum
Viscosity (η)
-measure of the fluid's internal resistance to flow -Low viscosity: flow easily (thin fluids like water and gas) -High viscosity:flow slowly (thick fluids like honey or blood) -SI unit for viscosity: pascal-second (Pa*s = (N*s)/m^2 )
Sound level (B)
-measured in decibels (dB) I: intensity of the sound wave I0 : threshold of hearing (1 x 10^-12 W/m^2)
Angular frequency
-measured in radians/sec w=2πf or w= 2π/T
Reaction Quotient
-measures concentrations of reactants and products at any point in time during a reaction -looks identical to the equation for Keq -used to make a comparison b/w Keq and Q
Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka)
-measures the strength of the acid HA↔H+ + A- Ka = ([H+] [A-])/([HA]) pKa = -log ka •More acidic molecules will have a smaller pKa *More basic molecules have larger pKa *The more electronegative the atom, the higher the acidity (accepts more e-)
Respiratory system
-mediated by changes in pressure -During inspiration, there is a negative pressure gradient that moves air into lungs -During expiration, there is a + pressure gradient that moves air out of the lungs
Round Window
-membrane covered hole in cochlea -allows perilymph to move within cochlea
Archenteron
-membrane invagination into the blastocoel -later develops into the gut
Pleurae
-membranes that surround each lung -form a closed sac against which the lung expands
Top-down Processing
-memories and expectations allow the brain to recognize the whole object -allows quick recognition of objects w/o need to analyze their specific parts
Korsakoff 's syndrome
-memory loss - cause by thiamine deficiency in the brain -Marked by retrograde amnesia & anterograde amnesia -Exhibit confabulation: process of creating vivid but fabricated memories (brain tries to fill in the gaps of missing memories) --> creation of false memories
Vitamin K2
-menaquinones -involved in carboxylation of clotting factors
Cretinism
-mental retardation & developmental delay caused by low thyroid hormones in children -affects their neurological and physical development
Terpenes
-metabolic precursors to steroids and other lipid signaling molecules -odiferous chemicals -class of lipids built from isoprene - carbons are grouped in multiples of 5 -grouped according to the # of isoprene units present -a single terpene consists of 2 isoprene units
Heroin
-metabolized quickly to morphine once injected -treatment for opioid addiction includes use of methadone (long acting opioid w/ lower risk of overdose)
Double Displacement Reaction
-metathesis reactions - elements from 2 different compounds swap places w/ each other to form 2 new compounds
Chorionic Villi
-microscopic fingerlike projections that penetrate the endometrium -develop into the placenta & support maternal-fetal gas exchange
Mesoderm
-middle layer -forms the musculoskeletal, circulatory & most of the excretory systems, gonads, muscular & connective tissue layers of digestive & respiratory systems, adrenal cortex
Threshold of Conscious Perception
-min. intensity at which a stimulus is consciously perceived
Aldosterone
-mineralcorticosteroid (steroid hormone) -increases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron - water follows the Na into the bloodstream increasing blood Vol. and Press. -Decreases reabsorption of potassium and H ions which promotes their excretion in urine -controlled by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Threshold
-minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception
Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)
-minimum difference in magnitude b/w 2 stimuli before one can perceive this difference
Two Point Threshold
-minimum distance needed b/w 2 points of stimulation on the skin such that the points are felt as 2 distinct stimuli
Activation Energy
-minimum energy of collision needed for a reaction to take place
Absolute Threshold
-minimum intensity at which a stimulus will be transduced (converted into action potentials) - how bright, loud, or intense a stimulus must be before it is sensed
Hypothalamus
-modulates emotion -controls NTs that affect mood and arousal -helps dictate emotional states
Leaving Groups
-molecular fragments that retain e- after heterolysis -Weak bases are more stable w/ extra electrons -->good leaving groups
Intermediate
-molecule in the mechanism that doesn't appear in the overall reaction
Thrombocytes
-platelets -cell fragments released from megakaryocytes (cells in bone marrow) - assist in blood clotting - present in high concentrations
Kinesin & Dynein
-motor proteins associated w/ microtubules - have 2 heads -at least 1 head remains attached to tubulin at all times •Kinesins align chromosomes •Dyneins involved in sliding movement of cilia & flagella •Both important for vesicle transport •Kinesins bring vesicles toward + end of microtubule & dyneins bring vesicles toward - end
Nerve
-multiple neurons bundled together
Temporal summation
-multiple signals are integrated during a short period of time - small excitatory signals firing at nearly the same time bring postsynaptic cell to threshold
Oncogenes
-mutated genes that cause cancer -encode cell cycle-related proteins
Opiates
-naturally occurring form of opium - includes morphine and codeine
Synapse
-nerve terminal + synaptic cleft + postsynaptic membrane
Hypothalamus w/ Posterior Pituitary
-neurons in hypothalamus send their axons down the pituitary stalk directly into posterior pituitary - causes released of oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone -posterio pituitary contains nerve terminals of neurons w/ cell bodies in hypothalamus -posterior pituitary doesn't synthesize any hormones itself -hormones are produced by the hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary
Sensory Receptors
-neurons that respond to stimuli & trigger electrical signals
Incomplete Regeneration
-newly formed tissue is not identical in structure or function to the tissue that has been injured or lost
Ungated Channel
-no gates, unregulated -all cells have ungated potassium channels
Prokaryotes
-no membrane bound organelles -genetic material organized into single circular molecule of DNA concentrated in nucleoid region
Diastereomers
-non mirror images -not superimpossable -differ at some of their multiple chiral centers
Type II diabetes Mellitus
-non-insulin dependent -caused by receptor level resistance to insulin - partially inherited and partially due to environmental factors like obesity -meds can help body more effectively use the insulin it produces
Nonpolar molecules
-nonpolar bonds -polar bonds with molecular geometry such that the bond dipole moments cancel each other out
physiological zero
-normal temperature of the skin (87-96 F) -Temperature is judged relative to physiological zero
Astrocytes
-nourish neurons - form BBB (controls transmission of solutes from bloodstream to nervous tissue)
Nucleophiles
-nucleus loving -negatively charged so they are attracted to the + nucleus -have lone pairs or π bonds that can be used to form covalent bonds to electrophiles
Avogadro's Number (NA)
-number of particles in 1 mole *6.022X10^23 mol-1
Stoichiometric Coefficients
-numbers placed in front of each compound -used to indicate the relative # of moles of a given species involved in the reaction
Law of Similarity
-objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
-occur in molecules w/ identical or nearly identical EN -equal distribution of e- -any bond with EN <0.5 -diatomic molecules have purely equal distribution of e- due to identical EN --> Cl2, H2, N2, Br2, I2, F2, O2
Dipole Dipole Interactions
-occur in polar molecules -molecule orients itself such that + region of one molecule is close to the - region of another molecule
Standing Waves
-occur when both ends of the string are fixed and traveling waves are excited in the string -Certain wave frequencies cause interference b/w the traveling wave and its reflected wave such that they form a wave-front that appears stationary -Only movement of string is the fluctuation of amplitude at fixed points along the length of the string
Mismatch Repair
-occurs in G2 phase of the cell cycle - detects and removes errors introduced in replication that were missed during the S phase of cell cycle -these enzymes are encoded by genes MSH2 and MLH1
Sleepwalking
-occurs in SWS -no recollection of the event -awakening a sleepwalker will not harm the person -quietly guide sleepwalker back to bed to avoid disturbing SWS
Polarity
-occurs when 2 atoms have a difference in electronegativity -atom with higher EN gets more e- -A polar bond creates a dipole --> + end at least EN atom and - end at most EN atom -EN of 0.5-1.7
Reciprocal Induction
-occurs when 2 tissues induce further differentiation in each other
Sleep Deprivation
-one night w/o sleep or multiple nights of poor quality, short duration sleep -results in irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, slowed reaction times
Ethnic identity
-one's ethnic group -members share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, & language -Influences our perspectives of ourselves
Saturated Fatty Acid Tails
-only have single bonds - no double bonds -greater van der Waals forces -more stable overall -form solids at room temperature
Selective Transcription
-only the genes needed for a particular cell type are transcribed - allows for cells w/ same genes to develop into different cell types w/ highly specialized functions
Blastopore
-opening of the archenteron
Dilator Pupillae
-opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation
Origins of Replication
-points at which DNA unravels -bacterial chromosome has 1 origin of replication -eukaryotes have multiple origins of replication
Resistance
-opposition to the movement and flow of charge within any material R = (ρ*L)/A ρ: resistivity: characterizes the material's intrinsic resistance (Ω*m) resistance of a resistor is directly proportional to its length -a longer resistor means that the e- will have to travel a greater distance through the resistant material -cross sectional area is inversely proportional to resistance - increasing the cross-sectional area, increases the # of pathways through the resistor, which decreases Resistance -Most conductors have greater resistance at higher temp. -increased thermal movement produces more collisions & greater resistance to e- flow
Ear
-organ responsible for sense of hearing and rotational and linear acceleration (vestibular sense) - divided into 3 parts: outer, middle, and inner ear
Placenta
-organ where nutrient, gas, and waste exchanges occur b/w mother & fetus -produces progesterone, estrogen, and human chorionic gonadotropin to maintain pregnancy (endocrine organ) -placental barrier functions as immune protection: crossing of antibodies across the placental membrane protects against exposure to pathogens in utero
Discrimination
-organism learns to distinguish b/w 2 similar stimuli
Resonating
-oscillating with maximum amplitude - occurs when the frequency of the periodic force is equal to the natural frequency of the system
Self-efficacy
-our belief in our ability to succeed -varies by activity -more motivated to pursue tasks for which our self-efficacy is high
Ectoderm
-outermost layer -forms the integument (epidermis, hair, nails, epithelia of nose, mouth & lower anal canal, lens of the eye, nervous system including adrenal medulla & inner ear)
Molecular orbital
-overlap of 2 atomic orbitals -formed when 2 atoms bond to create a compound
pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC)
-oxidizes primary alcohols to aldehydes -lacks the water necessary to hydrate the aldehyde so it cannot oxidize it any further -oxidizes secondary alcohols to ketones
sonic boom
-passing of a shock wave creates a very high pressure followed by a very low pressure -heard any time that an object traveling at or faster than the speed of sound passes a detector
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
-peptide hormone -antagonistic to calcitonin -raises blood calcium levels by decreasing excretion of calcium by kidneys, by increasing absorption of calcium in gut, and by freeing up calcium in bone -Subject to feedback inhibition -as levels of calcium in blood rise, PTH secretion decreases
Oxytocin
-peptide hormone -released by posterior pituitary -stimulates uterine contractions, releases milk during lactation, and is involved in bonding behaviors -Has positive feedback loop: release of oxytocin promotes uterine contraction which promotes more oxytocin release which promotes stronger uterine contractions
Somatostatin
-peptide hormone -secreted by delta cells of pancreas -inhibitor of insulin and glucagon secretion -secreted in response to high blood glucose and amino acid concentration
Insulin
-peptide hormone -secreted by beta cells of pancreas -secreted when blood glucose is high (antagonistic to glucagon) - induces muscle and liver cells to take up glucose & store it as glycogen for later use -stimulates fat and protein synthesis
Calcitonin
-peptide hormone -tones down calcium levels in the blood - produced by C-cells (parafollicular cells) in thyroid tissue -Increase calcium excretion from kidneys, decrease calcium absorption from gut, increase storage of calcium in bone
Subjective Contours
-perceiving contours and shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus
Percent Composition by Mass
-percent of a specific compound that is made up of given element (Mass of element)/(molar mass) X 100
Oxygen saturation
-percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying O -measured using finger probe (healthy = above 97%)
Signal Detection Theory
-perception of stimuli is affected by nonsensory factors like experience, motives, expectations -perception of same stimuli changes depending on internal (psychological) and environmental context
Night Terrors
-periods of intense anxiety - occur during slow wave sleep - most common in children - high heart rate, rapid breathing - very difficult to wake -don't remember dream the next morning
Behaviorist Perspective of Personality
-personality is a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time -Therapy should focus on learning skills & changing behaviors through operant conditioning techniques
Quinones
-phenols treated with oxidizing agents -Named by indicating the position of the carbonyls numerically & adding quinone to the name of parent phenol -Serve as electron acceptors in e- transport chain
Components of language
-phonology -morphology -synthax -pragmatics
Vitamin K1
-phylloquinone -important for photosynthesis and carboxylation of clotting factors in blood
Visual Pathways
-physical anatomical connections b/w the eyes & brain and the flow of visual info along these connections
Obstructive apnea
-physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea preventing airflow
open pipes
-pipes that are open at both ends -has antinodes at both ends -the second harmonic has a wavelength equal to the length of the pipe -the third harmonic has wavelength equal to 2/3 the length of the pipe λ = 2L/n f = nv/2L
Optic Chiasm
-place where optic fibers coming from retina are reorganized -nasal fibers cross and temporal fibers stay on same side -reorganization causes all fibers from left visual field of both eyes to project to right side of brain
Nodes
-points in the wave that remain at rest -places where amplitude is zero
Vestibule
-portion of bony labyrinth containing the utricle and saccule (structures sensitive to linear acceleration) -used by balancing system to determine orientation in 3D space - contain modified hair cells covered w/ otoliths *as body accelerates, the otoliths resist the motion -bends & stimulates underlying cells -signal sent to the brain
Preparedness
-predisposition to learn certain behaviors -animals are most able to learn behaviors that coincide with their natural behaviors
Chemoselectivity
-preferential reaction of one functional group in the presence of other functional groups
Thalamus
-preliminary sensory processing station - routes info to cortex and other areas
Somatosensation
-pressure, vibration, pain, temperature -has 5 types of receptors
Steric Hindrance
-prevention of reactions at a particular location within a molecule due to the size of substituent groups
gas exchange (lungs)
-primary function of lungs -each alveolus is surrounded by a network of capillaries which bring deoxygenated blood from pulmonary arteries (originate from right ventricle of heart) - the walls of alveoli are one cell thick which facilitates diffusion of CO2 from blood into lungs and O into the blood -oxygenated blood returns to left atrium of heart via pulmonary veins -driving force of gas exchange is pressure differential of gases -when blood initially arrives at alveoli, it has a low partial pressure of O and a high partial pressure of CO2 which facilitates transfer of each down its respective concentration gradient -no energy is required for gas transfer -respiratory system adjusts if moved to higher altitudes where less oxygen is available
Carbon Dioxide
-primary waste product of cellular respiration -most CO2 in blood exists as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) -When CO2 enters red blood cells, carbon anhydrase catalyzes a combination reaction b/w CO2 & water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates into a proton and bicarbonate anion (both have high solubility in water making them a more effective method of transporting metabolic waste products to the lungs for excretion) -At alveolar capillaries in lungs, this reaction is reversed allowing us to breathe out CO2
Fluid Intelligence
-problem solving skills -peaks in early adulthood
Observational learning
-process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others
Recognition
-process of merely identifying piece of info that was previously learned -easier than recall
shaping
-process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors - allows training of complicated behaviors - takes time
Differentiation
-process through which cell undertakes changes in structure, function, and biochemistry to develop into a determined cell type
Perception
-processing of sensory information -helps us make sense of the world -linked to experience and to internal & external biases
Ciliary Body
-produces aqueous humor which bathes the front part of the eye - drains into the canal of Schlemm
Apoptosis
-programmed cell death - cell divides into many self-containing pieces (apoptotic blebs) which are absorbed & digested by other cells -blebs are contained by a membrane which prevents release of harmful substances after death into the extracellular environment
Cancer Cells
-proliferate excessively -able to divide w/o stimulation from other cells -able to migrate by local invasion or metastasis (migration to distant tissues via bloodstream of lymphatic system) -accumulate mutations over time
Growth Hormone
-promotes growth of bone and muscle -growth is energetically expensive & requires large amounts of glucose so GH prevents glucose uptake in tissues that are not growing and stimulates breakdown of fatty acids to increase availability of glucose
Learning (behaviorist) theory
-proposed by Skinner -explained language acquisition by operant conditioning -Babies distinguish b/w phonemes of all human languages but by 6 months old, they show preference for phonemes in language spoken by parents -Explained by reinforcement --> parents & caregivers repeat & reinforce sounds that sound like their language
Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)
-proteins found on surface of most cells -aid in binding the cell to the extracellular matrix or to other cells
Isoelectric Focusing
-proteins separated based on isoelectric point (pI) -electric charge is applied to the sample - protein migrates and stops when it reaches its isoelectric point(stops b/c charges cancel out)
Ion Channels
-proteins that create specific pathways for charged molecules -cycle b/w open and closed conformations - when open, channel provides continuous pathway through bilayer allowing flux of ions - when closed, the flow stops
Inner Cell Mass
-protrudes into the blastocoel & give rise to the organism itself
cytoskeleton
-provides structure to cell/helps maintain shape -3 components: microfilament, microtubules, intermediate filaments
Arousal
-psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli -involves brainstem, ANS, and endocrine system
Osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure)
-pulls fluid back into the vessels -depends on particles dissolved in the plasma
Semantic encoding
-put info into meaningful coding -strongest - the more vivid the context, the better
Meditation
-quieting of the mind for some purpose -produces a sense of relaxation and relief from anxiety and worrying -decreased heart rate and blood pressure
Delirium
-rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes
Parasomnia
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep -include night terrors & sleepwalking
thermoregulation (lungs)
-regulation of body temperature -one of the functions of the resp. system -heat is regulated through the body surfaces by vasodilation and vasoconstriction -as capillaries expand, more blood passes through them & a larger amount of thermal energy is dissipated -as capillaries contract, less blood passes through them conserving thermal energy -capillaries within nasal and tracheal capillary beds are used for this purpose
Homeostasis
-regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions -Controlled by negative feedback loop
Variable Interval Schedules
-reinforce a behavior the first time the behavior is performed after a varying interval of time - rat waits 90 seconds to get a pellet after pressing but then has to wait 30 seconds to get another and then 3 minutes to get another pellet
Fixed Ratio Schedules
-reinforce behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior -rat rewarded w/ food pellet every third time it presses a bar in its cage
Tectorial Membrane
-relatively immovable membrane that rests on top of organ of Corti in the cochlea
Vessels are lined w/ endothelial cells that:
-release chemicals that aid in vasodilation & vasoconstriction -allow white blood cells to pass through the vessel wall & into the tissues during inflammatory response -release chemical when damaged that help form blood clots to repair the vessel & stop bleeding
Antidiuretic Hormone (vasopressin)
-released from posterior pituitary -peptide hormone -increases reabsorption of water in collecting ducts of kidneys -secreted in response to low blood volume or increased blood osmolarity -Increases the permeability of the collecting ducts of the kidneys to water -leads to greater reabsorption of water in the nephron -leads to greater retention of water, increased blood volume & higher blood pressure
Constant Region
-remaining part of antibody molecule -involved in recruitment & binding of other cells of the immune system (like macrophages)
DNA polymerase I
-removes RNA primers in prokaryotes and adds DNA to fill in those gaps
Optic Tracts
-reorganized paths that leave the optic chiasm
Telomeres
-repeating unit at the end of DNA found at the tip of chromosomes -can be degraded b/w replication cycles w/o loss of function -prevents loss of info w/ each round of replication since DNA polymerase can't complete synthesis at the end of the chromosome -have high GC content which creates strong strand attraction at end of chromosomes to prevent unraveling -During replication, telomeres are shortened (partially reversed by enzyme telomerase which replaces some of the lost sequences)
Streamlines
-representations of molecular movements -indicate pathways followed by tiny fluid particles as they move
Principal Quantum Number (n)
-represents energy level for given e- in an atom - measure of size -describes the shell -the smaller the quantum # the closer the shell is to the nucleus & the lower its energy (1-7)
Tropic Hormones
-require an intermediate to act - usually originate in the brain or anterior pituitary gland b/c these structures are involved in coordination of processes within the body -cause release of another hormone at the organ level -GnRH causes release of FSH and LH which act on the gonads (testes and ovaries) -CRF causes release of ACTH which acts on the adrenal cortex -TRH causes release of TSH which acts on the thyroid
Transduction
-requires a virus that carries genetic material from one bacterium to another (vector)
Thermoreceptors
-respond to changes in temperature
Merkle Cells
-respond to deep pressure and texture
Taste Receptors
-respond to dissolved compounds -taste
Photoreceptors
-respond to electromagnetic waves in visible spectrum (sight)
Hair Cells
-respond to movement of fluid in inner ear structures (hearing and acceleration)
Osmoreceptors
-respond to osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)
free nerve endings
-respond to pain & temperature
Ruffini Endings
-respond to stretch
Alcohols are capable of hydrogen bonding
-result in higher melting and boiling points -Molecules with more than one hydroxyl group show greater H bonding -Boiling point increases w/ additional OH groups which permit more H bonding -H bonding occurs when H atoms are attached to F, O, N ( highly electronegative atoms) -In the OH group, the EN O atom pulls more e- away from the less EN H atom (creates a slightly + charge on the H & a slightly - charge on the O ) -The partial + H of one molecule attracts the partially - O of another molecule creating H bond
Determinate Cleavage
-results in cells that are already determined (committed to differentiating into a certain type of cell)
Indeterminate Cleavage
-results in cells that can still develop into complete organisms
cooperative binding
-results in sigmoidal curve -In lungs, O diffuses into alveolar capillaries -as first O binds to a heme group, it induces a conformational shift in shape of hemoglobin from tense to relaxed which increases hemoglobin's affinity for O making it easier for subsequent O molecules to bind to remaining 3 unoccupied heme groups -as other heme groups acquire O, affinity increases (+ feedback mechanism) -Once all of the hemoglobin subunits are bound to O, the removal of 1 O induces conformational shift decreasing affinity for O making it easier for other O molecules to leave the heme groups -as O molecules leave, it becomes progressively easier for more O to be removed
Duplicity Theory of Vision
-retina contains photoreceptors specialized for light/dark detection and for color detection (2 types): rods and cones
Notochord
-rod of mesodermal cells -forms along the long axis of the organism (like a spine)
Freud: Psychosexual development
-said that libido (sex drive) is present at birth -libidinal energy & drive to reduce libidinal tension underlie forces that account for psychological processes * 5 stages in psychosocial development (oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency, genital stage) -In each stage, children are faced with a conflict b/w societal demands & desire to reduce libidinal tension associated w/ different erogenous zones in body
Karen Horney
-said that personality results from interpersonal relationships -Basic anxiety: inadequate parenting causes vulnerability & helplessness -Basic hostility: parental neglect and rejection cause anger -To overcome basic anxiety and basic hostility, child uses 3 strategies in relationship w/ others: moving against people, moving toward people who provide security, and withdrawing from people
Alfred Adler
-said that striving for superiority drives personality -Inferiority complex: individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority physically & socially -Creative self: force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness & establishes his personality -Style of life: describes person's unique way of achieving superiority -Fictional finalism: notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences
Resistors in Series
-same current travels through all the resistors (I1 = I2 = I3) - voltages add -resistances add (Requivalent = R1 + R2 + ...) -As the e- flow through each resistor, there is a voltage drop in each resistor V = V1 + V2 + ... -Equivalent resistance is the sum of individual resistances (increases as more resistors are added in series)
Social interactionist theory
-says that language acquisition is driven by child's desire to communicate and behave in a social manner -As children are exposed to language, the brain groups sounds and meanings together -as child interacts w/ others, certain brain circuits are reinforced and other are de-emphasized
Biological Perspective of Personality
-says that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain -Traits result from genes or differences in brain anatomy
DNA Ligase
-seals the ends of the DNA molecules together creating one continuous strand of DNA -joins okasaki fragments in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Direct Hormones
-secreted and then act directly on a target tissue - ex: insulin acts directly on muscles -prolactin, endorphins, and growth hormone
Pheromones
-secreted by a person or animal - once bonded w/ chemoreceptors, they compel or urge another to behave in a specific way -debatable effects on humans
Prolactin
-secreted by anterior pituitary -peptide hormone -stimulates milk production in mammary glands -Release of dopamine from hypothalamus decreases its secretion -During pregnancy, estrogen and progesterone are high (allow for development of milk ducts) -when the placenta is expelled, estrogen, progesterone, and dopamine decrease (block on milk production is removed and lactation begins)
Erythropoietin
-secreted by kidneys -stimulates red blood cell development
Thrombopoietin
-secreted by liver & kidney -stimulate platelet development
Endocrine Signals
-secreted hormones travel through the bloodstream to a distant target tissue
Adrenal Cortex
-secretes corticosteroids (steroid hormones divided into 3 classes) -functions of the corticosteroids are the 3 S's -Salt: mineralocorticosteroids -Sugar: glucocorticosteroids -Sex: cortical sex hormones
Pineal Gland
-secretes melatonin (peptide hormone) which is involved in circadian rhythms - receives projections directly from retina & responds to decreased light by releasing melatonin -leads to sensation of sleepiness
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
-seeks to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming -correlates subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming w/ measurable physiological changes
Opioids
-semisynthetic derivatives of opiates -include oxycodone, heroin, and hydrocodone -Both bind to opioid receptors in PNS and CNS causing decreased reaction to pain and sense of euphoria -Overdose leads to death by respiratory suppression - brain stops sending signals to breathe -includes heroin
Rods
-sensation of light & dark -low sensitivity to detail -not involved in color vision -permit night vision - function best in reduced light -all contain a single pigment (rhodopsin)
Semicircular canals
-sensitive to rotational acceleration - the 3 canals are arranged perpendicularly to each other -each ends in an ampulla
Semilunar valves
-separate the ventricles from the vasculature - allow creation of pressure within the ventricles needed to propel the blood forward within the circulation & to prevent backflow of blood - 3 leaflets
Mechanism
-series of steps through which reaction proceeds -Sum of the mechanism gives the overall reaction
Personality
-set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time & different locations
Choroidal vessels or retinal vessels
-sets of blood vessels that supply the eye w/ nutrients
Monochorionic/amniotic twins
-share same amnion & chorion
Metals
-shiny -ability to be deformed w/o breaking *malleability --> hammered into shapes *ductility --> can be pulled or drawn into wires -high melting points and densities except for lithium -easily give up electrons -good conductors of electricity (e- loosely held, free to move)
Ductus Venosus
-shunts blood returning from the placenta via the umbilical vein directly to the inferior vena cava - bypasses the liver
Saltatory Conduction
-signal hops from one node to the next -membrane is only permeable to ion movement at the nodes of Ranvier
Mutarotation
-spontaneous change of configuration about C1 (occurs more rapidly if rxn is catalyzed w/ acid or base) -Exposing hemiacetal rings to water causes them to spontaneously cycle b/w open & closed forms -b/c the substituents on the single bond b/w C1 and C2 can rotate freely, either the α or β anomer can be formed
Cyanohydrins
-stable compounds produced when the nucleophile cyanide anion attacks the carbonyl carbon atom (after H dissociates) in aldehydes and ketones -form when the O has been reprotonated -Gains stability from the newly formed C-C bond (C-CN) *HCN dissociates into H+ and CN- *CN- reacts w/ carbonyl carbon breaking the pi bond and causing O to accept those e- from the pi bond *H+ then reacts with the - charged O forming an OH group
Golgi apparatus
-stacked membrane bound sacs where cellular products are modified -sorts and modifies products -packages products in vesicles and transfers them to correct location
Formal Operational Stage
-starts at 11 years of age - able to think logically about abstract idea -ability to reason about abstract concepts and problem-solve
Hypnosis
-state in which person appears to be in control of his/her normal functions but is in a highly suggestible state -starts w/ hypnotic induction -hypnotist seeks to relax subject & increase the subject's level of concentration -Hypnotist can suggest perceptions or actions to the hypnotized person
Alertness
-state of consciousness -awake and able to think -we perceive, process, access info, and express that info verbally -Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate w/ the reticular formation (located in brainstem) to keep the cortex awake and alert
Ion-Exchange Chromatography
-stationary phase is made of either negatively or positively charged beads (attract & bind compounds that have opposite charge) -salt is added to elute proteins stuck to column
Mineralcorticosteroids
-steroid hormone -released by adrenal cortex -used in salt and water homeostasis -increases water absorption in kidneys by increasing sodium absorption -aldosterone
Cortisol
-steroid hormone produced by adrenal cortex - contributes to wakefulness -Increases during early morning -increasing light causes release of corticotropin releasing factor from hypothalamus which leads to release of adrenocorticotropic hormone which stimulates cortisol release
Glucocorticosteroids
-steroid hormones that regulate glucose levels -affect protein metabolism -Ex: cortisol & cortisone *raise blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis and decrease inflammation
Steroid Hormones
-steroids that act as hormones -secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream & then travel to protein carriers to distant sites where they bind to specific high-affinity receptors & alter gene expression
Generalization
-stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can produce the conditioned response -Little Albert's experiment --> conditioned to be afraid of a rat by pairing presentation of the rat with loud noise also exhibited fear responses to similar things like white stuffed rabbit
Lagging Strand
-strand copied in a direction opposite to the direction of the replication fork -DNA polymerase can't read & synthesize on this strand so small strands called okazaki fragments are produced -each time DNA polymerase completes an okazaki fragment, it turns around to find another gap that needs to be filled in
Leading Strand
-strand copied in continuous fashion in same direction as advancing replication fork -read in 3' to 5' & its complement is synthesized in a 5' to 3' manner
Cortisol
-stress hormone (glucocorticosteroid) -released during physical and emotional stress -increases blood sugar and provides fuel to react quickly to dangerous stimulus
Hydrogen Bonds
-strong type of dipole-dipole force -Positively charged H interacts with partial - charge of F, O, or N on nearby molecule -result in very high BP and MP
Elastin
-structural protein -component of extracellular matrix of connective tissue -stretches and recoils restoring original shape of tissue (like spring)
Keratin
-structural protein -found in epithelial cells (in hair & nails) -contribute to mechanical integrity of the cell
Actin
-structural protein -makes up microfilaments & thin filaments in myofibrils -have a + and - side -polarity allows motor proteins to travel unidirectionally along actin filament
Tubulin
-structural protein -makes up microtubules -provide structure -involved in chromosome separation in mitosis & meiosis -has polarity (+ end located in periphery of cell & - end located near nucleus)
Collagen
-structural protein -provides strength & flexibility -makes up most of extracellular matrix of connective tissue -fiber with 3 left handed helices woven together to form a 2ndary right handed helix
Resonance Hybrid
-structure of a compound whose electronic distribution is made of all of the possible resonance structures -the more stable the structure, the more it contributes to the hybrid
Morphology
-structure of words -Words are made of many building blocks (morphemes) -each one has a meaning
Sleep
-studied by recording brain wave activity w/ EEG (records the electrical patterns of different parts of brain) -sleep stages last about 90 minutes -show characteristic EEG patterns: beta, alpha, theta, and delta waves
Psychophysics
-studies relationship b/w physical nature of stimuli & the sensations and perceptions they evoke
Fluid Dynamics
-study of fluids in motion
Electromotive Force (emf)
-voltage when no charge is moving b/w the 2 terminals of a cell that are at different potential values -Pressure to move exerted by the cell on the electrons 1V = J/C V= (emf) -i (R internal)
Cognitive Appraisal of Stress
-subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress - 2 stages 1.Primary Appraisal: initial evaluation of the environment and associated threat 2.Secondary Appraisal: evaluates whether organism can cope w/ the stress --> evaluates 3 things: a. Harm caused by event b. Threat or potential for future damage caused by event c. Challenge: potential to overcome & possibly benefit from event
Emotion
-subjective experience of a person in certain situations - how a person feels influences how a person thinks and makes decisions
Cognitive response
-subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced -determining your emotion is based on memories of past experiences
Episomes
-subset of plasmids capable of integrating into the genome of the bacterium
Teratogens
-substances that interfere w/ development -cause defects or death of embryo
Formula Weight
-sum of atomic weights of the substituent ions according to its empirical formula (in amu)
Molecular Weight
-sum of the atomic weight of all the atoms in a molecule (amu/molecule)
Glial Cells (neuroglia)
-support neurons -structural and supportive roles
Connective Tissue
-supports the body -provides framework for epithelial cells -contributes to the support structure (stroma) -produce and secrete materials like collagen and elastin to form extracellular matrix
Antigens
-surface proteins expressed by red blood cells -2 major antigen families: ABO antigens and Rh factor
Trophoblast Cells
-surround the blastocoel & give rise to the chorion & later the placenta
Amnion
-surrounds the allantois - thin, tough membrane filled w/ amniotic fluid -fluid serves as shock absorber during pregnancy (lessens impact of maternal motion on embryo)
Ampulla
-swelling at the end of the semicircular canals - where hair cells are located
eddies
-swirls of fluid of varying sizes occurring on the downstream side of object - caused by turbulence
DNA polymerase α and δ
-synthesize DNA in eukaryotes -synthesize both leading and lagging strands
Primase
-synthesizes a short primer in the 5' to 3' direction to start replication on each strand -DNA can't be synthesized de novo so an RNA primer must be inserted to be directly paired w/ the parent strand -These short RNA sequences are constantly added to lagging strand b/c each okasaki fragment must start w/ a new primer -Leading strand only requires 1 primer
hypophyseal portal system
-system of blood vessels that connects hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
Hydraulic Systems
-take advantage of near-incompressibility of liquids to generate mechanical advantage -allow us to accomplish a certain amount of work more easily by applying reduced forces
Ego
-takes into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits activity of the id -aims to postpone pleasure until satisfaction can actually be obtained -moderates id and superego
Spin Quantum Number (ms)
-tells you the spin of the e- - values are ±1/2
Response Bias
-tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to non-sensory factors (experience, motives, or expectations)
Overconfidence
-tendency to erroneously interpret your decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
Confirmation Bias
-tendency to focus on info that firs an individual's beliefs while rejecting info that goes against them
Centration
-tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon
Aldehyde
-terminal functional group -1 alkyl group & 1 H -Named by replacing the -e at end of alkane name w/ suffix -al -If the aldehyde is attached to a ring, the suffix -carbaldehyde is used -Form: common name for 1 carbon compound *ex: formaldehyde instead of methanal -Acet: common name for 2 carbon compounds *ex: acetaldehyde instead of ethanal *When aldehydes are named as substituents, use prefix -oxo
Oxidation of Tertiary Alcohols
-tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized b/c they are already as oxidized as they can be w/o breaking the C-C bond -there is no H attached to the Carbon with the OH group so it doesn't have spare H to give up -Alcohol oxidation involves removal of H so that the carbon can instead make another bond to O
Carbon
-tetravalent -can form bonds w/ up to 4 other atoms -moderate electronegativity -forms strong & stable bonds
Cojoined Twins
-the 2 offspring are physically attached at some point -occurs if division of zygote is incomplete
Gauge Pressure
-the difference b/w the absolute pressure inside and the atmospheric pressure outside Pgauge = P-Patm = (P0 + ρgz) -Patm -When P0 = Patm, Pgauge = ρgz
Reactive locations
-the more oxidized the functional group the more reactive it is in both nucleophile-electrophile & oxidation-reduction rxns. -Carbon of a carbonyl: acquires + polarity due to EN of O. carbonyl carbon becomes electrophilic and is targeted by nucleophiles *α-hydrogens are more acidic than regular C-H bonds, can be deprotonated easily w/ strong base *SN1 reactions: prefer tertiary to secondary carbons as reactive sites and secondary to primary *SN2 reactions: methyl & primary carbons are preferred over secondary; tertiary carbons don't react
Heat of Vaporization
-the phase change from liquid to gas or gas to liquid occurs at boiling point
Heat of Fusion
-the phase change from liquid to solid or solid to liquid occurs at melting point
Edema
accumulation of excess fluid in interstitium
Buoyant Force
-the volume displaced exerts a force equal to the weight of the object -directed upwards -the liquid is trying to push the object out of the water Fbuoy = (ρfluid) (V fluid displaced) (g) -An object will float if its density is less than the density of the fluid it is immersed in -It will sink if its density is greater than that of the fluid -Any object w/ a specific gravity less than or equal to 1 will float in water and any object w/ a specific gravity greater than 1 will sink ** for an object to float, the bouyant force must be equal to the object's weight
Learning
-the way in which we acquire new behaviors -change in behavior that occurs in response to a stimulus
Behaviorism
-theory that all behaviors are conditioned B. F. Skinner
Yerkes-Dodson law
-there is a U shaped function b/w level of arousal and performance -performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level • Low arousal -- low interest -- weak performance • High arousal -- strong anxiety -- weak performance
Gate Theory of Pain
-there is a special gating mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off -affects whether or not we perceive pain -Spinal cord is able to preferentially forward signals from other touch modalities (pressure, temp.) to brain -Explains why rubbing an injury seems to reduce pain of the injury
state functions
-thermodynamic properties that are a function of only the current equilibrium state of a system -independent of the path taken to get to a particular equilibrium state -internal energy, pressure, density, temp., volume, entropy, gibbs free energy
Perilymph
-thin layer of fluid that suspends the membranous labyrinth within the bony labyrinth -transmits vibrations from the outside world and cushions inner ear structures
Diaphragm
-thin, muscular structure that divides the thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity -under somatic control (breathing itself is under autonomic control)
Carl Jung
-thought libido was psychic energy -divided the unconscious into 2 parts: 1.Personal unconscious: similar to Freud's notion of unconscious 2.Collective unconscious: residue of the experiences of our early ancestors (shared among all humans) *Archetypes are images of common experiences (have an emotional element) i. Anima is a man's inner woman (female behaviors in males) ii. Animus is a woman's inner man (masculine behaviors in females) iii. Shadow is unpleasant & socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, & actions in our consciousness
Cardiac output
-total blood volume pumped by a ventricle in a minute -product of heart rate (bpm) and stroke volume (volume of blood pumped per beat) CO = HR * SV
Absolute Hydrostatic Pressure
-total pressure that is exerted on an object that is submerged in a fluid P = P0 + ρgz P0: incident or ambient pressure (pressure at the surface) z: depth of the object g: acceleration due to gravity
Chargaff's Rules
-total purines equal the total pyrimidines overall -the amount of A equals the amount of T and the amount of G equals the amount of C *A=T *G=C *A+ G = T + C
Gordon Allport
-trait theorist (humanist) - said there are 3 basic traits *Cardinal traits: traits around which person organizes his life *Central traits: major characteristics of personality that are easy to infer (like honesty) *Secondary traits: aspects of personality that only appear in specific social situations
Action Potential
-transmission of electrical impulses down the axon
Vitreous
-transparent gel that supports the retina - located behind the lens
acrosomal apparatus
-tubelike structure formed when sperm first makes contact with secondary oocyte's membrane
Disaccharides
-two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds formed b/w hydroxyl groups
Gs
-type of G protein stimulates adenylate cyclase -increases levels of cAMP in cell
Lymphocytes
-type of agranulocyte which is a type of leukocyte - important for the specific immune response (body's targeted fight against pathogens like bacteria & viruses -some act as primary responders against an infection -others function to maintain a long term memory bank of pathogen recognition -help body learn from experience -prepared to mount fast response upon repeated exposure to similar pathogens
Classical Conditioning
-type of associative learning -creates associations b/w 2 unrelated stimuli
Neutralization Reaction
-type of double displacement reaction - an acid reacts w/ a base to produce a salt and water
Continuous Reinforcement
-type of fixed ratio schedule -behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
Globoside
-type of glycosphingolipid - have 2 or more sugars -neutral
Agranulocytes
-type of leukocytes - don't have granules -consist of lymphocytes and monocytes
Granulocytes
-type of leukocytes -have granules that contain compounds toxic to invading microbes (released via exocytosis) - involved in inflammatory reactions, allergies, pus formation, & destruction of bacteria & parasites
Facilitated Diffusion
-type of passive transport - diffusion of molecules down a concentration gradient through a pore in the membrane
Amylose
-type of starch - linear glucose polymer linked via α-1,4 glycosidic bonds -long, straight -degraded by α-amylase and β-amylase
Amylopectin
-type of starch -contains branches via β-1,6 glycosidic bonds -highly branched -debranching enzymes degrade the polysaccharide chain -more soluble due to branched structure
Aerotolerant Anaerobes
-unable to use oxygen -not harmed by presence of oxygen
Pavlov's Experiment
-unconditioned stimulus (meat) caused unconditioned response (salivation) in dogs -Pavlov repeatedly rang a bell (neutral stimulus) before placing meat in the dogs' mouth - initially, the dogs didn't react much when they only heard the bell w/o receiving meat -After repeating procedure several times, dogs began to salivate when they heard the bell (even if he did not deliver meat) -turned the bell (neutral) into a conditioned stimulus
Acquisition
-unconditioned stimulus is used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones
-undergo reduction to form alcohols (performed by hydride reagents) like Lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4) and sodium borohydride (NaBH4)
Free Fatty Acids
-unesterified FA w/ free carboxylate group - circulate in the blood bonded non-covalently to serum albumin
Crystallized Intelligence
-use of learned skills and knowledge -peaks in middle adulthood
Cones
-used for color vision - sense fine details -effective in bright light - come in 3 forms: short (S, blue), medium (M, green), and long (L, red)
ultrasound
-used high frequency sound waves outside the range of human hearing to compare the relative densities of tissues in the body -consists of a transmitter that generates a wave, which reflects off of an object and returns to the transmitter (which functions as a receiver)
Edman Degradation
-used to analyze small proteins - selectively & sequentially removes the N terminal AA of the protein which is analyzed by mass spectroscopy
Southern Blot
-used to detect presence and quantity of various DNA strands in a sample -After electrophoresis, the sample is transferred to a membrane that can be probed w/ single stranded DNA molecules to look for a sequence of interest -probe binds to its complementary sequence & forms double stranded DNA
Signal Detection Experiments
-used to explore response bias -consists of many trials where stimulus may or may not be presented -Catch trials: signal is presented - Noise trials: signal is not presented -After each trial, subject must indicate whether signal was presented •Hits: subject correctly perceives signal •Misses: fails to perceive given signal •False alarms: perceives signal when none was given •Correct negatives: correctly identifies that no signal was given -a large proportion of misses or false alarms indicates response bias in subject
Gel Electrophoresis (DNA)
-used to separate macromolecules (like DNA and proteins) by size and charge *All molecules of DNA are - charged b/c of the phosphate groups on the backbone of the molecule so DNA migrates towards anode of electrochemical cell *Preferred gel for DNA electrophoresis is the agarose gel -the longer the DNA strand, the slower it migrates through gel
E/Z System
-used when there are nonidentical groups around double bond 1) assign priority to the groups directly bonded to each carbon in double bond (use atomic #) ***if the two groups directly bonded to the carbon in double bond have the same atomic number, write the things attached directly and compare looking for the first point of difference (then look at atomic # of that element that is different) 2) compare the groups attached to each carbon (look at the 2 highest priority groups --> labeled 1 on each side) 3) determine if the 2 highest priority groups are on opposite sides (E) or if they are on the same side (Z)
Availability Heuristic
-used when we try to decide how likely something is - we make decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined
Jones Oxidation
-uses chromium trioxide dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid and acetone (stronger oxidizing agent) to oxidize primary alcohols to carboxylic acids or secondary alcohols to ketones
Punishment
-uses conditioning to reduce occurrence of a behavior
DNA Sequencing
-uses dideoxyribonucleotides which terminate the DNA chain b/c they lack a 3' OH group (contain H at C3') -Once one of the modified bases has been incorporated, the polymerase can no longer add to the chain -Resulting fragments can be separated by gel electrophoresis and the sequence can be read in order b/c electrophoresis separates strands by size
Creation of Transgenic Mice using Stem Cells
-using embryonic stem cell lines -Cloned genes are introduced into cultures and the cells w/ the transgene successfully inserted are selected -The altered stem cells are injected into the developing blastocysts & implanted onto surrogate mothers -Blastocyst is composed of 2 types of stem cells - stem cells containing the transgene and the original blastocyst cells that lack transgene -Resulting offspring is a chimera so it has patches of cells derived from each of the 2 lineages
Parturition
-vaginal birth -accomplished by rhythmic contractions of uterine smooth muscle -coordinated by prostaglandins & oxytocin
tympanic membrane
-vibrates in phase w/ incoming sound waves -moves back and forth at high rate for high-frequency sounds and more slowly for low-frequency sounds -divides outer ear from middle ear
Viral Progeny Release
-viral invasion may initiate cell death --> spills viral progeny -virus can leave the cell by fusing with its plasma membrane --> allows survival of host cell and continued use of cell by virus
Viral Infection
-virus binds to specific receptors on host cell -enveloped viruses fuse with the plasma membrane of the cell allowing entry of virion into host cell *enter the cell intact *host might misinterpret binding of virus as a nutrient and it could bring virus into cytoplasm via endocytosis -bacteriophages inject their viral genome
Lysogenic Cycle
-virus integrates into host genome as a provirus or prophage -virus is replicated as bacterium reproduces b/c it is now part of host's genome
bacteriophages
-viruses that target bacteria -inject their genetic material leaving their remaining structures outside the infected cell -contain a capsid, tail sheath, and tail fibers -tail sheath acts like syringe -tail fibers help bacteriophage recognize and connect to correct host cell
Traveling Wave
-when a string fixed at one end is moved up and down, a wave forms and travels toward the fixed end -When the wave reaches the fixed boundary, it is reflected and inverted -If the free end of the string is continuously moved up and down, there will be 2 waves: the original wave moving down the string toward the fixed end and the reflected wave moving away from the fixed end (interfere w/ each other)
Single Displacement Reaction
-when an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by an atom or ion of another element
Sigma (σ) bonds
-when an orbital is formed by end to end overlap *All single bonds are sigma bonds --> accommodate 2 e- *Free rotation of atoms around the bond
Anti-bonding orbital
-when the signs of the wave function are different - higher energy (less stable)
Blindspot
-where optic nerve leaves the eye -has no photoreceptors
Leukocytes
-white blood cells -less than 1% of total blood volume -increase massively during infection -Crucial part of immune system -protect against pathogens, foreign cells, cancer, and materials not recognized as self -2 types: granulocytes and agranulocytes
Sclera
-white of the eye - thick structural layer covering the exposed part of eye -doesn't cover cornea
Ampulla (reproductive system)
-widest part of the fallopian tube
Insulator
-will not easily distribute charge over its surface and will not transfer that charge to another neutral object -non-metals are insulators -serve as dielectric materials in capacitors
Simple Epithelia
1 layer of cells
Ionic Bonding
1 or more e- are transferred b/w atoms -occurs b/w metal and nonmetal -electronegativity difference must be greater than 1.7 -results in high melting and boiling points -ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity
Action Potential
1) If cell reaches threshold, voltage gated Na channels open in response to the change in potential of the membrane (depolarization): influx of sodium ions 2) Cell potential becomes more + and when Vm approaches +35 mV, the Na channels are inactivated 3) + potential inside the cell triggers inactivation of Na channels and opening of voltage gated potassium channels --> causes efflux of K from neuron 4) As + charged K cations are driven out of cell, there is a restoration of the - membrane potential (repolarization)
Bacterial Growth Stages
1) Lag Phase --> bacteria adapting to new environment 2) Exponential Phase --> growth increases 3) Stationary Phase --> resources are reduced, reproduction is slowed 4) Death Phase --> resources depleted, bacteria dies
R & S Nomenclature
1) Prioritize the 4 groups attached to the chiral center (higher atomic number = highest priority) -if 2 groups have same atomic #, write out the things attached directly and compare looking for the first point where they are different (then look at atomic # of that group that is different) 2) orient the groups so that the lowest priority group is pointing away (into page) 3) determine if the sequence 1-2-3 is clockwise (R) or counterclockwise (S) ***if the lowest priority group is pointing towards you, assign priorities and determine the sequence (skip step 2). Then, configuration will be the opposite of whatever you got (if it looks R, it is S)
Physiological response to stress
1. Alarm: initial reaction to a stressor & activation of sympathetic nervous system a. Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary to release ACTH which stimulates adrenal glands to produce cortisol which maintains steady supply of blood glucose to respond to stress b. Hypothalamus activates adrenal medulla which secretes epinephrine & norepinephrine to activate the sympathetic nervous system 2. Resistance: continuous release of hormones allows sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight stressor 3. Exhaustion: body can no longer maintain an elevated response w/ sympathetic nervous system activity *person becomes more susceptible to illness and medical conditions
Steps for Balancing Reactions
1. Balance elements that are not H and O 2. Balance hydrogens 3. Balance Oxygens 4. Produce a whole number ratio --> multiply everything by the same # if needed 5. Check that all the elements & their charges are balanced correctly
Problem Solving Process
1. Create a mental image or schematic of the issue 2. Generate a potential solutions and test them 3. Evaluate results
Factors affecting Nucleophilicity
1.Charge: nucleophilicity increases w/ increasing e- density (more - charge) 2.Electronegativity: nucleophilicity decreases as EN increases b/c atoms are less likely to share e- density 3.Steric hindrance: bulkier molecules are less nucleophilic 4. Solvent : * In polar protic solvents, nucleophilicity increases down the periodic table (protic solvents stabilize smaller ions more (at top) --> so they become less reactive) *In polar aprotic solvents, nucleophilicity increases up the periodic table
Heart
4 chambered structure made of cardiac muscle
Composition of blood
55% liquid and 45% cells -plasma -cells: erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets -All blood cells are formed from hematopoietic stem cells which originate in bone marrow
Bicarbonate Buffer System
CO2 (g)+ H2O(l)↔H2 CO3 (aq)↔H+ (aq)+HCO3- (aq) -Blowing off CO2 (hyperventilation) decreases levels of CO2 which causes reaction to shift left consuming H+ and reducing H+ in the blood making pH less acidic -mechanism that deals w/ acidemia (excess H+ in blood)
control of pH through the bicarbonate buffer system (lungs)
CO2 + H2O ↔H2CO3↔H + HCO3- *body attempts to maintain a ph b/w 7.35 and 7.45 *when blood pH decreases (high [H+]: acidemia), acid-sensing chemoreceptors outside BBB send signals to brain to increase respiratory rate to blow off CO2 causing a left shift in the equation which reduces [H+] *when blood pH increases (alkalemia: too basic), respiratory rate decreases to compensate by retaining CO2 which shifts the buffer equation to the right producing more H ions and bicarbonate ions --> lowers pH
Sequential order of brain waves
BAT-D (bat sleeps during the day) beta, alpha, theta, delta
1. Cervix thins out and amniotic sac ruptures 2. Strong uterine contractions : result in birth of fetus 3. Placenta & umbilical cord are expelled (afterbirth)
Birth
Fahrenheit to Celsius
C=5/9(F-32)
SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate)
SDS (a detergent) denatures protein by disrupting noncovalent interactions -adds negative charge to all proteins eliminating importance of charge - this causes motility of protein to be only related to its molecular weight (size) - smaller proteins run faster & end up at bottom -large proteins run slowly & end up at top
Test charge q within the electric field
E = Fe/q
Test charge q is not within the electric field
E = kQ/r^2
Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor
E0 =8.85 X 10-12 F/m
Trust vs Mistrust
Erickson's Stage of Psychosocial Development 0-1 year -if resolved successfully, child trusts environment & himself -if not resolved, child becomes suspicious of the world
Initiative vs. guilt
Erickson's Stage of Psychosocial Development 3-6 years -favorable outcome is sense of purpose, ability to initiate activities -if not resolved, child either unduly restricts himself or overcompensates by showing off (rooted in fear of punishment)
Integrity vs Despair
Erickson's Stage of Psychosocial Development old age (above 65) - if resolved, person exhibits a detached concern w/ life itself (wisdom), feels that his life was worthwhile & meaningful, and feels ready to face death -if unresolved, person has feelings of bitterness about life, feels that life was worthless, and fears death
Autonomy vs shame and doubt
Erickson's Stage of Psychosocial Development 1-3 years -favorable outcome is feeling able to exert control over the world -unfavorable outcome is sense of doubt and persistent external locus of control
Identity vs role confusion
Erickson's Stage of Psychosocial Development 12-20 years -if resolved, person sees himself as a unique person w/ loyalties - if unresolved, person is confused about identity (personality may shift from day to day)
Industry vs Inferiority
Erickson's Stage of Psychosocial Development 6-12 years -if resolved, child feels competent -if unresolved, child feels inadequate
Generativity vs Stagnation
Erickson's Stage of Psychosocial Development middle age (40-65 years) - if resolved, individual is able to be a productive, caring, and contributing member of society - if unresolved, person becomes bored & self-centered w/ little care for others
Celsius to Fahrenheit
F= 9/5 C+32
Current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic
FB = ILBsinθ *Direction: RHR -->point fingers in direction of current, curl fingers in direction of magnetic field vector, thumb points in direction of magnetic force
charge moves in a magnetic field
FB = qvBsinθ -Charge must be perpendicular (sin90 =1) to experience a magnetic force -If charge is moving parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field vector, it will experience no magnetic force (sin0 = 0 and sin180 = 0) -Direction: RHR --> point fingers in direction of velocity vector, curl fingers toward the magnetic field vector, and thumb points in direction of the force *If the charge is negative, do the same procedure but flip hand at the end
-Weight of any volume of a given substance
Fg= ρVg
Products of Anterior Pituitary (FLAT PEG)
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH), Prolactin, Endorphins, and Growth Hormone (GH) -The 4 hormones in FLAT are tropic hormones -The 3 hormones in PEG are all direct hormones -anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes hormones
Formal Charge
Formal Charge = V -Nnonbonding - (1/2) Nbonding # e- in valence shell -nonbonding electrons - half of bonding electrons -lewis structure w/ small or no formal charge is preferred -lewis structure w/ negative formal charge placed on most EN atoms is preferred
Oral Stage
Freud's stage of Psychosexual development 0-1 year * gratification obtained by putting objects in mouth, biting, sucking *libidinal energy centered on mouth *an orally fixated adult exhibits excessive dependency
Genital stage
Freud's stage of Psychosexual development -from puberty to adulthood - if sexual traumas of childhood have not been resolved, homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism result
Latency Stage
Freud's stage of Psychosexual development -libido is sublimated -lasts until puberty is reached
Anal stage
Freud's stage of Psychosexual development 1-3 years *libido centered on anus *gratification gained through elimination & retention of waste materials *Fixation leads to excessive orderliness (anal retentiveness) or sloppiness in the adult
Phallic (Oedipal) Stage
Freud's stage of Psychosexual development 3-5 years -centers on resolution of Oedipal conflict in males & Electra conflict in females -Male child envies his father's intimate relationship w/ mother & fears castration (wishes to eliminate his father & possess his mother --> feels guilty so he identifies w/ father to resolve this conflict) -Females have penis envy
Sucrose
Glucose + fructose
Lactose
Glucose + galactose
Maltose
Glucose + glucose
If reactants are added (or products are removed)
Qc < Keq so reaction spontaneously reacts in forward direction
If reactants are removed (or products are added)
Qc > Keq so reaction spontaneously reacts in reverse direction
Pathway of Sperm (Mnemonic --> SEVEN UP)
Seminiferous tubules, Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Ejaculatory Duct, Nothing, Urethra, Penis
Celsius to Kelvin
K=C+273
Pre-conventional morality
Kholberg's Moral Reasoning Theory (1st phase) - typical of pre-adolescent thinking -places emphasis on consequences of the moral choice -consists of 2 stages *Stage 1 (obedience):concerned with avoiding punishment *Stage 2 (self-interest):concerned with gaining rewards
Conventional morality
Kholberg's Moral Reasoning Theory (2nd phase) -develops in early adolescence when people begin to see themselves in terms of relationships to others -based on understanding and accepting social rules -consists of 2 stages *stage 3 (conformity): person seeks approval of others *Stage 4 (law & order): person maintains social order in the highest regard
Post-conventional Morality
Kholberg's Moral Reasoning Theory (3rd phase) -level of reasoning that not everyone is capable of -may conflict with laws -consists of 2 stages *Stage 5 (social contract): person views moral rules as conventions designed to ensure the greater good *Stage 6 (universal human ethics): person thinks that decisions should be made considering abstract principles
Luteal Phase
LH causes ruptured follicle to form corpus luteum (secretes progesterone) maintains uterine lining for implantation progesterone rises while estrogen is high high progesterone causes decrease in GnRH, LH, and FSH preventing ovulation of multiple eggs
Atrioventricular valve mnemonic (LAB RAT)
Left Atrium = Bicuspid Right Atrium = Tricuspid
bacili
Rod-shaped bacteria
magnetic field in long, straight current carrying wire
Magnitude: B = μI/2πr μ: permeability of free space --> 4π x 10-7 (T*m)/A *Inverse relationship b/w magnitude of magnetic field and distance from the current *Direction: RHR --> point thumb in direction of current, curling fingers gives direction of magnetic field
Symbolic Thinking
ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination
Menopause
Ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH results in ovarian atrophy As estrogen and progesterone levels drop, endometrium atrophies and menstruation stops
Bernoulli's equation
P1 +1/2 ρv_1^2+ρgh_1= P_2+1/2 ρv_2^2+ρgh_2 P : absolute pressure of the fluid v: linear speed h: height of the fluid
Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic and Autonomic
Molecular Geometry
Spatial arrangement of only the bonding pairs of e-
Semen
Sperm and seminal fluid
Cocci
Spherical bacteria
Electric Potential Energy
U = kQq/r -If the charges are like charges (both + or both -) then the potential energy will be positive -If the charges are unlike (1 + and the other -) then potential energy will be negative
Basal Rate Fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical info
Km = [S]
When the rxn rate is equal to half of vmax
Constructive interference
When waves are perfectly in phase, the displacements always add together & the amplitude of the resultant is equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the 2 waves
Lineweaver-burk Plots
X intercept is -1/km y intercept is 1/vmax
Inside Neuron
[K] is high and [Na] is low * negatively charged
Outside neuron
[Na] is high and [K] is low
Carbonyl
a double bond b/w a carbon and an oxygen
State dependent memory
a person's mental state affects recall
Homopolysaccharide
a polysaccharide composed entirely of glucose
Motif
a repetitive organization of secondary structural elements
Interference
a retrieval error caused by the existence of other information
rate law
aA + bB → cC +dD rate = k [A]^x [B]^y
Bradford Protein Assay Method
mixes a protein in solution w/ Coomassie Brilliant Blue dye -in protonated form (acidic) this dye has brown-green color -dye gives up protons to ionizable groups in protein becoming basic & acquiring blue color in process -increased protein concentrations correspond to larger concentration of blue dye in solution - very accurate only when 1 type of protein is present
Substrate
molecule upon which an enzyme acts
Drive Reduction Theory
motivation is based on goal of eliminating uncomfortable internal states (relieving internal tension created by unmet needs)
follicles
multilayered sacs that contain, nourish,protect immature ova (eggs)
Stratified Epithelia
multiple layers of cells
Effector
name for postsynaptic cell if it is a gland or muscle rather than another neuron
Emotion
natural instinctive state of mind derived from your circumstances, mood, or relationship w/ others
neuroplasticity
neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli
Absolute Refractory Period
no amount of stimulation can cause another AP to occur
Isovolumetric Process (Isochoric)
no change in volume no work accomplished (W = 0) ΔU=Q
Adiabatic Process
no heat exchange (Q=0) ΔU = -W
Ideal fluids
no viscosity inviscid
gametes
non-identical sex cells
Cofactors
non-protein molecules small in size so that they can bind to the active site & participate in the catalysis of the reaction (by carrying charge) recruited only when needed can be attached through weak noncovalent interactions or strong covalent interactions inorganic molecules
Molarity
normality/n n: # of protons, OH-, e-, or ions produced or consumed by solute
irreversible process
not able to be restored to initial state
Isolated System
not capable of exchanging energy or matter w/ their surroundings (total Δ in internal energy is zero) universe is considered isolated b/c no surroundings
Sertoli cells
nourish seminiferous tubules of testes
Bond Order
number of shared e- pairs between 2 atoms -double bond has bond order of 2
second law of thermodynamics
objects in thermal contact and not in thermal equilibrium will exchange heat energy such that object w/ higher temp. gives off heat energy to object w/ lower temp. until both objects have the same temp. at thermal equilibrium
beta
occur when person is alert and attending to a mental task that requires concentration
Distress
occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors
Proactive interference
old info interferes w/ new learning
Negative Feedback
once we have enough of a product, the pathway that creates that product is turned off or slowed Product binds to the active site of the enzyme that acted earlier in pathway competitively inhibiting the enzyme and making it unavailable for use
Intercostal muscles
one of the layers of muscles b/w the ribs
hemizygous
only one copy of gene present
Glands
organs of endocrine system secrete hormones
Episodic memory
our experiences, events
loudness (volume of sound)
our perception of intensity
Reference group
our self-concept depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to
Cell Wall
outer barrier of the cell made of phospholipids provides structure and controls movement of solutes into and out of the bacterium
Parietal pleura
outer membrane
l = 1
p subshell 3 orbitals shaped like barbells along the x, y, and z axis
Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity
pH affects ionization of the active site changes in pH can lead to denaturation of the active site
Longitudinal waves
particles of the wave oscillate parallel to the direction of propagation
Instinct theory of motivation
people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts
Source monitoring error
person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context under which those details were gained
Stress
physical, emotional, cognitive, or behavioral response to challenging events
3 elements of emotion
physiological response, behavioral response, & cognitive response
Chiasma
point of contact of chromatids of homologous chromosomes
Antinodes
points midway b/w the nodes that fluctuate w/ maximum amplitude
system
portion of universe we are interested in observing & manipulating surroundings --> rest of universe
Irreversible Reactions
proceed only in one direction
Accommodation
process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new info
Biosignaling
process in which cells receive & act on signals
Assimilation
process of classifying new info into existing schemata
Reinforcement
process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior
Encoding
process of putting new information into memory
bulbourethral glands
produce clear viscous fluid that cleans out remnants of urine and lubricates urethra during sexual arousal
ovaries
produce estrogen and progesterone located in pelvic cavity consist of follicles
Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schawnn cells (PNS)
produce myelin
Platelets
protect the vascular system if there is damage by forming a clot
Kinetochores
protein structures located on the centromeres that serve as attachment points for specific fibers of the spindle apparatus (kinetochore fibers)
Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
proteins produced by B-cells neutralize targets (toxins, bacteria) in the body recruit other cells to help eliminate the threat
synaptonemal complex
proteins that hold together homologous chromosomes
Integrins
proteins w/ 2 chains (α and β) that bind to and communicate w/ extracellular matrix -role in cellular signaling -can promote cell division, apoptosis, or other processes
Compounds
pure substances composed of 2 or more elements in a fixed proportion
depolarization
raising of membrane potential from resting potential
Priming
recall is aided by first being presented w/ a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
Prospective memory
remembering to perform a task at some point in the future
Corpus Luteum
remnant follicle after ovulation
RNase H
removes RNA primers in eukaryotes
Primary Circular Reactions
repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance (behavior is repeated b/c it is soothing)
Maintenance rehearsal
repetition of a piece of info to either keep it within working memory (to prevent forgetting) or to store it in short term memory & eventually long term memory
Obligate Aerobes
require oxygen
Negative Sense RNA Viruses
require synthesis of an RNA strand complementary to the negative sense RNA strand -used as template for protein synthesis -must carry an RNA replicase in virions to make complementary strand
Nociceptors
respond to painful or noxious stimuli
Recall
retrieval and statement of previously learned info
Regression
returning to an earlier developmental state when faced with stress
Superior vena cava (SVC)
returns blood from portions of the body above the heart
Inferior Vena Cava (IVC)
returns blood from portions of the body below the heart
Electrostatic force
• force created by and acting upon stationary charges - may be repulsive or attractive depending on the signs of the charges interacting
Glycosphingolipids
• sphingolipids w/ head groups composed of sugars bonded by glycosidic linkages -not phospholipids b/c they have no phosphodiester linkage - found on the outer surface of the plasma membrane
Arrhenius Equation
•As the frequency factor of the reaction increases, the rate constant of the reaction also increases (direct relationship) •If temperature increases, the rate constant increases --> rate of the reaction also increases Low activation energy and high temp. make the negative exponent of the Arrhenius equation smaller in magnitude and increase k
G2 stage (post-synthetic gap)
•Cell checks if DNA replication proceeded correctly to avoid passing on an error to daughter cells •Checks if there are enough organelles and cytoplasm
S stage (synthesis of DNA)
•Cell replicates its genetic material •A single chromosome replicates to form 2 sister chromatids (identical) bound together at the centromere
M stage (Mitosis)
•Mitosis (2 identical cells created from a single cell) + cytokinesis (splitting of cytoplasm and organelles into 2 daughter cells) •Occurs in somatic cells (cells not involved in sexual reproduction) •Mitosis consists of 4 phases
Meiosis
•Occurs in gametocytes (germ cells) results in up to 4 non-identical sex cells (gametes)
Paramagnetic materials
•unpaired electrons *atoms randomly orient themselves so that the material itself creates no net magnetic field *become weakly magnetized in presence of external magnetic field * ex: aluminum, gold
Ferromagnetic materials
•unpaired electrons -atomic magnetic dipoles are oriented randomly so that the material has no net magnetic dipole - become strongly magnetized when exposed to a magnetic field -ex: iron, nickel
