MCAT P/S
parasympathetic nervous system
"part of the autonomic nervous system - ""rest or digest"" response starts at the brain stem or bottom of spinal cord --> first neuron sends long axon --> synpase with ganglion of second neuron --> sends short axon to target cell long and then short"
representative heuristic
"people look for the most representative answer and look to match prototypes (a given concept to what is typical/ representative) when a decision's probability is judged based on how similar or representative the aspect is to a specific person, group or population and the degree that it reflects this feature of the population as a whole ex: someone who is outspoken, politically engaged, etc. will more likely to be assumed to be a ""feminist bank teller"" rather than just a ""bank teller"" - fits the prototype of how a feminist would act can lead to conjunction fallacy"
external locus of control
"perceived outside forces that help control your fate ""that was an unfair test"""
instinctual drift
"phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors - learned behaviors ""drifts"" to the organism's species-specific (instinctual) behavior tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response"
components of language: phonology
"phonetic component actual sound of a language - ""sound system"" there are 40 phonemes (smallest unit of sound) in the english language"
pros and cons of chemical (olfactory) signals
"pros: longer lasting cons: slower, ""noisy"" (a lot of chemical signals in a given area)"
psychophysics
"quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect described as the ""scientific study of the relation between stimulus and sensation"" - or ""the analysis of perceptual processes by studying the effect on a subject's experience or behaviour of systematically varying the properties of a stimulus along one or more physical dimensions"""
components of language: morphology
"refers to structure of words many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes (smallest significant unit of meaning of a word) ""grammatical system"" which puts meaningful elements together into ""words"""
medulla
"regulates autonomic activity of heart and lungs athletes receive ""med""als for exercise"
pons
"regulates waking and relaxing ""pon""ds are relaxing to look at"
mediating variable
"researchers may propose a mediating step between two of the variables with an established relationship a ""reason"" for the relationship"
segregation
"separating out groups of people and giving them access to a separate set of resources (often worse) ""separate but equal"""
insight learning
"solve a problem using past skills the ""aha"" moment"
temporal cortex
"sound (auditory processing) wenicke's area ""tempo"" and picture a metronome above your ear (where the temporal cortex is located)"
walter cannon
"spent his career expanding our understanding of homeostasis - interested in homeostatic response of animals to stressors (threats and dangers) - termed our response to threats the ""flight or fight response"""
level 2 of moral reasoning (conventional)
"stage 3: interpersonal concordance orientation - doing what's right to gain acceptance from society - following societal norms stage 4: law and order orientation - maintaining social order - following ""rules"""
cochlear implants
"surgical procedure to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural narrow hearing loss (""nerve deafness"") - problem with conduction of sound waves from cochlea --> brain microphone --> speech processer --> (electrical info) --> transmitter (outside the skull) --> receiver (inside the skull) --> stimulator --> cochlea --> (neural impulse) --> brain"
token economy
"system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior - reinforcers are ""tokens"" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex: prizes)"
operational span testing
"task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple math verification (ex: 4/2 + 1 = 3) and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/ read pair maximum number of words that can be recalled is the ""operation span"""
"""in"" group"
"the one we are connected with ""us"" stronger interactions with those in the in-group than those in the out-group - interactions are more common and more influenential"
i
"the response of the individual to the ""me"" thinks about what those things mean - attitudes of others spontaneous, less socialized component of the self"
sclera
"thick, fibrous tissue that forms substance of the eyeball (""white part"" of the eye) extra layer of protection and structure of eyeball lined with conjunctiva attachment point for muscles, so you can move your eyeball around when you're looking at different things covers posterior 5/6th of the eyeball light is usually absorbed by the time it gets to this"
universalism
"thought determines language completely - your thought dictates language believes that human cognition shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions shape human language - ex: the new guinea people, who only have two words for color (""mola"" for dark and ""milli"" for light) only think about dark and light. if they had other thoughts, they would develop words for them"
escape
"type of aversive control escape an unpleasant stimulus once it has occured - the stimuli usually has the element of surprise - when the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus - the ""get me out of here"" or ""shut this off"" reaction response is conditioned (of escaping) in response to a stimuli and then the stimuli goes away (negative reinforcement) typically, the response would not occur"
avoidance
"type of aversive control signal is given before aversive situation the behavior is to avoid the situation - results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/ undesirable stimuli - ex: fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to ""avoid"" the situation"
gestalt principles: law of past experiences
"under some circumstances, visual stimuli are categorized according to past experiences - if 2 objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together - ex: if you come across an english word you've never seen, you tend to interpret the letters ""L"" and ""I"" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the objects as an uppercase ""U"""
top down processing
"uses background knowledge to influence perception - recreating an image with what we know about that image despite it not being fully expressed - perception/ behavior is influenced by our expectations - ex: wheres waldo is ""goal driven"" theory driven deductive reasoning"
cerebral cortex: occipital lobe
"vision ""striate cortex"" (striated cells)"
optic nerve
"visual signals, after having been picked up by the rods and cones and bipolar cells to the ganglion cells, finally leave the eye through the optic nerve axons from the ganglion cells band together into a long strand (the optic nerve) and go through the retina at the back of the eye (your ""blind spot"") imagine that the tails of the ""gang of lions"" are the axons that make up the optic nerve and exit out the back of the eye"
resource model of attention
"we have limited resources in attention - resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things at once supported by research study - ex: Dichotic listening task (you aren't able to focus on both the ""attended channel"" and the ""unattended channel"". you are able to recall information from the attended channel but not the unattended channel)"
me
"what we learned through interactions with others - how individuals believes the ""generalized other"" perceives us, the social self and learned through interaction with others society's view - the part of self formed in interaction with others and social environment socialized and conforming aspects of self"
indicator of mature socialization
"when an individual accurately predicts how other people think about him or her - has incorporated the ""social"" into the ""self"""
example of looking-glass self (ex: trying on clothes before going out with friends)
"while deciding, the dialogue that is taking place inside their mind is usually a dialogue between their - ""self"" (portion of their identity that calls itself ""i"") - internalized understanding of their friends and society (""generalized other"")"
total population increease rate
(# births + # immigration) / 1000
total population decrease rate
(# death + # emmigration) / 1000
cocktail party effect
- ability to concentrate on what voice amongst a crowd - or when someone calls your name example of endogenous/ internal cue
sociocultural/ environmental factors of depression
- co-rumination/ empathy - low SES - social isolation/ child abuse
type of visual cues
- color - mimicry - camouflage (used to NOT communicate) - bioluminescent
cheynes-stroke breathing
- cresendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop-in breathing - normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern - believed heart failure/ stroke/ renal failure is the cause
central route of persuasion
- degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader - how much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion - argument and words are central
Freud's theory of dreams
- dreams represent our unconscious feelings, urges and thoughts (dreams have meaning and interpreting them can help us resolve and identify hidden conflict) manifest content: what happens (literal) latent content: what is the hidden meaning
thomas and chess's model of temperament
- easy (40%) - difficult (10%) - slow-to-warm-up (15%) - unclassified (35%) difficult sparked the most interest - placed children at higher risk for adjustment problems
3 underlying components of rothbard's definition of temperament
- emotion - attention - action
managing stress (5)
- exercise - meditation - religious beliefs/ faith - cognitive flexibility - coping
acute withdrawal
- few weeks - physical withdrawal symptoms - different for each drug/ person (ex: alcohol is only 2 days)
post-acute withdrawal
- fewer physical symptoms - more emotional/ psychologic symptoms (PAWS - post acute withdrawal symptoms) - feels like a rollercoaster of symptoms (in the beginning, symptoms change minute to minute but later, they only change every few weeks, etc) - same for everyone - each episode usually lasts for a few days - in general, lasts for 2 years
racial differences can cause drastic events like
- genocide - population transfer - inter-colonialism - assimilation
pros of moving to urban areas
- improved utilities and building - more job opportunities - more options/ services for education, healthcare, etc.
mesoderm
- inner layer of skin - muscles - bones - cardiac muscles - kidneys - bladder - ovaries/ testes
globalization allows for...
- international terrorism - civil unrest - foreign cultures integrated in each country - world-economy where countries become interdependent (global community)
first impressions are (3)
- long - strong - easily built upon
peripheral route of persuasion
- looks at superficial, expertise, nonverbal persuasion cues (ex: attractiveness and status of persuader) - ex: a doctor is peripheral
2 methods of heuristic problem solving
- means-end analysis - working backwards
depressants: alcohol
- most popular - disrupts REM sleep (and forming memories)
routes of drug entry
- oral (slowest) - inhalation (goes straight to the brain, ~10 seconds) - injection (most addictive and fastest because it goes right to the vein; most dangerous because can inject bacteria and unexpected toxins)
ectoderm
- outer layer of skin - sweat glands - hair - nervous system
coping with stress (3)
- perceived control - optimism - social support
3 main types of innate behavioral traits
- reflexes - orientation behaviors - fixed action pattern (FAP)
class consciousness involves (2)
- seizing and obtaining means - redistributing means of production among the workers
3 factors that influence our ability multitask
- task similarity (ex: easier to write a paper listening to classical music than an interview because there is less similarity) - task difficulty (harder tasks require more focus; ex: texting while driving is more difficult than talking to a passenger in a car) - practice (whether a task is automatic vs controlled is determined by the amount of pracctice; a controlled task would be struggled to complete if attention is divided)
methods of problem solving
- trial and error - algorithm - heuristics - intuition
depressants: barbiturates
- used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety - depress CNS - ex: anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures) - not often perscribed because of negative effects/ side effects
shadowing task
- wearing headphones with 3 different sounds in each - told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other (selective attention) - based on the unattended information that we do and don't end up comprehending, we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in the other ear
index of dissimilarity
0 is total segregation 100 is perfect distributions
sensorimotor stage
0-2 years old sensori-: children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch, etc -motor: active, as you develop how to use senses as you learn to move your body around object permanence develops
delta brainwaves
0.5-3Hz - slower/ lower frequency than theta waves associated with deep sleep or coma
theories of selective attention
1) Broadbent's early selection theory 2) Deutch & Deutch's late selection theory 3) Treisman's attenuation theory uses the shadowing task
"3 steps of ""looking glass self"""
1. how do i appear to others? 2. what must others think of me? 3. revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct or incorrect perceptions on others evaluations)
how does somatosensory information travel?
2 big categories - position sense, vibration sense and fine touch - pain, temperature and gross (less precise) touch delivers information to the spinal cord - crosses the other side immediately --> cerebrum why injury to one side of the brain often results in damage to the other side --> because all the somatosensory pathways cross to the other side
social group
2+ people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity
major motor milestones (reflexes)
2-4 months: head/ chest up 2-5 months: roll over 5-8 months: sit up 5-10 months: stand with support 6-11 months: pull up to standing position 7-12 months: able to crawl 7-13 months: walk while holding onto furniture 10-14 months: stand on their own 11-15 months: walk alone usually many individual differences - 50% will develop before 50% after
average number of births per women
2.1 children
always-on generation
2004+ - but debated
how many stages are in the moral development theory
3 stages of development, each with 2 stages - 6 stages total
3 types of nerve fibers
A-beta: fast ones are thick and covered in myelin (less resistance, high conductance) A-delta: small diameter, less myelin C fibers: small diameter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain)
MEG
AKA SQUIDS - superconducting quantum interference device better resolution than EEG rarer because it requires a large machine and special room to shield it records magnetic fields produced by the electric currents in the brain - measured by using SQUIDS
somatosensation
AKA tactile sense or sense of touch mixed sensory category includes all sensation received from the skin and mucous membranes, as well from as the limbs and joints
morula
32 cells cells become tighter - cells get closer together and the outside cells (trophoblast) become different than the inside cells (embryoblast) differentiation occurs
theta brainwaves
4-7Hz - lower/ slower frequency than alpha waves associated with drowsiness
how many phonemes are there in the english language?
40
how many stages are in the psychosexual theory of development?
5 stages
cone
6-7 million of them responsible for color vision - red cones - green cones - blue cones centered in the fovea (center of the macula) - almost no rods - part of the eye that allows you to focus on small details
milgram's experiment on obedience
65% of participants shocked all the way - the teacher protested and were trembling but they still obeyed the commander and shocked to 450V - in versions of the experiment where the learner claimed to have a heart condition and complained that the shocks were hurting their heart, compliance dropped very little (63%)
concrete operational stage
7-11 years old idea of conservation idea of reversibility - ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition begin to learn empathy and reasoning of math skills
how many stages are in the psychosocial development theory?
8 stages
alpha brainwaves
8-13Hz - lower frequency than beta waves in daydreaming state disappear in drowsiness but reappear later in deep sleep
critical period of nativist perspective
8-9 years old
cities
>50,000 people
metropolis
>500,000 people
central dogma
DNA --> RNA --> proteins
studying brain functions
EEG (electroencephalogram) MEG (megnetoencephalogram)
amino acid neurotransmitters
GABA (-) - CNS glycine (-) - PNS glutamate (+)
what are the most common inhibitory neurotransmitters?
GABA (brain) and glycine (spinal cord)
GPCR receptors vs ion channels
GPCR receptors: sweet, umami, bitter cells Ion channels: sour and salty (SOdium, which is an ion channel is SOur and Salty, think salt) - bind to receptors directly (NaCl binds to receptors --> ion channels open --> (+) flows in --> cell depolarizes --> action potential - salty: bind to salt receptors which detect presence of Na+ - sour: bind sourness receptors that react with H+ --> closes K+ channels
classification systems of mental disorders
ICD-10 (international classification of diseases, 10th ed) - system from the WHO - 11 top categories DSM-5 (diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edition) - from APA - 20 top categories
IQ scores only measure [...] intelligence
IQ scores only measure analytical intelligence
absolute threshold of sensation vs difference threshold (JND)
JND: smallest difference that can be detected 50% of the time ATS: mimumum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a simulus 50% of the time
K-complexes help sleep-based [...]
K-complexes help sleep-based memory consolidation
types of mechanoreceptors
MCM RP - feel touch, pressure, stretch - and then vibration meissinheiners corpuscle - light touch, flutter, light stretch, small receptive field, grip control merkel disk/ receptor - light touch, pressure, fine details, small recetive field ruffini endings/ corpuscle/ cylinder - deep stretch pacinian corpuscle (lamellar corpuscle) - vibration - deep push/ poke hair follicle receptor - hair movements - light touch
insight
"""aha"" moment hard to predict and hard to encourage, particularly when you are fixated on seeing a problem from the same inefficient approach"
normalcy bias
"""cant happen to me"" causes people to underestimate both the possibility of a disaster occuring and its possible effects"
type of collective behaviors: fad
"""fleeting behavior"" something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popularity just as quickly - lasts for short period of time but reach influence a large 3 of people at a time - not necessarily in line with normal behavior - perceived as ""cool"" or ""interesting"" by large groups of people"
"""out"" group"
"""them"" groups we're not associated with groups of people who we do not feel connected to"
entoderm
"- GI tract tube (forms esophagus, small intestines, large intestines) - lungs - liver - pancreas ""endernal"" organs"
theories of intelligence
"- spearman's theory of generalized intelligence - thurnston's 7 factors of intelligence - gardner's theory of multiple intelligence - sternburg's triarchic theory of intelligence (analytical, creative and practical) general (1) --> (7) factors --> (7-9) factors --> triarchic (3) ST[A]G[E]S - the two ""S"" are in alphabetical order"
stages of general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
"1. alarm phase - ready for ""fight or flight"" 2. resistance - fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, body bathed in cortisol 3. exhaustion - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted - our tissues become damaged and our dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness - negative impact of long-term stress"
stages of social behaviorism
"1. preparatory stage - interaction through imitation - cannot take perspective of others yet (egocentricism) 2. play stage - pretend play (more aware of social relationships), role-taking - mentally assuming perspective of others 3. game stage - start to understand attitudes, beliefs and behaviors of ""generalized other"" (society as a whole) - can take on multiple roles - only care about reactions of significant others"
preoperational stage
"2-7 years old -operational: mental operations like imagining things develop/ engage in pretend play - uses symbols to represent things (words symbolize objects and children start understanding symbols) very egocentric - only concerned about themselves (""i cant see you, you can't see me) - inability to understand perspective of others - no empathy"
ego
"conscious and unconscious - mediator between the unconscious desires of the id and moral demands of the superego ""reality principle"" operates on secondary processes (reality testing) - mediates the demands of reality vs desires of the id - perceptions, thoughts and judgements - seeks long-term gratification the self - this is who we identify with/ believe ourselves to be"
deviance standards: theory of differential association
"deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others - rejects norms/ values and believes new behavior a the norm relationships a person forms are very important - if strong relationship to someone deviant (who provides constant exposure to violated norms), the person is more likely to learn deviance than someone not ""monkey see, monkey do"""
exogenous/ external cues
"don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention - bright colors, loud noises, ""pop-out"" effect driven by bottom-up or external events"
vygotsky: higher mental functions
"elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes independent of learning and thinking cultivated by a ""tutor"" from who we model our behavior"
misleading information
"ex: two groups of participants observed a car crash; one group was told that the cars ""smashed"" into each other and the other group was told that they ""hit"" each other - the group that was told that they smashed one another was more likely to recall that glass was on the floor"
freudian slip
"example of a mental conflict ex: financially stressed patient says ""please don't give be any bills"" instead of ""pills"""
ways to reduce cognitive discomfort (4)
"modify our cognitions - ex: a smoker might say ""i dont smoke that much"" trivalize (make less important/ make trival) - ex: smoker might say that evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer add more cognitions (to make contradictions more comfortable - ex: smoker might say that they exercise a lot so it doesn't matter deny the facts - ex: smoker might say that there is no evidence that smoking and cancer are not linked"
back stage
"more private areas of our lives - when the ""act"" is over, you can be yourself and do what makes you most comfortable some things in backstage maybe no one knows about"
existential self
"most basic part of self-concept sense of being separate and distinct from others awareness that the self is constant/ consistent throughout life - ex: someone being ""tired"" isn't their self-concept"
monocular cues give a sense of motion of an object with
"motion parallax (""relative motion"") - farther = slower - closer = faster"
cerebral cortex: frontal lobe
"motor cortex (body movements) prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/ direct other areas of the brain) broca's area (speech production) ""front"" door to the brain"
suburbanization
"movement away from cities to get a larger home (the ""american dream"") commute for work can be long harder to get quick medical help suburbs form their own economic centers and become independent to cities they border"
does intelligence hold meaning?
"no - it doesn't matter if the musicians are labeled as having a ""high musical talent/ ability"" or a ""high musical intelligence"", they are still damn good"
are all bad experiences the same with taste aversion?
"no water-deprived rats that got sick after drinking sweet water had aversion but those that got shocked after drinking sweet water did not experience aversion - ""if you get physically sick, you probably ate something bad"" - ""if you get physically injured, it probably was caused by something in the environment"""
gate control theory of pain
"non-painful input closes the ""gates"" to painful inputs, which prevents pain sensations from traveling to the central nervous system - stimulation by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain (gate control theory of olfaction = theory of the process of nociception)"
groupthink
"occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing the problem at hand happens in very cohesive, insulated groups - often have important/ respected leads ad in the interest of group ""unity"", individuals suppress/ sensor their own opinions first suggestion proposed by the leader is adopted - especially if there is little hope in finding a better solution - not the most effective way to make a decision"
sympathetic nervous system
"part of the autonomic nervous system - ""fight or flight"" response starts in the middle of the spinal cord --> short axon synpases with the short ganglia close to spine --> second neuron goes to target cell (smooth, cardiac, gland cells) short and then long"
what stage do babies spend most of their sleep in?
REM stage
REM stage
Stage 4 - eyes move rapidly beneath your eyelids but most of your other muscles are paralyzed - most dreaming occurs in REM (paralysation inhibits action) - waking up during REM allows you to remember your dream - most important for memory consolidation (formation of episodic memories; consolidate procedural memories) - combination of alpha, beta and dyssynchronous waves (similar to beta waves seen when awake) BATS-Drink Blood (beta alpha theta sleep-spindle/ K-complex delta beta)
dopamine produced in the ventral tegmental area
VTA --> prefrontal cortex via mesocortical pathway - associated with cognition, affeect and negative symptoms of schizophrenia VTA --> nucleus accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus via mesolimbic pathway - associated with reward, motivation and positive symptoms of schizophrenia
lexicon
a set of vocabulary items entire set of morphemes in a language
oligarchy
a small group of people having control of a country, organization or institution
minority influence
a smaller group over time is able to persuade the majority to join their side.
imitation
a type of individual social influence - one of the most basic forms of social behavior begins with an understanding that there's a difference between others and ourself
what do social networks provide?
a valuable resource - believed to result in various health benefits for the individual (ex: reduction in the health risk of chronic inflammation)
a great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use legislation and [...]
a great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use legislation and anti-discrimination laws
maladaptive coping techniques: dissociation
ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories and emotions often assoicated with PTSD
conduction (associative) aphasia
ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted when the arcuate fasciculus is damaged makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things, even when they understand what is beeing said
categorical perception
ability to distinguish between sounds in ASL, hand movements and locations are analogous to phonemes
fluid intelligence
ability to reason quickly and abstractly - ex: solving novel logic problems ability to think on one's feet, be adaptable and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning helps one see patterns, organize and identify features and spatial relationships to solve complex problems
nociception
ability to sense pain SLOW reaction
thermoception
ability to sense temperature SLOW reaction
crystallized IQ
ability to use knowledge and experience
lewy bodies
abnormal structures inside dopaminergic neurons of substantia nigra contains a protein alpha synuclein, a normal protein preesent in brain cells under normal conditions, are clumped together in parkinson's
internal (dispositional attribution)
about them
old brain: thalamus
above brainstem relay station (eye/ ear info) sensory functions - all senses have pathways that travel to the thalamus higher functions of brain - cognition and emotion
absolute poverty
absolute level at which if you go below, survival is threatened minimum level of resources a human being needs to survive - approximately $1-2 a day
just world hypothesis: rational techniques
accepts reality prevent or correct injustice - ex: with charities, sign a petition, changes to a legal system, etc
coping styles in schema therapy: surrender
accomodating to the way you are treated and acting as if, and believing, it is the way things should be compliance, dependence - relies on others - gives in - seeks affiliation - passive, dependent, submissive, clining, avoids conflict, people-pleasing, etc
validity
accuracy
what is the basal forebrain important for the production of?
acetylcholine
covert orienting
act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement
3 assumptions for rational choice theory to be true
actions can be listed in order of preference and all preferences are transient assumes person has full knowledge about outcomes due to action people have ability to weigh different actions ((rarely all are true))
relative deprivation theory
actions of groups oppressed/ deprived of rights that others in society enjoy ex: civil rights movement - response to oppression to people of color in the US
confirmation bias
actively seeking out only confirming facts ex: only reading stories about how wonderful a candidate was
6 dimensions of rothbard's definition of temperament
activity level attention span/ persistance fearful distress irritable distress positive affect effortful control
2 stages of withdrawal
acute and post-acute
adaptation is at the [...] lvel and habituation is at the perceptive/ cognitive level
adaptation is at the sensory lvel and habituation is at the perceptive/ cognitive level
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
addresses both cognitive and behacioral components of addiction patients learn to - recognize problematic thought patters and develop more positive thought patters and coping behaviors - anticipate problematic situations and to self-monitor for cravings so they can apply their coping strategies early used successfully for patients addicted to alcohol, cocaine, meth and nicotine - skills learned are long-lasting even when therapy ends
endocrine stress response
adrenal glands - adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex adrenal medulla: catecholamines adrenal cortex: glucocorticoid (cortisol)
ABC model of attitude
affective (emotional) - we may feel or have emotions about a certain object, topic, subject - ex: i am scared of spiders is an emotional attitude and shapes our attitude about spiders behavioral - how we act or behave toward object/ subject - ex: i will avoid (action/ behavior) spiders and scream (action/ behavior) if i see one cognitive - forms thoughts/ beliefs - have knowledge about subject/ topic that will influence and shape our attitudes (perhaps prior knowledge that will help shape attitudes) - ex: i believe spiders are dangerous (belief) which forms our attitude
parts of reflexes
afferent (stimulus) and efferent (response) somatosensory neurons (afferent) lower motor neurons (efferent)
what is trying to fix the inequalities of the delivery of healthcare?
affordable care act
what are the first categories of self that babies learn?
age and gender
dependency ratio
age-based measurement takes people younger than 14 and older than 65, who are not in the labor force, and compares that to # of people who are
types of gender queer (4)
agender gender fluid non-binary third gender
what is counterconditioning a common treatment for
aggresesion, fears and phobias
life course theory
aging is a social, psychological and biological process that begins from the time you are born until the time you die holistic perspective that calls attention to the developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life
agreements often benefit [...] the most
agreements often benefit private industries the most
activist movements
aim to change some aspect of society
modernization theory
all countries follow a similar path of development from traditional to modern societies - with some help, traditional countries can develop similarly to how today's developed countries did
cultural universals
all cultures have a way of dealing with illness, medicine, healing, etc.
step 1 of categorizing with social identity theory
all humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it - part of human nature categorize in order to understand objects/ identify them - ex: by race, job, etc can make pre-judgements about them
random mating
all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other mating is not influenced by environment or heredity or any behavioral/ social limiations ensures a large amount of genetic diversity
broadbent's early selection theory
all information in the environment goes into a sensory register - briefly registers/ stores everything you receive gets transferred to selective filter right away - identifies what you are supposed to be attending to via basic physical characteristics - filters out stuff in unattended ear based on things you don't need to understand to identify (based on voice, pitch, speed, accents, etc) information moves to perceptual processes - identifies friend's voice and assigns meaning to words - can engage in other cognitive processes (ex: deciding how to respons) sensory register --> selective filter --> perceptual process --> conscious
old brain and structures involved (4)
all occur outside our awareness brainstem reticular formation thalamus cerebellum
gender norms
the socially acceptable way of acting out gender learned from birth through childhood socialization - we learn what is expected of our gender from what our parents teach us, as well as what we pick up from school, through religious or cultural teachings, in the media, etc.
what happens if a teacher puts a student in a wrong categorization with different expectations?
the student might just meet the teacher's expectations rather than exceeding them and reaching their true potential
is the hyperglobalist perspective good or bad?
theorists can't agree if it's good or bad
categories of problems
well-defined - clear starting and ending point - clear criteria that describes whether or not the goal has been achieved ill-defined - more ambiguous starting and/ or ending point - does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant information to solve the problem - ex: how to live a happy life
what type of aphasia occurs if the temporal lobe is damaged?
wenicke's aphasia
arcuate fasciculus
what connects the wernicke's and broca's areas bundle of nerve fibers also found in deaf people who know sign language - not specific to spoken language (brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication)
vehicular control
what experimental group does without the directly desired impact
gender script
what we expect men and females to do organized information regarding the order of action that are approximate to a familiar situation
place theory
theory of hearing our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane the pitch of a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of th eprimary auditory neurons posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlear's basilar membrane
"4 theories that answer ""how do our attitudes influence behavior"""
theory of planned behavior - intentions + implications attitude to behavior process model - attitude + outside knowledge --> behavior prototype willingness model (PWM) - 6 functions of behavior elaboration likelihood model for persuasion (ELM) - cognitive approach
gate control theory of pain is the same as what other theory?
theory of the process of nociception
brainwaves
there are 4 main types: alpha, beta, delta, theta each type oscillates at a different frequency and associated with different type of consciousness - beta (awake) > alpha (daydreaming) > theta (drowsiness) > delta (deep sleep) in sleep, the type of wave varies by stage
linguistic universals theory
there are characteristics that remain consistent across all languages of different cultures
difference between self-concept and self-identity
there is none - they are the same thing
what does research suggest about intelligence?
there is only one general intelligence - everything doesn't need to be an intelligence intelligence doesn't hold meaning
somatosensations: types
thermoception (temperature) mechanoception (pressure) nociception (pain) propioception (position)
basilar tuning
varying hair cells in cochlea allows the brain to distinguish between high and low frequency sounds - base (start of cochlea): activated by high frequency (1600 Hz) sounds (shorter wavelength --> travels short) - apex (end of cochlea): activated by low frequency (25 Hz) sounds (longer wavelength --> travels farther) as sound enters the cochlea, it travels and activates the hair cell that matches its frequency --> mapped to a particular part of the brain - primary auditory cortex (part of temporal lobe) receives all information from cochlea --> separated by regions which detect different frequencies (0.5-16 kHz)
types of control (3)
vehicular control positive control negative control
mnemonic devices: pegword system
verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number ex: 1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door, 5 is skydive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, etc. then you pair the list to each of the words you are trying to remember using imagery (ex: broccoli looks like a tree so it's 4th on the list)
language theories on a spectrum
thought ----------------------- language universalism --> piaget --> vygotsky --> weak determinism --> strong determinism
similartities between cooley and mead
thought others can play a significant role in how we viewed ourselves
ossicles
three smallest bones in the body - malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup)
just noticeable difference (jnd)
threshold at which you're able to notice a change in any sensation - ex: 2lbs vs 2.01lbs feel the same but 2lbs vs 2.5lbs would be noticeable
what is sensory register defined by?
time
fixed-interval
time is constant - ex: receiving a check every 2 weeks less incentive - response rate is slower
somatosensory homunculus: brain tumor
to determine which part of the brain is tumor and what is normal, surgeons use an electrode and touch different parts of the cortex, stimulating these cells - patients can be awake, determining where they feel like they're being touched to ensure surgeons aren't removing parts of the cortex involved in sensation
pleasure principle
to gain pleasure or avoid pain to accomplish this, it uses - reflex actions - primary processes (forming a mental image of desired object) - wish fulfillment
why does the authoritarian personailty use prejudice?
to protect their ego avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always so focused on others
what is aversive conditioning uses for?
to stop a particular behavior
tonotopy
tonotopic map special mapping of sound frequencies that are processed by the brain
critiques of world-systems theory
too focused on core countries and economics and ignoring class struggles and culture of individual countries
tyanny of choice
too many choices can negatively impact our cognition and behavior - due to information overload
immigration can cause problems if
too much immigration to one area - social services can't handle such an increase in demand too many skilled people may leave their home country - can be harmful to origin country fear/ dislike of immigrants a different race than those of the host country
is top down or bottom up processing theory driven?
top down
lexicon for ASL
total combination of hand movements, locations, facial expressions and body language that help them form meaningful words
meditation
training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness can be guided and focused on something in particular, like breathing, but can also be unfocused - more alpha waves than normal relaxation in light meditation deep meditation have increased theta waves in brain (only experts typically)
caste system
very little social mobility - role is determined entirely by background you're born to and who you're married to a lot of social stability
PTC cascade
transducin breaks away from rhopsin (alpha subunits binds to another part of the protein called phosphodiesterase [PDE]) --> PDE takes cGMP floating around the molecule --> converts to regular GMP sodium channels around the cell allow the cell to take in Na from the outside --> inside (to be open, cGMP needs to be bound, so channels will be closed) --> less sodium enters the cell --> cell hyperpolarizes and rods turn off
encoding
transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory
dopamine produced in the arcuate nucleus
transmitted from hypothalamus --> pituitary gland via tuberoinfundibular pathway dopamine released regulates secretion prolactin by inhibiting its release in the anterior pituitary
authoritarian parenting
very strict break will of child believes in punishmeent
vibrational theory of olfaction
vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile
who created the sociocultural cognitive development theory?
vygotsky
cornea
transparent thick seat of fibrous tissue covers anterior 1/6th of the eye first part of the eye the light hits - starts to bend light when you go underwater, there is water surrounding the cornea so light will bend a slightly different amount than when there is air around the cornea (why things are blurry underwater; if you wear goggles, it adds a layer of air around the cornea)
positive control
treatment with no known response
treisman's attenuation theory replaces the selective filter with an [...]
treisman's attenuation theory replaces the selective filter with an attenuator
gestalt principles (gestalt's laws of grouping)
tries to explain how we perceive things the way we do (ex: why we think of what's on tv as a fluid active representation of something rather than just pictures - similarity - pragnanz - continuity - closure - symmetry - law of common fate - law of past experiences - contextual effects
gastrulation
trilmainar disk (germ layers formed) - ectoderm - mesoderm - endoderm
sociocultural cognitive development theory
vygotsky - believed children learned actively through hands-on processes - suggest parents, caregivers, cultural beliefs, language, attitudes, etc. are all responsible fo rdevelopment of higher functioning of learning child internalizes information with interaction with others important in development of cognition
differences between vygotsky and kohlberg
vygotsky: hands-on social learning kohlberg: moral reasoning
world-systems theory: core country
w. europe and us strong central government with enough tax to support it economically diversified, industrialized and independent of outside control strong middle and working class focus on higher scope production of material goods rather than raw materials
watch out for [...] when studying animal communication
watch out for anthropomorphism when studying animal communication
culture
way of life shared by groups of individuals the knowledge, beliefs and values that bind a society together very diverse
social facts
way of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will exist after any individual is dead unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual - only noticable when we resist ex: the law, moral regulations, religious fates, social currents
society
way people organize themselves
means of production
way we produce goods (ex: factories and farms) owned by fairly wealthy individuals who hire a large mount of workers which offer their labor without owning any of the means of production
defense mechanisms
ways to protect ourselves - psychological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscoius psychological processes - a way to protect ourselves when we have to deal with unconscious wants, feelings, desires and impulses categorized into 4 categories - pathological - immature - neurotic - mature
important agents of socialization
what we use to transmit culture, values, beliefs about acceptable behaviors and beliefs includes people, organizations and institutions that help us learn about our social world - family (most important) - school - peers - mass media
extinction
when a conditioned stimuli (CS) does not elicit a conditioned response (CR) anymore
deviance
when a norm is violated - not necessarily negative depends on context, individuals, gropus and country - relative, just like norms standards can change based on - symbolic interactionism - theory of differential association - labeling theory - strain theory
fundamental attribution error with internal/external causes
when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when looking for causes of another person's behavior
maladaptive coping techniques: anxious avoidance
when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means most common strategy
obstructive sleep apnea
when airways are obstructed soft tissue around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time - gets worse as people get older at nighttime, this causes snoring or gasping or pauses in breathing at daytime, people are tired/ sleepy and unrefreshed
stages of psychosocial development
trust vs mistrust (0-1 yrs) - virtue: hope autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3 yrs) - virtue: will initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs) - virtue: purpose industry vs inferiority (6-12 yrs) - teachers become important - virtue: competence identity vs role confusion (12-20 yrs) - want to belong in society - virtue: fidelity - most important intimacy vs isolation (20-40 yrs) - virtue: love generativity vs stagnation (40-65 yrs) - bigger picture - virtue: care integrity vs dispair (65+ yrs) - virtue: wisdom
retrieval
trying to remember/ call up a memory of something you learned before - pulling out of long-term memory and bringing it into conscious memory (working memory) sucessful retrieval depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding
sensory register
two components based on type of input - iconic (memory for what you see; lasts half a second) - echoic (memory for what you hear; lasts 3-4 seconds) defined by time
mnemonic devices: pegword + method of loci
two methods that are good for remembering things in order that you already know verbally anchors and links words
approach-approach conflicts
two options are both appealing
when do you use a chi-square test?
when all variables are categorical - looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other
extinctive burst
when an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement, it's original behavior will sometimes spike (increase dramatically) temporarily --> decline --> extinction
self-stigma
when an individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudice and discriminatory experiences they've had may begin to feel rejected by society - avoids interacting with society
schacter-singer theory
two-factor theory of emotion physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion - physiological + cognitive --> emotion - if we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we are able to label/ identify reason for situation ex: a man who is allergic to bees encounters a bee - simultaneously, the man interprets that his allergy to bees makes this encounter threatening so his heart beat increases and he starts sweating --> fear
likelihood that someone will obey (8)
type of authorty giving orderscloseness to authority (someone we respect) physical proximity legitamacy of authority institutional authority victim distance depersonalization role models for defiance
population validity
type of external validity describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole - generalizability
ecological validity
type of external validity looks at the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior
habituation
type of non-associative learning when a person tunes out the stimulus - same stimuli results in a decreased response with episode of stimuli
non-associative learning
when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus learning where no punishment/ reward is occuring with increase/ decrease of response - simply noticing how response changes in relationship to the same stimuli over time
apposition
when blastocyst attaches to the endometrium
social isolation
when community voluntarily isolates itself from mainstream, based on their own religious/ cultural/ other beliefs
beck's cognitive therapy (CT)
type of psychotherapy based on the cognitive model - states that thoughts, feelings and behavior are all connected - individuals can move toward overcoming difficulties and meeting their goals by identifying and changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic behavior, and distressing emotional responses
seismic communication
type of somatosensory communication ex: movement of bugs in spider's web signals the spider to find it
electro-communication
type of somatosensory communication used by electric fish
self-report study
type of survey, questionnaire or poll in which respondents read the question and select a response by themselves without the researcher's interference
latent functions
unintended effects of institutions
amplification
up regulation opposite of sensory adaptation ex: light hits photoreceptor in eye --> cell to fire action potential --> can be connected to 2 cells - by the time gets to the brain, it is amplified
up vs down regulation
up regulation: sensory amplification down regulation: sensory adaptation
3 types of social classes
upper class middle class lower class
hypothesis of relative deprivation
upsurge in prejudice/ discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to linked to frustration aggression hypothesis
intelligence tests
use numerical scores to measure aptitude for those tasks and compare them to how well others do
when dopamine goes up, serotonin goes [...] (partially responsible for feelings of satiation)
when dopamine goes up, serotonin goes down (partially responsible for feelings of satiation)
bipolar I disorder
when hypomania becomes manic with or without major depressive disorder possible to ever experience hypomania but extremely unlikely
incongruity
when ideal-self doesn't match the real self
maladaptive coping techniques: safety behaviors
when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety
game theory
used mostly in social science/ economics - but can also explain everyday behavior tries to predict behaviors we would expect to see when individuals are playing a game - it looks at individual strategies and looks at the behaviors of what other animals will do
bipolar II disorder
when it remains hypomania + one major depressive episode - has never had a manic episode
feature detection
when looking at an object, you need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what you are looking at: color, form and motion
when is encoding the most successful?
when more cognitive effort is actively used - combining encoding strategies is more useful than using one
spontaneous recovery
when old CS elicits responses - doesn't know why this happens usually infrequently - doesn't persist for a long time - less strong
associative learning
when one event is connected to another ex: classical and operant conditioning
neural/ synaptic plasticity
when one part of the brain/ hemisphere is damaged, it doesn't mean the entire brain is damaged - when functions are divided, it's easier for the brain to adapt
identification
when people act/ dress a certain way to be like someone they respect - will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual according to freud, children adopt characteristics of the same-sex parent - involves development of superego by incorporating characteristics of the parent's superegos into the child's own
front stage
when people are in a social setting ex: someone watches baseball with friends even if they don't like baseball - manipulating how he's seen to gain/ make friends
lesion studies: radiofrequency lesions
used to destroy tissue on surface of brain and deep inside brain wire is inserted into the brain to determine the area - then pass high frequency current which heats up and destroys tissue (can varry current intensity/ duration to change size, but destroys everything in the area) can't tell if this area was responsible for the behavior that is not responding, or just has an axon passing through
feature detection: motion
uses magnocellular pathway - has high temporal resolution - poor spatial resolution (no color) rods are responsible
MRI
uses radio waves and are exposed to a magnetic field - radio waves are then added to the magnetic field and disrupts orientation of atoms - as atoms move back to alignment with the magnetic field, they release signals --> creates images doesn't tell us anything about brain function
availability heuristic
using examples that come to mind - choices are based on quick, easily accessible examplees helpful, but our easily memorable experiences don't match the state of the world - ex: shark attacks don't happen as often as people think they do
nativist perspective
innatist/ biological perspective children are born with the ability to learn language associated with noam chomsky - thought humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language all languages shared universal grammer - LAD enables children to pick up on undersatnding those types of words and their organization within a sentence for any language critical period is around 8-9 years old - after 9, it becomes harder to learn a language because LAD only operates in that critical period investigates transformationalist grammar
where does balance come from?
inner ear (focus) and limbs
hearing adaptation
inner ear muscle: - higher noise = muscles contract --> dampens vibrations in inner eat --> protects ear drum - has a few seconds delay so does not work for immediate noises (ex: gunshots, but works for being at a rock concert for an afternoon)
inpatient vs outpatient treatments
inpatient: require residence at a hospital or treatment facility outpatient: can live at home and come in for treatment
embryoblast
inside of a morula
building on brain structures
inside of the brain = older structures/ more simple (ex: breathing, sleeping, etc)
anterior chamber
inside the cornea space filled with aqeuous humor (basically water and salt) - provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball - allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells to cornea/ iris
PTC steps
inside the rods are optic disks stacked on top of one another inside the disks are multimeric proteins (rhodopsin) - consists of 7 subunits inside the protein is a molecule called retinal (11-cis retinal) - when light hits the rod, some of the light will hit the rhodopsin --> causes retinal conformational change from bent (cis) to straight (trans) --> rhodopsin conformational change --> cascade of events cascade of events - transducin breaks away from rhopsin (alpha subunits binds to another part of the protein called phosphodiesterase [PDE]) --> PDE takes cGMP floating around the molecule --> converts to regular GMP - sodium channels around the cell allow the cell to take in Na from the outside --> inside (to be open, cGMP needs to be bound, so channels will be closed) --> less sodium enters the cell --> cell hyperpolarizes and rods turn off
retina
inside, back area filled with photoreceptors - light is transformed from physical waveform --> electrochemical impulse that the brain can interpret - tinted red (when you take a picture, rays enter the eye and bounce back off the retina) sends fibers to the back of the eye so that they can actually go to the brain - form the optic nerve consists of macula (which consists of fovea)
treisman's attenuation theory
instead of complete selective filter, people have an attenuator - weakens, but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority replaces the selective filter with an attenuator - selectively allows the attended message to be processed to a greater extent than the unattended message sensory register --> attenuator --> perceptual process --> conscious Triessman is SHARP as a T. He is smart enough to only attenuate and then perceive
hypnotism
usually involves getting a person to relax and focus on breathing - becomes more susceptible to suggestion in this state, but only if they want to more alpha waves in this stage - an awake but relaxed state can use to retrieve memories - dangerous because memories are malleable (can create false memories, which incorporate hynotizers expectations even when not intended)
otolithic organs
utricle and saccule - beds of sensory cells in the inner ear, specifically small patches of hair cells help us detect linear acceleration and head positioning with respect to gravity - can also use buoyancy force in absence of gravity (especially without visual cues on which way is up/down) CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel - if we go from lying down to standing up, they move and pull on hair cells - triggers action potential that carries this information to the brain
normative culture
values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms - ex: avoidance of crime
heritability
variability of traits that can be attributed to differences in genes heritability = h^2 dependent on the population that is studied - would likely be different in different environments
what is the most effective schedule of reinforcement?
variable-ratio
sociocultural regulation of sex
varied sexual response due to - age - cultural backgrounds - stimulus - emotions - desires
influences on absolute threshold
variety of psychological states - expectations - experience (familiarity) - motivation - alertness
emotional effects of stress: addition
when searching for coping mechanisms, there are good options and bad options - bad options lead to addition impariment to the frontal cortex (reasoning) so impaired judgement can increase likelihood of inappropriate coping mechanisms
signal transduction theory in psychology
when shown 2 lists separately and asked which words on the 2nd list is also present in the 1st = uncertainty
neonatal reflexes: galant
when skin is stroked, baby moves/ swings to the side it was stroked disappears at 6 months
minimum justification principle
when someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through significant rationale can occur after buying something you didn't want to
depersonalization
when victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes and prejudices, people are less likely to object against them symptom of serious mental illness (although it cam happen to anyone) - repeated instances are suggestive of a dissociative disorder
hyperventilation disorder
when we are not able to ventilate our lungs fully and remove all CO2 - results in a buildup of CO2 and a decrease of O2 build up of CO2 can cause right sided heart failure decrease of O2 affects all organs/ tissues of the body - cognitive impairment, heart problems and polycythemia can occur due to medications that repress respiratory functions (narcotic pain killers such as opiods) or if there is a problem with the lungs or chest wall a common occurance is due to obesity
informational social influences
when we confirm because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us - because we think they know something we don't
ego preservation
when we consider our own behaviors, we are more likely to blame our behavior on external factors we consider ourselves victims of circumstances
when does out-group derogation occur?
when we feel that the out-group is threatening to or undermine in-group's success
life-table/ mortality table
when you break mortality rate by age tells you the probability someone will die given their age - can vary from country to country
false consciousness
instead of seeing they have solidarity with one another, they're unable to see their oppression
organizations
institutions designed for specific purpose, collective goal, try to achieve maximum efficiency
social scripts
instructions provided by society on how to act people use them in new situations to know how to act
what is another term for operant conditioning?
instrumental conditioning
operant conditioning
instrumental conditioning focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences - and how those, in turn, influence the behavior
biological regulation of sex: sexual response
investigated by master & johnson excitement phase --> plateau --> orgasm --> resolution/ refractory period
amygdala
involved in emotion, aggression, mating, etc in temporal lobe, involved in memory, decision making, emotional reactions, etc
executive attention
involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes and anticipating the effects of behavior
role strain
when you can't carry out all obligations of a status - tensions within one status causes individuals to be pulled in many directions by one status ex: student has to write 2 papers, 5 reading assignments, give a speech, 2 lab reports, etc., in one week
taste aversion
when you eat something because you like it, but then stop eating it because you became sick from it once (had a bad experience)
ethnographic research
involves observing social interactions in real social settings
aversive conditioning
involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, when an unpleasant stimulus (ex: electric shock or nausea) - shock is the UCS - pain is the UCR usually used to stop a particular behavior
gestalt principles: similarity
items similar to one another grouped together by the brain - brain naturally notices a pattern
theories of emotion
james-lange theory: - physiological --> emotion cannon-bard theory: - physiological + emotion schacter-singer theory: - physicological + cognitive --> emotion lazarus theory: - cognitive --> emotion + physiological
biopsychological theory of personality
jeffrey alan gray proposed personality is governed by the behavioral inhibition (punishment/ avoidance) and activation (reward) system
jobs that demand someone to work in a fast-paced manner typically pay workers on a [...] schedule
jobs that demand someone to work in a fast-paced manner typically pay workers on a fixed-ratio schedule
problem with treisman's attenuation theory
johnson and heinz proposed that the location of the information attenuator (bottleneck) was able to be varied by the listener depending on the demand necessitated by a particular attention task
xenocentrism
judging another culture as superior to one's own culture
ethnocentric
judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture
drowsineess
just before falling asleep/ after waking up can also be self-induced in deep meditation
who's ideas is conflict theory based on?
karl marx
hippocampus
key role in forming new memories - converts short term memories --> long term memories if destroyed, you still have old memories in tact, just can't make new ones - anterograde amnesia
types of altruistic behavior (3)
kin selection reciprocal altruism cost signaling
hindsight bias
knew-it-all-along effect = creeping determinism inclination, after an event has occured, to see the event has having been predictable, despite there having been little to no objective bias for predicting it
who created the moral development theory
kohlberg
moral development theory
kohlberg - focuses on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development - people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) = 6 stages total
amotivation
lack of motivation
vygotsky's view on language
language and thought are both independent, but converge through development - eventually learn to use them both at the same time via socialization believed children develop language through social interaction with adults who already knew the language - through the interaction, they learnt to connect the thoughts and language they eventually learn
discrimination
when you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others
role-playing
when you picture yourself in a new role, it may seeem strange/ fake at first because we're trying to follow social quota in that role - we are trying to fit the role and sound professional but over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you our behavior of playing this rule influences our attitude over time - what feels like acting starts to feeel like you and begins to fit your attitude changed attitude as a result of our behavior and carrying out that role
peter principle
where every employee in the hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach a level of incompetence - they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further
external validity
whether the results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people sample must be completely random and all situational variables must be tightly controlled
grey and white matter in the brain
white is on the inside grey is on the outside axons go down tracks of white matter
circadian rhythms
why you get sleepy in the afternoon regular body rhythms across 24-hour period controlled by melatonin (produced in pineal gland) changes as you age
strong linguistic determinism (sapir-whorfian hypothesis)
language determines thought completely - people understand their world through language and language, in turn, shapes how we experience the world ex: a native tribe called Hoppi does not use grammatical tense in their language, so they could not think about time in the same way as a langauge that does cognition and perception are determined by language one speaks - believes linguistic structure determines how and about what an individual is able to think
linguistic determinism
language has an influence on thought weak and strong hypothesis - refers to how much influence people think language has on thought
language leads to [...]
language leads to thought/ inner speech
fovea
within macula completely covered in cones (no rods)
chorda tympani
within the front 2/3rd of the tongue carries signals via the 7th cranial nerve
glossopharyngeal and vagus
within the posterior 1/3rd of the tongue carries signals via the 9th and 10th cranial nerves
information processing model: process
within working memory (short-term memory) processing occurs at the visuo-spacial sketchpad and phonologic loop - visuo-spatial sketchpad: visual + spatial info are processed in the phonological loop - phonological loop: verbal information (any words + numbres in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed (ex: repeating a phone # to yourself); capacity is about 2 seconds visual and verbal information (like a map that has street names and landmarks) need coordination of the visuo-spacial sketchpad and the phonologic loop - central executive
class consciousness
workers realize they have solidarity with one another and struggle to overcome this oppression and exploitation involves - seizing and obtaining means - redistributing means of production among the workers
working memory can hold [...] pieces of information at a time
working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time
working memory explains the [...]
working memory explains the serial position effect
is multitasking or working on a single fast more efficient?
working on a single task
experimental study
would involve manipulation of variables - independent and dependent variables
CT scans
x-rays to create image of the brain (tumor/ abnormal swelling and bleeding) can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active at a given time slightly lower resolution than MRI but faster - not as good for soft tissue sometimes combined with radioactive dye (like PET scans) to show structure and activity imposed in one image
can a test be reliable but not valid?
yes
is it possible for a minority group to become part of the majority?
yes
is it possible to feel high self esteem but low self-worth?
yes - it is possible to think you are good at something, yet still not feel convinced that you are loveable and worthy
is self a social construct?
yes - our identity is created by interactions with other people and reactions to the other people (and reactions to expectations to society)
is the idea of ego depletion true?
yes - self-control requires a lot of energy and focus ex: those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control than those who didn't resist
can a person with a low self-esteem have high self-efficacy?
yes ex: a perfectionist can have low self-esteem (critical about themselves) but high self-efficacy (still see themselves as capable of doing tasks) - competent at tasks with clear guidelines and lose confidence where there are no clear rules
type of collective behaviors: mass hysteria
large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at the same time reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumors and fears - often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat refers to behavior that occurs when a group reacts emotionally or irrationally to real or perceived threats - characterized by panic and spread of information (or misinformation) by the media
macrosociology
large scale perspective - looking at big phenomena that affects big portions of the population ex: social structures and instituions, whole civilizations/ populations
world-systems theory: periphery
latin america and africa relatively weak government - greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations economy focused on narrow economic activity (1 type usually) - ex: extracting raw materials high percentage of poor/ uneducated people and strong upper class that controls most of the economy - huge inequalities
democracy
law making chosing officials
latent learning
learned behavior is not expressed until required
attitude
learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way to evaluate people, issues, events and objects
can a person have more than one status?
yes ex: can be a son, student, friend, etc
learning-performance distinction
learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things - not performing it doesn't mean you didn't learn it
learning occurs with [...] potentiation
learning occurs with long-term potentiation
classical conditioning
learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus achieved by repeated pairings of the nuetral stimulus with potent stimulus
shaping
learning through sucessively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior
contralateral control
left brain controls right body and right brain controls left body - true for all senses EXCEPT smell (ipsilateral)
lewy body disease
less motor abnormalities from basal ganglia dysfunction and more cognitive dysfunction from loss of function from cerebral cortex separate from parkinson's
3 levels of moral reasoning
level 1: pre-conventional (pre-adolescent) - stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation - stage 2: hedonistic orientation level 2: conventional - stage 3: interpersonal concordance orientation - stage 4: law and order orientation level 3: post-conventional (moral) - stage 5: social contract or legalistic orientation - stage 6: universal ethical principle
method of constant stimulation
levels of a certain property of the stimulus are not related from one trial to the next, but presented randomly.
lewy bodies contains a protein [...], a normal protein preesent in brain cells under normal conditions, are clumped together in parkinson's
lewy bodies contains a protein alpha synuclein, a normal protein preesent in brain cells under normal conditions, are clumped together in parkinson's
2 instinctual drives in psychoanalytic theory
libido - natural energy source - fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc death instinct - drives aggressive behaviors fueled by unsconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/ others
socialization
life-long process where we learn to interact with others everything we considered to be normal is learned through socialization - how we learn to walk, talk, feed ourselves, etc
what happens when light hits your eye?
light enters through pupil hits retina in the back of the eye - composed of rods and cones (takes light and converts it into a neural impulse) phototransduction cascade (process of turning rod from on --> off) - at the rods: light = turned off --> turns on bipolar cell --> turns on retinal ganglion cell --> goes into optic nerve to enter the brain
what kind of relationship does weber's law predict and between what?
linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity
gestalt principles: continuity
lines are seen as following the smoothest path - ex: grouping shapes that are following a continuous line (if there are 2 lines, it organizes into the line that is more smooth or has a less steep angle)
mnemonic devices
link what you are trying to learn into previously exist long-term information that is already in your memory types - imagery - pegword system - method of loci - pegword + method of loci - acronym
c. robert cloninger
linked personality to brain systems in reward/ motivation/ punishment - ex: low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity
subcortical ceerebral nuclei
located deep in the cerebrum
prosody
located on the right hemisphere concerned with larger units of speech (syllables) contribute to linguistic functions - intonation, tone, stress, rhythm may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance - the emotional state of the speakeer - form of the utterance (statement, queestion, command) - presence of irony, sarcasm, emphasis, contrast, focus - other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or by choice of vocabulary
location of somatosensation
location-specific stimuli by nerves are sent to the brain relies on dermatomes
what is the left side of the brain used for?
logical sequential rational analytical objective looks at parts language - need to see an object with the right visual field to be processed by the left brain to be able to name the object
information processing model: output
long-term memory - capacity is unlimited - 2 main categories: explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)
long-term prediction from early temperament is best achieved after age [...]
long-term prediction from early temperament is best achieved after age 3
dopamine-4-receptors and personality
longer dopamine-4-receptors are more likely to be thrill seekers
identifying if someone has a substance use disorder
look at a person's substance - usage - presence of withdrawal - tolerance
cross-sectional study
looking at a group of different people at one moment in time
symbolic interactionist paradigm
looking glass self suggests that the self-concept is more than the product of self-reflection instead, the way in which people see themselves is based on how they believe others perceive them during social interactions
activity theory
looks at how older generation looks at themselves certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/ well-being
signal detection theory
looks at how we make decision under conditions of uncertainty how we distinguish important stimuli vs unimportant noise at what point is a signal strong enough that we are able to notice it
interactionist perspective: mass media
looks at mass media on a micro-level to see how it shapes day to day behavior - how mass media blurs lines between solidary and group activities ex: watching a movie - can be watching with other people but because of societal norms/ theater rules, you can't talk about it with those who you are watching with
resource mobilization theory
looks at social movements from differeent angle - instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/ hinder a social movement (ex: access to resources)
racial formation theory
looks at social/ economic/ political forces that result in racially constructed identities - sometimes real but sometimes only defined by history
environmental justicee
looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups
materialist
looks at what happens in the brain when people think, speak, write, etc
retrospective cohort design
looks back at events that have already taken place
3 main abnormalities of alzheimers
loss of neurons amyloid plaques (plaques are made of beta-amyloid) - occurs in spaces between cells, outside of neurons in abnormal clumps tangles - neurofibrillary tangles (clumps of a protein tau) - located inside neurons
2 universally attractive traits for women
low waist-hip ratio full breasts
depressants
lower body's basic functions and neural activitiy - vasodilate at low; vasoconstrictor at high ex: alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazephines (benzos): (-zelam, -zolam)
frequency
lower frequency --> travels further can listen to different frequencies at the same time - if you add different frequency waves together, you would get weird frequencies that the ear has to break up - can break up because sound waves travel different lengths along the cochlea
conflict theory
macro-perspective the idea that society is made of institutions that benefit the powerful and create inequalities - large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved
where does functionalism come from?
macrosociology
functionalist perspective: role of media
main role is to provide entertainment - occupy our leisure time can act as an agent of socialization - collective experience (ex: watching olympics on TV) - community building (entire internet communities) and can act as enforcer of social norms promoter of consumer culture
depression
major emotional response to stress - problem is anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure, so they perceive more stressors) anterior cingulate (anterior part of frontal cortex) stops responding to serotonin
basal ganglia
major role in motor functions doesn't have UMNs but help motor areas to perform proper movements cognition + emotions
phototransduction cascade (PTC)
makes the brain recognize that there is light entering the eyeball light --> neural impulse by turning off a rod (can turn on other cells and eventually be processed by the brain)
social effects of early puberty
males: both negative and positive consequences - positive: stronger and taller (more athletic) - negative: increased delinquency and alcohol use females: only negatives - teasing, sexual harassment - out of sync with friends in interests
puberty milestones/ landmarks
males: spermanche (first ejactulation) @ 14 years old females: menstruation @ 12/13 years old
middle ear
malleus to stapes (3 ossicles)
megalopolis
many metropolises are connected
coping with stress: perceived support
many studies show lack of control is associated with higher stress low SES increases stress robert sapolsky did an experiment with baboons who had social hierarchy structures similar to humans - primates at the bottom socially experienced more stress than ruling-elite baboons white-hall study showed the same effect based on relative rank in the workplace in humans in britain
tonotopical mapping
mapping of sounds with a higher frequency vs sounds of a lower frequency
personality disorder
marked deviation from how we expect the people to behave or how the person is experiencing the world - this difference leads to distress/ functioning there are 10 personality disorders which are split up into 3 clusters - cluster a (odd and eccentric traits) - cluster b (dramatic, emotional, erratic traits) - cluster c (anxiety and fearful) there is an overlap between the clusters
puberty
marks beginning of adolescence 2 year long sexual maturation period - males: 13 yrs old - females: 11 yrs old sequence of changes is the same - the timing depends on the individual
heterogamy
marriage between 2 individuals who are culturally different
homogamy
marriage between individuals who are, in some culturally important way, similar to each other may be based on SES, class, gender, ethnicity, religion, age, etc
first humanistic theorist
maslow - maslow's hierarchy of needs only 1% of people reach self-actualization
difference between maslow and rogers
maslow: actualizes rogers: accepts - believes people can actually reach self-actualization
mass psychogenic illness (epidemic hysteria)
mass hysteria can be a result of psychology when large amounts of people believe they have the same illness despite lack of disease
several theories of social movements form (4)
mass society theory relative deprivation theory resource mobilization theory rational choice theory
pituitary gland
master gland anterior: FLAT-PEG - FH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, endorphins, GH posterior: ADH + oxytocin intermediate lobe: pars intermedia - MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone)
4 sources to determine strong or weak self-efficiacy
mastery of experience - strengths social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, it helps overcome self-doubt psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/ elevate mood in difficult/ challenging situations can improve self-efficacy
why is culture lab common in societies?
material culture change rapidly while non-material culture tends to resist change
[...] is a marker for healthcare systems
maternal mortality rate is a marker for healthcare systems
what are animals trying to communicate? what is the main function of animal communication?
mating rituals (to attract opposite sex) - some animals use bright colors, complicated dances, specific verbal calls, etc to establish/ defend territory to convey information about food location alarm calls (warn about predators) signal dominance and submission
operation span
maximum number of words that can be recalled
what does a reappearance of prenatal reflexes in adulthood mean?
means the adult has a serious medical problem
predictive validity
measure of how well a test predicts abilities involves testing a group of subjects for a certain construct and then comparing them with results obtained at some point in the future extent to which an assessment is able to predict something it should be able to predict
split-half method
measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured
concurrent validity
measures the test against a benchmark test - measures how well a test matches up with a benchmark test (which is usually another valid measure of the same construct) high correlation --> strong criterion validity
self-serving bias
mechanism of preserving our self-esteem - more common in individualistic cultures if we suceed, it's due to our internal/ personal qualities - if we fail, we contribute it to factors outside of our control
receptors on the skin
mechanoreceptors - closest to the skin there are others deeper
what controls the circadian rhythms?
melatonin
utilitarian organization
member are paid/ rewarded for their efforts ex: businesses and government jobs ex: universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time)
normative organization
members come together through shared goals - positive sense of unity ex: religion groups ex: MADD (mothers against drunk driving)
coercive organization
members don't have a choice about membership - usually highly structured and have very strict rules ex: prisoners in prison ex: military (need to be discharged to leave)
who are animals communicating with?
members of the same species members of other species auto-communication (themselves)
earliest symptoms of alzheimer's
memory loss - particularly difficult to retrieve or decode recent memories (short-term memories) can still remember details about their childhood, how to use objects, procedural memory, episodic memory, semantic memory, etc.
autobiographical memory
memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at a particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory
schema
mental blueprint containing common aspects of the world
somantic symptom disorders
mental disorders can exacerbate existing physical conditions or can directly lead to their own physical symptoms can be any symptom may or may not be able to explain what we see (the physical condition) must cause functional impairments
schemas
mental models framework for us to organize and interpret new information - need to grow/ change models to develop through assimilation and accomodations piaget's belief of cognitive development was in the development of schemas
intelligence
mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems and use your knowledge to adapt to new situations
methods of problem solving: heuristics
mental shortcut that allows us to find solution quicker than trial + error and algorithm reduces # of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminates trying unlikely possibilities - doesn't guarantee a correct solution but simplifies a complex problem ex: focusing on one category of solutions (guessing an unknown password that contains your birthday) two methods: - means-end analysis - working backwards
evolution can shape culture, but can culture shape human evolution?
yes ex: hunter-gatherer society vs farming society - people moved less and populations grew - because of this, people were more exposed to outbreaks of disease - since only those who survived were the ones not killed by diseases, our culture/ these communities helped shape our immune systems
when we think of social positions, can there be movement?
yes, in various ways can move horizonally (horizonal mobility) - can move within the same system can move vertically (vertical mobility) - move up or down social hierarchy
trichromatic theory of color vision
you have cones that are receptive to 3 colors: red, green and blue - these 3 colors are mixed together to perceive all of the colors
opponent process theory of color vision
you have cones that perceive 4 colors: red, green, blue and yellow - red and green cones oppose each other - blue and yellow cones oppose each other - black and white sensitive cones are also opponents between these opponents, only one color can dominate at a time
learned helplessness
you learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control - lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because you are taking less control of outcomes in your life - cycle continues downward into major depression
you remember some actions a bit more if the action is [...]
you remember some actions a bit more if the action is unusual
why does discrimination have an adaptive value?
you want to respond differently to related stimuli
sleep stages
your brain goes through distinct brain patterns during sleep 4 main stages that occur in 90 minute cycles (cycle through these 4-5 times per sleep) - Step 1-3: N1, N2 and N3 are associated with non-REM sleep - Step 4: REM how long each stage lasts depends on how long you've been asleep and your age - babies spend more time in REM sleep More REM sleep before you wake up More N3 sleep right as you go to bed
state-dependent retreival
your state (or mood) at the moment you encode when you are in a certain mood when you encode, you can remember it when you are in the same mood ex: if you learn something while drunk, you'll remember it next time you're drunk - this happens because being drunk provides an internal retrieval cue to your brain
where does splitting occur during embryogenesis?
zona pellucida
social facilitation
most dominant response for a particular behavior would be shown - response most likely to occur occurs when individuals performs manageable task in front of an audience - challenging task might increase arousal beyond optimal and interferes with performance - increased arousal only occurs when the person's efforts are being evaluated
mary rothbard
most influential model of temperament combines related traits by thomas and chess - yields 6 dimensions activity level attention span/ persistance fearful distress irritable distress positive affect effortful control
developmental equilibrium
most information we encounter, we can assimilate and be back at a state of equilibrium - information --> assimilation --> equilibrium but sometimes, assimilation can't cause us to come into equilibrium and we engage in accomodation instead - information --> accomodation --> equilibrium (gain new schema)
cranial nerves
most of cranial nerves are attached to the brainstem - does many things 12 pairs all sorts of functions
most of our behaviors are on a [...]
most of our behaviors are on a partial reinforcement schedule
old brain: brainstem
mostly covered by the brain midbrain, pons, medulla (medulla oblongata) neuron somas scattered throughout brainstem is the reticular formation controls heart beat/ breathing crossover point for our nerves Pavlov's Really Frickin' Mad
socialism
motivated by what benefits society as a whole common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands
drive-reduction motivation
motivation based on the need to fulfill a certain drive (ex: hunger or thirst)
social mobility
movement of individuals, social groups or categories of people between the layer or strata in a stratification system
urbanization
movement of people from rural to urban areas
kinaesthesia
movement of the body more behavioral (ex: if I move in this direction, I will hit the baseball) not the same as proprioception - but both help tell you where your body is in space
internal migration
moves within the same country - doesn't change the population of the country but can effect economics/ culture of the country
gender fluid
moving across genders
problem solving
moving from a current state to a goal state
lesion studies: neurochemical lesions
much more precise method exitotoxic lesions - chemicals that bind to glutamate receptors and cause influx of calcium that causes so much excitement that it kills the neurons/ excites it to death ex: kainic acid - destroys cell bodies but doesn't influence axons passing by - doesn't sever connections like in knife cuts/ radiofrequency lesions ex: oxidopamine (6-hydroxydopamine) - selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons - can model parkinson's disease - very similar to dopamine (in reuptake, the presynaptic cell takes the oxidopamine back for recycling but then this neuron is destroyed; destroys substantia niagra neurons completely)
2 universally attractive traits for men
muscular chest v-shaped torso - broad shoulders - narrow waist
fungiform papillae
mushroom-shaped (folded) structures located on the tip and sides of the tongue consists of taste buds
conversion disorders
must look like neurological symptoms only - we cannot explain these symptoms based on test or clinical exam - sometimes have a level of psychological stress or traumatic events resulting in manifestation of neurological symptoms DSM-5: individual must exhibit at least 1 symptom of altered voluntary motor or sensory function that shows internal inconsistency, causes distress or impairment and cannot be explained by another mental or medical disorder ICD-10-CM: weakness (paralysis) and abnormal movement (tremor) listed as specific symptom types
theories of language development
nativist (innatist/ biological) - noam chomsky learning (behaviorist) - bf skinner interactionist - vygotsky
nativist perspective investigates [...]
nativist perspective investigates transformationalist grammar
aging
natural process which comes with changes in memory
sexual selection
natural selection arising through preference for one sex for characteristics in individuals of the other sex
need [...] from culture to allow a society to work
need human ideas from culture to allow a society to work
feature detection: form
need to figure out boundaries of the object and shape of the object brain uses parvocellular pathway (pink pyramid is a type of shape) - good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape - high levels of detail) and color - poor temporal (can't detect motion - only stationary) cones are responsible
intramuscular drug entry
needle stuck into muscle - can deliver drugs to your system slowly or quickly - fastest route of entry (most abused drugs are injected intravenously) quick deliver: (ex. epiPen) slow delivery: (ex: vaccines)
stereotype threat
negative consequence of stereotyping self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype - exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually decrease an individual's performance of that task
addiction/ reward pathways
negative consequences don't affect the brain if you give a non-addicted rat regular food it likes with a substance that makes it sick, the rat learns to avoid the food (it stops liking it) if you have an addicted rat its favorite drug paired with a substance that makes it sick, it still wants that drug
is drive-reduction positive or negative reinforcement?
negative reinforcement
distress
negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body - happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you in some way (physically or emotionally) and your body becomes primed to respond to the threat
[...] is more common than child abuse
neglect is more common than child abuse
what does stress trigger?
nervous system (sympathetic nervous system; part of ANS) endocrine response - hormones
social capital
network of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively provide valuable resource types include - peer networks - family network - community network
connectome
neural map of the connections within the brain
processing
neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception
prosopagnosia
neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar people based on facial information alone
synthestasia
neurological phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiencees in a second sensory or cognitive pathway ex: tasting a particular taste whenever you see a particular color
freud
neurologist and went to study hypnosis - turned him to medical psychopathology (psychiatry/ psychologist as we knew it was unknown before his work) psychoanalytic theory
dopamine produced in the substantia nigra
neuron soma --> axons projecting into the caudatee nucleus and the putamen of the neostriatum via nigrostriatal pathway associated with motor planning and purposeful movement
neustress
neutral type of stress happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but doesn't actively or directly affect you ex: news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world
retroactive interference
new learning impairs old information refers to later information interfering with memory of earlier information ex: writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address
can a test be valid but not reliable?
no
institutions need a very specific individual
no - need many of them - each individual is replaceable
is the mass society theory still persisting today?
no - people only join to satisfy a psychological need for involvement
can the thesis + antithesis coexist peacefully?
no - thesis is happy while antithesis is always looking for change
do humans use pheromones?
no - we have a vomeronasal system but no accessory olfactory bulbs
is growth rate always a positive number?
no - while world population grows, growth rate of some countries is negative
can self-esteem last without self worth?
no - you need both to have an long-term impact
dictatorship
no consent of citizens - obedience to authority
free recall
no cues in recalling better recalling first items on a list (primacy effect) as well as the last few (recency effect) - harder to remember things in the middle of a list
are all labors valued the same?
no ex: garbage men (essential to society) are not valued as athletes (non-essential)
is the just world hypothesis always true?
no people are not always rewarded for their actions and punished for their evil deeds - ex: people living in poverty didn't necessarily do anything bad to get to that point
blind spot
no photoreceptors (codes or rods) - where optic nerve connects to retina and exits the eye at the fovea, there are no axons in way of light to get higher resolution - dimples at retina because these photoreceptors are connected to other neurons that send axons through the optic nerve into the brain - no axons = light hits cones directly --> less light gets to rods at the periphery, light has to go through bundle of axons (some energy is lost) --> less light actually hits rods and cones
urban sprawl
no planning of suburbs once people leave
does deprivation improve self control?
no removing the object of temptation completely is problematic - can make you want it moore - leads to ego depletion (takes a lot of effort to deprive yourself of something completely)
is delivery of healthcare equal?
no we take care of elderly through medicaid and medicare and children through health child insurance, but the people in between are left behind (those that populate the working class)
is circadian rhythm constant throughout your life?
no, it changes as you age
slow somatosensations
nocireceptors (pain) thermoreceptors (temperature) has small diameter axons
timing of somatosensation
non adapting - neuron consistency fires at a constant rate fast adapting - neuron fires as soon as stimulus starts - then stops firing - starts again when stimulus stops slow adapting - neuron fires beginning of stimulus - calms down after a while
somatosensations: timing
non-adapting neuron: consistently fires action potentials - can look at active potentials and there is an equal amount of space between each successive action potential (no change in firing rate) slow adapting neuron: start firing really quickly (a lot of action potentials) --> over time it will slow down (space between action potentials increase) fast adapting neuron: fire quickly as soon as stimulus starts --> stops firing --> fires again when stimulus stops
what type of learning is habituation?
non-associative
what type of learning is sensitization?
non-associative
sensitization
non-associative learning increased when responsiveness to a repeated stimulus ex: repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise
dishabiutation
non-associative learning when previously habituated stimulus is removed
cultural capital
non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means ex: education, intellect, style of speech, dress, physical appearance, etc
broca's aphasia
non-fluent aphasia damage to the language production centers of the brain produces broken/ halted speech - but you can understand what someone else is saying frontal lobe region is damaged characterized by apraxia - disorder of motor planning, which causes problems producing speech
assortative mating
non-random mating individuals with certain phenotypes, genotypes, similarities, genes, physical appearances, etc. tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency ex: large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals can result in inbreeding
classification of norms: mores
norms based on moral values/ beliefs - dependent on group's values of right and wrong generally produces strong feelings - stronger if more is violated ex: truthfulness does not have serious consequences
classification of norms: laws
norms based on right and wrong but have formal/ consistent consequences ex: public figures who lie under oath does something morally wrong but also violates laws of the court there is punishment for the crime - violation can be simple (ex: J-walking) or severe (ex: murder) there is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law
sleep
not aware of self or world around you
non-binary
not identifying with any specific gender
is mcdonaldization a bad thing?
not necessarily - is pervasive throughout society
is aging associated with declines in cognitive performance?
not necessarily - some abilities decline, some remain stable and some improve
frustration aggression hypothesis
not personality based, but more emotional someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice - frustration --> aggressive impulses --> directed towards people
can you avoid the looking-glass self?
not really - simply one sociological construct for understanding how we build our sense of self
collective behavior vs group behavior
not the same beeacuse - collective behavior is time limited and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long periods of time - collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive - collectives have loose norms (which are murkily defined) while groups have strongly held/ well-defined norms
problem with the cognitive economy principle
not true for all categories people tend to categorize a pig as an animal faster than a pig as a mammal
what did erving goffman notice about people in his study of people's interactions?
noticed people - planned their conduct - want to guide and control how they're seen - act differently when alone than in public
acetylcholine
nuclei in the frontal lobe --> released to cerebral cortex (released for LMNs and the ANS) - basilis and septal nuclei involved in helping you contract your muscles
raphe nuclei
nuclei that releases serotonin also sends serotonin to other parts of the nervous system
authoritarian personality
obedient to superiors don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves oppressive rigid thinkers inflexible with their viewpoints
distal stimuli
objects and events out in the world about you aware of and respond to this - this is what is important
gestalt principles: closure
objects grouped together are seen as a whole - mind fills in missing information - ex: you fill in a triangle even if there is none
gestalt principles: proximity
objects that are close are grouped together - we naturally group the closer things together rather than things that are farther apart
culture is typically learned through... (3)
observation interactions biological components (shaped through evolution)
flynn effect
observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the next
case-control study
observational study where 2 groups differing in outcomes are identified and compared to find a causal factor ex: comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar
hawthorne effect
observer effect type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed
mesopic vision
occurs at dawn or dusk involves both rods and cones
photopic vision
occurs at high light levels
scotopic vision
occurs at levels of very low light
inbreeding
occurs if animals too genetically similar mate increases likelihood of harmful recessive traits being passed on to offspring
information processing model: input
occurs in sensory memory (sensory register) - where you first interact with information in your environment - temporary register of all information your senses are taking in
cultural component of fundamental attribution error
occurs more in individualistic societies who place an emphasis on individual achivement
active touch
occurs when a pesron uses haptic percetion to actively inspect an object
divided attention
occurs when an individual must perform 2 tasks which require attention, simultaneously
attentional capture
occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention
elder abuse
occurs when family isn't ready for responsibility of taking care of elders and expense of nursing homes
medicalization
occurs when human conditions previously considered normal gets defined as medical conditions - subject to studies, diagnosis and treatment process in which something, usually a behavioral problem (ex: alcoholism) becomes described and treated as a medical condition when it was not previously conceived in that way
attrition bias
occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study
steric theory of olfaction (shape theory)
odors fit into receptors similar to a lock-and-key
disengagement theory
older adults and society separate - assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age - separation allows for self-reflection considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable
pathway for olfaction
olfactory bulb --> amygdala and piriform cortex --> orbitofrontal cortex
olfactory epithelium
olfactory sensory cells area in the nostril
why do organizations become bureaucratic over time?
once a person gains leadership in an organization, they may be hesitant to give it up - those with power have vested interest in keeping it - those with power might have skills that make them valuable
long-term potentiation (LTP)
one example of synpatic plasticity connection between neurons strengthens - new cells are not grown with repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron stimulation converts into greater post-synaptic neuron potential --> stronger synapse - when it lasts a long time, it is called LTP how learning occurs
coping with stress: social support
one of the best coping mechanisms of stress allows us to confide the painful/ difficult feelings and allows us to understand we are not alone in stress - helps in our perceived control and optimism
approach-avoidance conflict
one option has both spects, but here there are 2 options
decay
one reason forgetting happens when we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we cant recall it anymore initial rate of forgetting/ decay is high but levels off over time
5 factor model (big 5 personality traits)
openness conscientiousness extroversion agreeableness neuroticism OCEAN 5
opiates/ opioids
opiates: natural (T=Tree=Natural) opioids: synthetic - opiate binds to opioid receptors by mimicking endorphins - vasodilator and pupillary constrictions ex: heroine, codeine, morphine, oxycodone - leads to euphoria (why its taken recreationally) - can die by respiratory failure
peptide neurotransmitters
opiods (endorphins) - perception of pain
dis-assortative mating (non-assortative mating)
opposite of assortative individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random
optic nerves
optic nerves from both eyes reach a point where they converge (optic chiasm) --> breaks off and dig deeper into the brain - all light that hits the temporal side of either eyeball does NOT cross the optic chiasm - allows information entering right visual field --> left side of the brain
stages of psychosexual development
oral (0-1 yrs) - mouth - development: feeding - trust and comfort - ego develops anal (1-3 yrs) - anus - development: toilet training - control and independence phallic (3-6 yrs) - genital - development: oedipus (boys) and electra (girls) complex - identification - superego develops - most important latent (6-12 yrs) - none - development: socialism skills - social and communication skills genital (12+ yrs) - genital (again) - development: sexual maturity - individual needs Old Age Parrots Love Grapes
[...] is associated with the processing of both positively and negatively balanced emotions
orbitofrontal cortex is associated with the processing of both positively and negatively balanced emotions
institutional discrimination
organization discrimination - ex: banks, schools, etc ex: brown vs board of education in 1954
3 things for a social movement to gain momentum
organization, leadership and resources
social cognitive theory
originally called social learning theory theory of behavior change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment unlike behaviorism (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important social factors, observational learning and environmental factors can influence your beliefs
impression management
our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage to be viewed in a positive way
constancy
our perception of object doesn't change, even if the image cast on the retina is different
sensory adaptation (and what are they?)
our senses are adaptable can change their sensitivity to stimuli hearing touch smell proprioception sight
trophoblast
outside of the morula
perceived similarity
over time, interests and beliefs are more aligned with someone you've been with for a while - reason why couples stay together can just be perceived - think the other person is similar to them but aren't actually
serial position curve/ effect
overall tendency to recall first few items well, last few items well and middle items not so great
conformity
peer pressure - tendency for people to bring behavior in line with group norms - powerful in social situations we use social situations to determine what is acceptable, when to question authorities, and get feedback on behavior
socio-culture and how it relates to aggression
people act more aggressively in groups - de-individualization (when an individual loses self-awareness in groups) social scripts - instructions provided by society on how to act - what people rely on in new situations
kin selection
people act more altruistically to close/ kin than distant/ non-kin people same when people share last names (especially if people have rare last names)
reciprocal altruism
people are more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future giving with expectation of future reward we feel more obligated to help someone if they have helped us - why charities send out small gifts- so you hopefully respond by giving a larger gift in the future
rational choice theory
people are not only motivated by money but do what's best to get better for their own personal gain - assumes that everything people do is fundamentally rational
rational choice theory
people compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and chose the ones they think is best for themselves - these choices shape pattern of behavior in society
rural rebound
people getting sick of cities and moving back out to rural areas - people who can affoord to leave the city and looking for simpler/ slower life happens relatively near to urban centeers so residence have convenience of a big city
cost signaling
people have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past - signals that the person is open to cooperation
yerkes-dodson law
people perform best when they are moderately aroused - bell-shaped curve relationship between long-term memory and fear follows this curve - extreme emotional response usually impacts memory negatively - moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall
recency bias
people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/ recent performancees, more than ones before
assumption of exchange theory
people seek to rationally maximize their profits behavior results in a reward is likely to be repeated - more often reward is available the less valuable it is
4 main points of culture
people share culture in society culture is adaptive culture builds on itself culture is transmitted
randomized controlled trial
people studied randomly given one of the treatments undeer the study used to test efficacy/ side effects of medical interventions (ex: drugs) gold standard for a clinical trial
continuity theory
people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives over time as people age, they make decisions that preserve the structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging
mass society theory
people who are socially isolated are especially vulnerable to the appeals of extremist movement
social reproduction
people with rich parents end up wealthy themselves
emotional intelligence
perceive, understand, manage and use emotions in interactions with others
confidence level/ interval
percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true population parameter
what is another term for in-attentional blindness?
perceptual blindness
visual cues allows us to do what by taking into account what 4 cues?
perceptually organize depth, form, motion, constancy
learned behavioral traits
persistent changes in our behavior that results from our experiences present at birth, but is acquired after experience with the environment has the following characteristics - non-inherited - extrinsic - permutable - adaptable - progressive
important element of social cognitive theory
personal control
parts of social identity theory
personal identity - things unique to each person (ex: personality traits) social identity - include the group you belong to in the community
behaviorist theory
personality is the result of learned behavior pattens based on a person's environment deterministic - people began as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/ personalities - does not take thoughts and feelings into account environment --> behavior focuses on observable and measurable behavior
most important psychosexual stage
phallic stage
regression to the mean
phenomenon in which, over time, scores become more average
group polarization
phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members - a stronger version of the decision is adopted for a viewpoint to influence a group's final decision making - all the view does not have equal influence - viewpoint is shared by majority - arguments made tend to favor majority group view - criticism is directed towards minority - confirmation bias towards majority
components of language (5)
phonology morphology semantics syntax pragmatics
components of major depressive disorder
physical and emotional components - sadness + SIG: E CAPS: suicidal thoughts interests decreased guilt: - energy decreased - concentration decreased - appetite disturbance - psychomotor changes/ symptoms - sleep distubrnaces
material culture
physical and technological aspects of our daily lives - ex: food, house, cell phones, etc
proximal stimulus
physical stimulation that is available to be measured by an observer's seensory apparatus can also refer to the neural activity that results from the sensory transduction of the physical stimulation - patterns of stimuli that reach your senses
what can be selected for in charles darwin's theory of evolution?
physical trait and behaviors
3 components of emotion
physiological cognitive (can vary from person to person) - results from emotions and can cause emotions behavioral - expressions vary by individual and culture
sound (auditory waves) path
pinna (outer ear) --> auditory canal (external auditory meatus) --> tympanic membrane (eardrum) --> causes malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup) to vibrate - stapes is attached to oval window (elliptical window) --> vibrates --> pushes fluid around cochlea (round structure lined with hair cells - tip of cochlea --> goes back to the round window (circular window) --> pushes it out - cant go back to the oval window because in the middle of cochlea is the organ of Corti (basilar membrane and tectorial membrane) - cilia moves back and forth in cochlea --> electric impulse is transported by auditory nerve to the brain
external/ outer ear
pinna to tympanic membrane
place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the [...]
place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlear's basilar membrane
deutch & deutch's late selection theory
places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes - you DO register and assign everything meaning, but then selective filter decides what you pass onto conscious awareness (moved the selection filter from before perception to after the perceptual process) sensory register --> perceptual process --> selective filter --> conscious the Dutch pay attention (perceptualize) to EVERYTHING
wernicke's encephalopathy
precursor to korsakoff's syndrome damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion and/ or memory loss if diagnosed at this stage early, it can reverse damage or at least prevent further damage - if untreated, will progress to korsakoff's syndrome
just world hypothesis
predictable results as a consequence for our actions noble actions performed/ good deeds by an individual are rewarded while evil acts/ deeds are always punished
what undergoes the most development from birth?
prefrontal cortex
components that make up prejudice: affect
prejudice carries an emotional component
prejudice vs discrimination
prejudice: attitudes that prejudge a group; makes assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences discrimination: differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities
trial
presentation of both stimuli
sound waves
pressurized air molecules --> try to escape - creates areas of high and low pressure can be far apart or close together - different soundwave = different noise
necessary to hear sound
pressurized sound wave (stimuli) hair cell (receptor)
what does the method of constant stimulation prevent?
prevents the subject from being able to predict the level of the next stimulus - reduces errors of habituation and expectation
bias
prevents us from making correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made can result from - overconfidence - believe perseverance - confirmation bias
primacy and recency events are more important to developing [...]
primacy and recency events are more important to developing memory
primary group vs in-group
primary group: core social group; long-term relationships formed in-group: group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.
primary groups provide an [...]
primary groups provide an anchorpoint
what did thurnston's 7 factors of intelligence focus on?
primary mental abilities
priming retrieval
prior activation of nodes/ associations, often without our awareness ex: reading a story about rabits and then hearing the word hair/ hare - you are more likely to think of the word hare
capitalism
private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand
central sleep apnea
problem with the brain's control system for ventilation (that control brain for breathing)
bureaucratization
process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy ex: customer service - now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you
stress
process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges encompasses both the stressor and the stress reaction
gatekeeping
process by whitch a small number of people and corporations control what information is presented on the media - describes informattion and how it moves through a series of gates before they reach the public has more effect on some media than others - ex: lots of control on big-budget movies but little overhead control on what's posted onlinee
illness experience
process of being ill and how people cope with illness - being ill can change a person's self-identity (with a chronic disease)
attribution
process of inferring causes of events/ behaviors can be either internal or external
social network analysis (SNA)
process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theories
social dysfunction
process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society
positive feedback
process that increases production of product - one product stimulates production of another product ex: domino or chain effect
negative feedback
process that needs to be controlled to decrease product - ex: in our body put into place to inhibit production of product
vigilance attention and signal detection
processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest - allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest (ex: a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken)
4 different dopamine pathways
produced in arcuate nucleus (hypothalamus --> pituitary) - tuberoinfundibular pathway - regulates prolactin by inhibiting it produced in substantia nigra (neuron soma --> axons) - nigrostriatal pathway - associated with motor planning and purposeful movemement produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA --> prefrontal cortex) - mesocortical pathway - associated with cognition, affect and negative symptoms of schizophrenia produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA --> nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus) - mesolimbic pathway - associated with reward, motivation and positive symptoms of schizophrenia
dopamine as it relates to drugs
produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in the midbrain --> sends dopamine to areas that have dopamine uptake receptors - prefrontal cortex (focus attention and planning) - amydala - nucleus accumbens (NAcc, controls motor functions) - hippocampus (part of temporal lobe, involved in memory formation)
psychoanalytic theory: defense mechanisms
projection - projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another reaction formation - someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/ feel regression - regresses to position of a child in problematic situations sublimation - unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful
defense mechanisms: immature (2)
projection - throw your attributes to someone else - ex: accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous - can cause projective identification (person targeted with projection can start believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them) - ex: the person now actually feels jealous and believes that they are a jealous person passive aggression - aggressively doing something for someone and failing to do it or doing it slowly - passive way to express your anger
biological regulations of sex: hormones
prolactin - related to sexual gratification - associated with relieving sexual arousal after orgasm endorphins - produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure - released post-orgasm oxytocin - released post-orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners
endometrium
proliferates in the blastocyst stage outer trophoblasts divide into the endometrium has blood vessels that are getting bigger - trophoblasts are getting larger and they start to fuse (syncitiotrophoblast) + cytotrophoblast (the ones that used to be trophoblast)
stage 2 of elaboration likelihood model
proocessing stage by message/ source central processing: focus on a deep processing of the information peripheral processing: focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of information) - ex: attractiveness of speaker, their powerpoint attractiveness, how many points the speaker made, how many times the audience got to laugh, etc.
psychoanalytic theory
proposed by freud personality is shaped by childhood experiences, a person's unconscious thoughts/ desires, feelings and past memories (particularly experiences in childhood)
convergent intelligence
proposed by guilford to describe IQ tests related to intelligence - ex: puzzles, vocabulary words and arithmetic
biological theory: hans eysenck
proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness) introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation
raymond attell
proposed we all had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality - turned this into 16 personality factor questionnaire
information processing model
proposes our brains are similar to computers - we get input from environment --> process --> output decisions bottom-up or stimulus driven model assumes limited storage capacity assumes serial processing - however, the human brain as the capacity for parallel processing
weak social constructionism
proposes that social constructs are dependent on - brute facts (most basic, fundamental facts) - institutional facts (created by social conventions and rely on other facts)
ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of hierarchy of organization
pros: clarify who is in command cons: deprive people of a voice in decision making (especially those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks - allows individuals to hide their (often serious) mistakes
ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of written rules and regulations
pros: clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, sense of unity/ continuity to organization cons: stiffens creativity, too much structure discourages employees from taking initiative - can lead to goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization)
ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of employment based on technical qualifications
pros: decrease discrimination cons: decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more) - leads to peter principle, where every employee in the hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach a level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further)
ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of impersonality
pros: equal treatment cons: alienation, discourage loyalty to the group
pros and cons of sound communication in animals
pros: fast and can reach many members at once cons: loud, so not very private and can expose an animal's location
pros and cons of conflict theory
pros: models drastic changes that occur in a society cons: doesn't explain the stabliity a society can experience, how society is held together (unity), despite some members not liking the status quo
ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of division of labor
pros: people are better at tasks and increased efficiency cons: increased alientation in workers, separating them from other works and they don't see the work from beginning to end - can lead to less satisfaction --> less productivity - can lead to trained incapacity, wheree workesr are so specialized in tasks, they lose touch with overall picture
gustducin
protein associated with sensation of taste
classes of hormones (3)
protein/ polypeptide - small --> large steroids - from cholesterol - lipids - not charged (can pass freely through the membrane) tyrosine derivatives - thyroid hormones and catecholamines
psychoanalytic vs behaviorist theory (differences)
psychoanalytic - focuses on mental behavior behaviorist - focuses on observable behavior
primary difference between psychoanalytical and humanistic theory
psychoanalytical: deterministic - behavior is determined by unconscious desires humanistic: basic motive is actualizing tendency - focuses on the conscious
opponent-process theoery
psychological and neurological model that accounts for a wide range of behaviors, including color vision
diathesis-stress model
psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences
lewis terman
psychologist of standford university who furthered/ modified binet's intelligence test - noted that binet's test was not predictive of US children incorporated teenagers and adults named the stanford-binet intelligence test - started being used to measure intelligence of immigrants (huge problem because it tested language ability)
2 different ways a person can conform
publically - outwardly changing but inside you maintain your core beliefs - you only outwardly agree with the group privately - change behaviors or opinions to align with the group
andrew meltzoff
published study that questioned theory that understanding between self and others happen soon after birth suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others - babies 12-21 days old copied sticking their tongue out
maslow's hierarchy of needs
pyramid - we have basic needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top (in order) physiological safety love self-esteem self-actualization (differs from person to person) please stop liking stupid shit please safely love (OR) else suffer
2 ways of intramuscular drug entry
quick deliver: (ex. epiPen) - delivers epinephrine quickly and allows airways to open if having an allergic reaction - usually on thigh because it has the most access points to blood vessels slow delivery: (ex: vaccines) - why your arm gets sore after shots
prejudice and discrimination is based on what? (5)
race ethnicity power social class prestige
racialization
racial identity ascribed to a minority group
what is the right side of the brain used for?
random intuitive holistic synthesizing subjective looks at wholes action/ perception/ attention
mating strategies (3)
random mating assortative mating dis-assortative mating (non-assortative)
what is the gold standard for a clinical trial?
randomized controlled trial
how do you measure the factors that contribute to total growth rate?
rates (birth, migration and death rates) over one year per 1000 people
rational choice perspective assumes that individual behavior will be based on an implicit analysis of [...] of actions
rational choice perspective assumes that individual behavior will be based on an implicit analysis of cost and benefit of actions
rational choice theory vs exchange theory
rational choice theory - people always take rational actions, weighing costs and benefits of each action to gain the most benefit - 3 assumptions: completeness, transitivity and independence of irrelevant alternatives exchange theory - application of rational choice theory to social interactions - people can make rational choices in social norms, self interest, interdependence guide interactions and human relationships from cost-benefit analysis
nativists
rationalist language must be innate
dependency theory
reaction to modernization theory uses idea of core + periphery countries to look at inequalities between countries - periphery countries export resources to core countries (because they have been integrated into a world economy as an undeveloped country)
fundamentalism
reaction to secularization - goes back to strict religious beliefs creates social problems when people become too extreme
antithesis of 19th century capitalist europe
reaction to the thesis - the push-back from those unhappy with the status quo
gestalt principles: pragnanz
reality organized reduced to simplest form possible - ex: our brain reduces the olympic rings into 5 circles, rather than the individual smaller shapes
egg cell
really big not made for mobility has genetic material and a thick outer coating (zona pellucida that is a thick layer of glycoproteins)
declining memory in aging
recall becomes more difficult recognition is stable episodic memories are imparied - forming new episodic memories is difficult but old memories are stable processing speed and divided attention decline prospective memory is decreased
photoreceptor
receptor to neural impulse of light
TrypV1 receptor
receptor to sense temperature and pain heat causes a conformational change in the protein when the cell is poked, thousands of cells are broken up and release different molecules that bind to this receptor --> conformational change --> activates cell and send signals
what happens if we put salty receptors inside a sweet cell?
receptors in membrane bind to glucose but if salty receptor --> activates receptor --> (+) go inside --> sweet cell depolarizes and fires action potential --> brain interprets it as a sweet signal (can trick your brain into thinking salt is sugar)
cialidini's 6 key principles of influence
reciprocity commitment and consistency social proof authority liking scarcity
strong self-efficacy
recover quickly from setback have strong/deep interests strong sense of commitment to activities enjoy challenging tasks RISE - Recover - Interest - Strong sense of commitment - Enjoy challenging tasks
analgesic
reduce perception to pain - used to treat pain because they act at body's receptor sites for endorphins
maladaptive coping techniques
reduce symyptoms while maintaining/ strengthening the disorder - more effective in the short-term rather than long-term ex: dissociation, sensitization, safety behaviors, anxious avoidance, escape (ex: self-medication) - interfere with the person's ability to unlearn or break apart the paired association between the situation and the associated anxiety symptoms
cross-tolerance
reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target
affective flattening
reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expression not able to interpret body language nor use appropriate body language
avolition
reduction, difficulty or inability to initate and persist in goal-directed behavior often mistaken for apparent disinterest - ex: no longer interested in going out and meeting with friends, no longer interested in much of anything
perceived behavior control
refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior
crystallized intelligence
refers to accumulation of knowledge and verbal skills - tends to stay the same as we move into older adulthood (fluid intelligence decreases) based on fact, experience, prior learning and accumulation as one ages
functionalist theoretical paradigm
related to social anomie - the concept of anomie describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness and aimlessness - periods of rapid social change are often associated with anomie
3 things needed for social movement to form
relative deprivation feeling of deserving better belief that conventional means are useless
monocular cues give a sense of form of an object with... (4)
relative size: - bigger = closer interposition (overlap) - front = closer relative height - lower = closer shading and contour - depth/contours with lights and shadows
serotonin
released by lots of nuclei all over the brainstem - raphe nuclei low serotonin is associated with depression
basilis and septal nuclei
releases acetylcholine in the frontal lobe
reliability vs validity
reliability - consistent results with repeated experiments validity - accuracy of results
religion has been affected by [...]
religion has been affected by modernization
methods of problem solving: intuition
relying on instinct high chance of error
primacy effect
remembering the first things on a list
source monitoring
remembering the information's source ex: people might have difficulties calling out memories of a video car crash from other car crashes they rememer or from movies where there was glass on the ground
recency effect
remembering things at the end of a list not as strong if there is a break between exposure to the list and test
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
negative control
removing undesirable stimulus following correct behavior
mere exposure effect
repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them more often we see something, more often we like it
rote rehearsal
repeating the same things over and over again least effective technique (least amount of cognitive effort) - doesnt require you to process the information - more successful technique involves tying in the new information to previously known information
partial report technique
report one part of a whole field in cued recall equires participants to identify a subset of the characters from the visual display using cued recall - the cue was a tone which sounded at various time invervals (~50 ms) following the offset of a stimulus - the frequency of tones indicated which set of characters within the display were to be reported participants did not know which row would be cued for recall - performance is a random sample of an observer's memory for the entire display revealed that immediately after stimulus offset, participants could recall most letters (9 out of 12 letters) in a given row - suggests that 75% of the entire visual display was accessible to memory
2 central ideas to evolutionary game theory
reproduction and environment
damaging effects of stress on our reproductive system
reproduction is a huge expense in women - this gets shut down during stress response --> FSH/LH and then estrogen/ progesterone levels can be inhibited boys have reduced testosterone as well, but precise levels of testosterone are not required so there is never really a point of infertility - impotence/ erectile dysfunction are also caused by stress because blood vessels are being constricted (less blood flow to penis)
reticular activating system
required for consciousness (midbrain structure) has diffuse projection of glutamate to the cerebral cortex
whole report technique
required participants to recall as many elements from the original display in their proper spatial locations as possible participants were typically able to recall 3-5 characters from the 20 character display (~35%) - suggests that whole report is limited by a memory system with a capacity of 4-5 items
anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic
requires a person to create a set point or anchor the answer is adjusted based on comparing new information to the anchor
sensation
requires a physical stimulus to be converted into a neural impulse
endogenous/ internal cues
requires internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it
observational study
researcher is unable to control the assignment of groups
types of segregation (3)
residential conceentrattion centralization
regressive/ reactionary movements
resist change
self-esteem
respect and regard one has for oneself
what is counterconditioning a form of?
respondent conditioning
variable-interval
responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount ex: bonus can come randomly on different days
prefrontal cortex
responsible for (functions) - many higher-order functions (ex: executive control, problem solving, decision making, etc) - helps manage how you behave in social situations undergoes most development from birth
frontal cortex
responsible for impulse control, reasoning, judgement, planning, etc
operant extinction
results from some response no longer being reinforced ex: if you keep getting your dog to sit on command, but stop giving them a treat or any other type of reinforcement - over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command
2 types of interference
retroactive and proactive
urban renewal
revamping old parts of cities to become better
devil effect
reverse halo effect imagine someone who we think is overall very poor - even if baseline skills are the, same we all perceive them to be lower can carry over into how we see other attributes about the person happens if we have an overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative
incentive theory
reward (intangible or tangible) is presented after the occurance of an action with the intentions of causing the behavior to occur again - causes a positive association and the meaning toward a behavior - if a reward is given immediately, chance of the behavior happening again is higher focuses on conditioning / incentive to make a person happier - positive reinforcement argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives - ex: doing well at work and getting a promotion (tangible) - ex: job satisfcation (intangible) bf skinner - children are more likely to do actions that's positively received and less likely to do actions that is negatively received
reward pathway cycle is very [...] driven (evidence comes from animal models)
reward pathway cycle is very biologically driven (evidence comes from animal models)
macula
rich in cones (but also has rods) contains fovea
appraisal theory of stress
richard lazarus there are 2 cognitive stages of stress - primary appraisal and secondary appraisal
how does our brain make sense of what we are looking at?
right side of body is controlled by left side of the brain and vice versa
difference between role strain and role conflict
role strain is for one status that causes tension role conflict is for 2+ statuses that cause tension
what is the least effective memory technique?
rote rehearsal
bureaucracy
rules, structures and rankings that guide organizations does NOT mean something negative, lines or red tape
as a result from culture shock, people may feel...
sad, lonely, homesick, confused, etc.
sternburg's triarchic theory of intelligence
said there were 3 types of intelligences analytical intelligence - academic abilities: to solve well-defined problems creative intelligence - ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas practical intelligence - solve ill-defined problems (ex: how to get a bookcase up a curvy staircase)
fMRI
same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active - neurons that are active require oxygen - measuring relative amounts of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the brain more popular - calculated composite of several MRI images registering the changes (shows activity as colored areas over MRI)
PTC in cones
same process as in rods, except light hits conopsin/ photopsin (instead of rhodopsin)
how to obtain external validity?
sample must be completely random and all situational variables must be tightly controlled
spreading activation
says all ideas in your brain are connected together pulling up one memory pulls up others as well - ex: saying fire engine activates truck, fire, red, etc. which makes it easier to identify and retrieve those items can explain false memories or remembering wrong, but related information
cognitive economy principle
says our brain is efficient evidence is in how long it takes people to verify certain statements - ex: it takes people very little time to verify a canary is a canary, more time to verify a canary is a bird and even more to verify a canary is an animal longer the distance between nodes or more nodes in between --> longer it takes to verify the connections
problem with the trichromatic theory of color vision
says that while our eyes can mix together (ex: red + yellow = orange), we can't seem to mix red + green or blue + yellow - opponent process theory of color vision
what covers the posterior 5/6th of the eyeball?
sclera
attachment styles (2)
secure attachment (60%) insecure attachment (40%) - avoidant
social coping
seeking social support from others
maladaptive coping techniques: sensitization
seeks to learn about, rehearse and/ or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occuring in the first place
hyperglobalist perspective
sees globalization as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important countries become one global society
centralization of segregation
segregation + clustering in a certain area
selective attention
selecting one thing to divide your attention to at a time - like a flashlight on your attention (you can move it around at any spot; at any given moment, it illuminates one area of interest) - ability to maintain attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli we can take information from our environment, but we don't consciously process all of it - you probably see everything, but don't attend to it consciously (we can only attend to a small amount of information at a time, but we see a lot of information)
spotlight model of attention
selective attention takes information from 5 senses but don't pay attention to everything - aware of things on an unconscious level (priming)
where does the information from the somatosensory homunculus go to?
sensory strip - part of the cortex that receives all the sensory information via spinal cord - different areas of the body have signals that go to different parts of the strip
detoxification
separating the addict from the drug - sometimes require strong medications for strong additions to break the addiction cycle ex: methadone activates opiate receptors but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high - reduces cravings, eases withdrawals - user cant experiecne the high because receptors are already filled with longer-acting methadone ex: nicotine patch
innate behavior: fixed-action pattern (FAP)
sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption - similar to a reflex but more complicated ex: praying mantis - any prey-sized movement will elicit a strike response - once elicited, can't be changed or altered
gender roles
set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex
limbic system
set of structures in the brain - many structures play an important role in regulating emotions experts cannot agree on what structures make up the entire limbic system responsible for storage/ retrieval of memories - especially ones tied to emotions
noise distribution: c (beta)
set value of threshold to the ratio of height of signal distribution to height of noise distribution
main symptoms of korsakoff's syndrome
severe memory loss confabulation - patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories - not progressive (can get better)
sex vs gender vs sexuality
sex: biological traits that society associates with being male or female gender: cultural meanings attached to being masculine and feminine, which influence personal identities sexuality: sexual attraction, practices and identity which may or may not align with sex and gender
globalization
sharing of culture, money and products between countries due to international trade and advancements in transportation and communication social process where people become more aware of cultures of people across geographical, political and social borders
tolerance
shift in the dose-response curve that causes decreased sensitivity to a drug due to exposure
working memory
short-term memory - memory that is stored while it is held in attention sensory information you actually process - consists of what you are thinking about at the moment capacity is 7 - working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time (why phone numbers are 7 digits long) - varies by how complicated the stimuli are, how old you are, etc explains the serial position effect (primacy and recency effect)
deep meditation and its impact on the brain
showed increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus and right anterior insula (increased attention control)
test-retest reliability
shown by a high positive correlation between the first and second administration of the test
signal transduction theory: false alarm
signal is not present but subject was certain
signal transduction theory: hit
signal present and subject is certain
signal transduction theory: correct rejection
signal was not present and subject did not respond
signal transduction theory: miss
signal was present but subject did not respond
4 major categories of stressors
significant life changes catastrophic events daily hassles ambient stressors - global stressors that are integrated into the environment - perceivable but hard to contro - ex: pollution, noise, crowding, etc
opiods vs depressants
similar effects - different class than depressants, even though overlapping for anxiety - acts on endorphin receptors
difference between variable-ratio and fixed-ratio
similar except # of changes for each reward is different
difference between counterconditioning and extinction (classical conditioning)
similar in that they both get rid of unwanted stimulus but counterconditioning: - unwanted response doesn't just disappear - replaced by a new, wanted response
quasi-experimental deseign
similar to an experimental dseign but lacks random assignment describes an effect on a specific cohort of the population
feminist theories: mass media
similar to conflict theory - stereetypes/ misrepresents society towards the dominant ideology
implosive therapy
similar to systematic densitization but much quicker - produces a lot of anxiety idea is that if they face their fear and survive, they will realize their fear is irrational ex: throwing someone who has a phobia of spiders in a room with thousands of spiders
anova
similar to t-test compares distributions of continuous values between groups of categorical values, but can be used for 3+ groups
correlation vs regression
similarity: all variables examined are continuous difference: correlation makes no assumption about which variable is influencing the other
aversive control
situations where behavior is motivated by threat or something unpleasant example of negative control
compliance
situations where we do behaviors to get a reward or avoid punishment - goes away once reward/ punishments are removed tendency to go along with behavior without questioning why - change in behavior that is requested by another person or group (especially if there are certain factors present)
monocular cues give a sense of constancy of an object with... (3)
size constancy - appears larger because it is closer, but we still think it is the same size shape constancy - changing shape still maintains the same shape perception color constancy - despite changes in lighting, which change the image color falling on our retina, we understand (perceive) that the object is the same color
morpheme
smallest significant unit of meaning of a word - in ASL, when hand shape and location are combined
phonemes
smallest unit of language there are 40 in the english language
[...] is the only one that bypasses the thalamus
smell is the only one that bypasses the thalamus
exogamy
social arrangement where marriage is only allowed outside a social group social groups define the scope and extent of exogamy - rules and enforcement mechanisms ensure its continuity
step 3 of categorizing with social identity theory
social comparison - how we compare ourselves with other groups we do this to maintain our self-esteem critical to understanding prejudice - once two groups develop as rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem
gender
social construction theory that states that gender is not fixed nor an innate fact - varies across time and place
what theory is berger and luckman associated with?
social constructionism
social constructionism is a theory that [...] is not real and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement
social constructionism is a theory that knowledge is not real and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement
people are more likely to be honest when
social influences are reduced - ex: secret ballot general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one - principle of aggregation when specific actions are considered when attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection
key components of stratification system (3)
social institutional processes that define certain types of goods as valuable and desireable rules of allocation that distribute goods and resources across various positions in the division of labor social mobility processes that link individuals to positions and thereby generate unequal control over valued resources
observational learning
social learning/ vicarious learning learned through watching and imitating others - such as modeling actions of others mirror neurons found that support this ex: aggression is environmentally learnt and mass-media can have a performance effect
resolving social anomie
social norms must be strengthened groups must redevelop sets of shared norms
role exit
social role exit when an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity - process of establishing a new identity
gordon allport
all of us have different traits came up with a list of 4500 different descriptive words for traits - from those, he was able to come up with 3 basic categories of traits (cardinal, central, secondary) individuals have a subset of traits from universal set of possible traits - cardinal traits: characteristics that directs most of person's activity (the dominant trait that influences all of our behaviors) - central traits: less dominant than cardinal (ex: honesty, sociability, shyness) - secondary trait: preferences or attitudes (ex: love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat, etc.)
visual field processing
all right visual fields go to the left side of the brain and vice versa - ray of light from the left visual field hits the nasal side of the left eye --> hits temporal side of right eye (vice versa)
regression
all variables examined are continuous
directed attention
allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task (ex: single orientation of the Necker cube)
class system
allows for degree of social mobility - combination of background and movement, often by education less stability
open stratification system
allows for mobility between strata - typically by placing value on the achieved status characteristics of the individuals
advantages of stereotyping
allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social data
permissive parenting
also called indulgent parenting non-directive and lenient few behavioral expectations for the child
reciprocity
social rule that says we should repay, in kind, what another person has provided us
authoritative parenting
also strict consistent and loving, but more pragmatic and issue-oriented - listens to child's arguments balance responsibility with rights of the child discipline
variable c: conservative
always say no unless 100% sure signal is present (c>1) - positive: all correct rejections - negative: might get some misses - no more often than an ideal observer
variable c: liberal
always say yes (c<1) - positive: all hits - negative: might get some false alarms - no less often than the ideal observer
most common form of dementia
alzheimer's disease
convergence
amount of rotation your eyes have to do to focus on an object - far away = muscles of eyes are relaxed - close = muscles of eyes contract proprioceptive sense (a sense that shows our position in space). uses the information from the eye muscles (feedback) to gauge how much the eyes have rotated, and therefore how far an object is.
what structures are part of the mesolimbic pathway?
amydala, NAcc and hippocampus
prodrome
an early symptom indicating the onset of a disease or illness
social psychology
analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence focuses on interaction between individual and the changing external environment (situational) circumstances over internal traits/ internal motivations/ stable personality traits
emotional/ behavior effects of stress
anger anxiety addiction stress has 3 S's which corresponds to 3 A's
anger has been associated with the [...]
anger has been associated with the left superior temporal sulcus
auto-communication
animals can give information to/ communicate with themselves ex: bats and echolocation - allows them to gain information about the environment
chambers of the eye
anterior chamber: between iris and cornea posterior chamber: between iris and lens vireous chamber: largest part, filled with vitreous humor
what type of amnesia occurs if your hippocampus is destroyed?
anterograde amnesia
haloperidol
antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia
social selection is an alternative theory to [...] selection proposed by evolutionary biologist joan roughgarden
social selection is an alternative theory to sexual selection proposed by evolutionary biologist joan roughgarden
aggression
any physical/ verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy
rural
anywhere with <1000 people per square mile has to have <25,000 residents
exchange theory (exchange-rational choice theory)
application of rational choice theory to social interactions - looks at society as a series of interactions between individuals addresses decision making via cost-benefit analyses
what is broca's aphasia characterized by?
apraxia - disorder of motor planning, which causes problems producing speech
moderating variables
are these two variables linked the same way for everyone, or in every situation? - who is most vulnerable? for whom is the association strongest? can change relationship between the other two variables - making it more or less intense
posterior chamber
area behind the iris to the back of the eye - surrounds the equator of the lens, separating it from the ciliary body - the distance between the posterior of the lens and inner retinal layer is the aqueous humor
norepinephrine
area in ponds called locus coeruleus that releases it to cerebral cortex also ANS but less than acetylcholine
dermatome
area of the skin with sensory nerve fibers from a single posterior spinal root ganglion
who gets the most environmental burden?
areas with high poverty and a lot of racial minority ex: waste facilities, manufacturing/ factories, energy production, airports, etc
areas with high poverty and lots of racial minorities often have [...] environmental benefits
areas with high poverty and lots of racial minorities often have few environmental benefits
piaget
argued children weren't miniature adults - believed they actively construct their understanding of the world as they grow - as their bodies grow, their minds grow as well
social constructionism
argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/ agreements - something constructed, not inherited theory that knowledge is not real and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement
information overload
as a result of tyranny of choice can lead to decision paralysis and increased regret over choices made
urban decline
as people move out of city centers, city can fall into disrepair - buildings abandoned, unemployment/ crime rises, population of city declines
method of adjustment (method of average eerror)
asks the subject to control the level of the stimulus, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely detectable against the background noise, or is the same as the level of another stimulus. - this is repeated many times the observer himself controls the magnitude of the variable stimulus beginning with a variable that is distinctly greater or lesser than a standard one and he varies it until he is satisfied by the subjectivity of two
theory of intersectionality
asks us to consider all the different levels of discrimination calls attention to how identify categories intersect in a system of social stratification - ex: an individual's position within a social hierarchy is determined not only by their social class but also by their race/ ethnicity proposes that we need to understand how all these dicriminations can simultaneously exist
criterion validity
assesses whether a test reflexts a certain set of abilities refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome
primary appraisal
assessing stress in present sitations 3 categories of response - irrelevant - benign/ positive - stressful/ negative (stressor is actually threatening) --> move foward with secondary appraisal
sleep spindles
associated with N2 sleep stage burst of rapid brain activity some thing that they help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep associated with the ability to sleep through loud noises in some parts of the brain
pavlov
associated with classical conditioning - pavlovian dog experiment people have consistent behavior patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change - that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan
extrinsic motivation
associated with rewards or obligated behavior motivation to do something based on an external reward (ex: money or fame)
components of language: semantics
association of meaning with a word broad meaning of each word, phrase, sentence, or text n400 response - bigger with bigger violation
what type of learning is classical conditioning?
associative
what type of learning is operant conditioning?
associative learning
which strategy is the best?
assortative - despite the dangers of inbreeding, it helps to increase fitness of an organism
assortative mating can result in [...]
assortative mating can result in inbreeding
temporal monotocity
assumes that adding pain at the end of a painful experience will worsen the retrospective evaluation of the experienced pain adding pleasure will enhance the retrospective evaluation
at the core of prejudice is often [...] or frustration
at the core of prejudice is often fear or frustration
lower motor neuron signs
atrophy of skeletal muscles fasciculations - involuntary twitches of skeletal muscles hypotonia - decrease in tone of skeletal muscles (how much muscle is contracted when a person is relaxed) hyporeflexia - decreased muscle stretch reflex
suspensory ligaments
attached to a ciliary muscle - these two things together form the ciliary body, which is what secretes the aqueous humor
bandura's social cognitive theory: am i motivated to learn something?
attention memory imivation motivation AM I Motivated?
vygotsky's 4 elementary functions
attention sensation peception memory
attitude to behavior process model
attitude --> behavior an event triggers our attitude - attitude + some outside knowledge --> behavior ex: tommy has an attitude that junk food is unhealthy (attitude) because many of his relatives have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits (outside knowledge) --> he does not eat junk food
implicit bias
attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions and decisions in an unconscious manner encompass both favorable and unfavorable assessmeents activated involuntarily and without an individuals's awareness
what does the mere exposure effect apply to the most?
attraction
components of sexual orientation
attraction and fornication
universally attractive
attractive across cultural backgrounds ex: youthfulness, skin clarity/ smoothness, body symmetry
stereotyping
attributing a certain thought/ cognition to group of individuals overgeneralizing can involve race, gender, culture, religion, shoe size, etc
anthropomorphism
attributing human characteristics to non-human animals we can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animal
hallucinations in schizophrenia
auditory hallucinations are the most common - ex: hearing voices or some other sounds - occurs when people misinterpret their own inner self-talk as coming from an outside source visual hallucinations are also common
what is the best type of parenting style?
authoriative
types of parenting style (3)
authoritarian permissive authoritative
what type of personality is most subject to prejudice?
authoritarian personality
3 types of hormone effects
autocrine - effects the signal that makes it paracrine - regional effect endocrine - response that is far away - through the bloodstream
what does evolutionary game theory predict? (2)
availability of resourcees social behavior - important for who they mate with
are average or unique traits more attractive?
average traits
aversive control is an example of [...] reinforcement
aversive control is an example of negative reinforcement
alertness
awake, aware of who you are, code information for memory, etc
clsas consciousness
awareness of one's place in a system of social classes, especially as it relates to the class struggle
consciousness
awareness of our self and environment can have different levels of consciousness (awareness) - range from alertness to sleep can be natural or induced by external factors (ex: drugs) or internal factors (ex: mental efforts)
contact comfort theory
babies are attracted to their mother because they provide them with the comfort of their touch
cupboard theory
babies are attracted to their mothers because they provide them with food
which generation has the largest population in the us?
baby boomers
head to toe development
baby can lift head before they can crawl
neonatal reflexes: sucking
baby sucks on any object placed in its mouth disappears at 3-4 months
noise distribution
background noise exists in any task/ signal distribution
do you work on impression management in the front stage or back stage?
backstage
what does the vestibular system help with?
balance and spatial orientation
who developed the social-cognitive theory?
bandura
basal forebrain is considered to be the major [...] output of the central nervous system
basal forebrain is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system
functions of the nervous system
basic functions - motor (control of skeletal muscles) - sensory (senses) - automanic (reflexes) higher functions - cognition (thinking) - emotions (feelings) - consciousness
continuous reinforcement
becomes less reinforcing so there is a need for ulterior reinforcement occurs on a 1:1 ratio - for each behavior, there is a reward
prototype willingness model (PWM)
behavior is a function of 6 things - the combination of which influence our behavior our behavior is a function of - past behavior - attitudes (attitudes --> behaviors) - subjective norms (what we think about the behavior) - intentions - willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior - models/ prototyping
deviance standards: labeling theory
behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant - depends on what is acceptable in that society societies reaction to and label for deviant behavior and person who committed the deviant behavior are important - primary deviance (no big consequence; reaction is very mild) - secondary deviance (more serious consequence; characterized by severe negative reactions that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior)
partial reinforcement schedule
behavior is reinforced only some of the time more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement - behavior is shaped through a process of successive reinforcement of approximations of target behavior
basic principles behind exchange theory
behavior of individual in interaction can be figured out by comparing rewards and punishments rewards: social approval, money, positive gesures punishments: negative gestures, social disapproval, public humiliation
covert behavior
behavior that is not observable
psychological factors of depression
behavioral theory - learned helplessness cognitive theory - cognitive distortions - attribution
classification of norms: taboos
behaviors completely forbidden/ wrong in any circumstance - violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by community - considered very immral behavior ex: incest ex: cannibalism
2 categories that regulate food, sex and drugs
biological factors - hormones and brain socio-culture - our conscious choices on how we express our needs
aggression comes from a combination of (3)
biology psychological socio-cultural
what increases a population growth rate?
births and immigration
5 main tastes
bitter, salty, sweet, sour and umami (ability to taste gluamate) each taste depends on a specific receptor that is localized on the tongue
blastulation
blastocyst- inside of the morula clusters more --> develops inner cell mass and blastocoel (hollow space) - zona pellucida disintegrates - endometrium lining is proliferating (forming valleys called crypts) inner cell mass - makes an amniotic cavity - bottom cells differentiate into hypoblasts - cells above hypoblasts are epiplasts bilamar disk (epiblast + hypoplast) primitive stream forms - where epiblast starts to migrate
cribriform plate
bone with little holes that allow olfactory sensory to send projections to the brain separates olfactory epithelium from the brain
schizophrenia
both a genetic and environmental component
global aphasia
both broca's aphasia and wenicke's aphasia are damanged - combination of imparied comprehension and production of speech
both men and women are attracted to [...] levels of sexual dimorphism
both men and women are attracted to high levels of sexual dimorphism
extinction occurs in what type of conditioning?
both operant and classical
avoidant-avoidant conflicts
both options are unappealing
social support vs social capital
both suggest that social contracts will be beneficial to individual health and well-being - social network --> health social support: focus on emotional resources social capital: focus on tangible resources provided by network members
is top down or bottom up processing data driven?
bottom up
influence on perception in bottom up vs top down
bottom up: perception is influenced by new stimulus top down: perception is influenced by expectations
is the information processing model a top down or bottom up processing model?
bottom-up
thesis of 19th century capitalist europe
bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labor caused the formation of the reaction : antithesis
activation synthesis hypothesis
brain gets a lot of neural impulses in the brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex - brainstem = activation - cortex = synthesis our brain is trying to find meaning from random brain activity - dreams might not have meaning
social anomie
breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community - a situation in which society doees not have the support of a firm collective consciousness can result in social group disbanding and alienation from social groups
permanent reflexes (4)
breathing eyeblink pupilary swallowing
avoiding groupthink
bring in outsiders/ experts have the leader of the group not disclose opinion discuss what should be done in smaller groups
concentration segregation
clustering of different groups
[...] is the only drug we cannot develop a substance-use disorder for
caffeine is the only drug we cannot develop a substance-use disorder for
lesion studies: temporary lesions
can be created by neurochemical means muscimol can bind to GABA receptors and inhibit those neurons
cerebral cortex with emotion
can be divided in many ways hemisphere - left: positive emotions - right: negative emotions also can be divided by functions
conjunction fallacy
can be due to a representative heuristic co-occurance of 2 instances is more likely than a single one - people tend to think the probability ot 2 events occuring together is higher than the probability of one alone ex: being a bank teller AND a feminist is more likely than just being a bank teller alone - but statistically speaking, it's more likely that they are just a bank teller rather than a feminist bank teller
institutions
can create rules that impact all of society and guide what we do don't need any 1 individual - just need many of them - each individual is very replaceable created by individuals but continue even after an individual is gone
gestation
can divide into - months (9-10 months) - trimesters (3 months each) - weeks (10/20/30/40 weeks) weeks is best/ scientifically accurate/ useful
ill health magnet
can drag people away - can't participate in society
poverty magnent
can drag people away from the core part of society experience a greater deal of social exclusion
sleep deprivation and mental illness
can increase risk for depression - REM sleep helps brain process emotional experiences, which can help protect against depression
can invest financial capital to obtain [...]
can invest financial capital to obtain social capital
reinforcement-modeling
can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement - parents who give into demands of a child during a temper tantrum leads to more temper tantrums in the future
negatives of state-dependent retrieval
can lead to depression - those feeling down are more likely to think of other reasons to be down (but converse is true too!!)
electroencephalograms (EEG)
can measure brainwaves
buoyancy force with otolithic organs
can sense orientation of crystals in otolithic organs with respect to buoyancy force in absence of gravity (especially without visual cues on which way is up/down)
non-verbal cues
can tell if someone is happy/sad or anxious/ angry
outcomes of ethnocentrism (3)
can view our own culture to be superior to that of others can lead to cultural bias and prejudice using one's own cultural standards (ex: norms and values) too make judgements about another culture
PET scans
can't give us a detailed structure, but can combine with CAT scans and MRIs inject glucose into cells and see what areas of the brain are the most active at a given point in time - active = use more glucose more invasive 3D images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis requires swallowing a radioactive tracer and shows activity, with low resolution
micro-culture
can't support people throughout their lifespan groups/ organizations only affecting limited period of one's life - ex: girl scouts, college sororities, boarding school, etc.
altruism
care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them beneficial to society and individuals
munchausen's by proxy
caregiver makes up or causes an illness or injury in a person under his or her care, such as a child, an elderly adult, or a person who has a disability
myers briggs personality test
carl jung 4 letters that characterize you in one of the 16 personality types ESTJ - extraversion - sensing - thinking - judgement INFP - introversion - intuition - feeling - perception
types of social constructs that allows for social mobility (3)
caste system class system meeritocracy
caste system vs class system vs meritocracy as it relates to social mobility and stability
caste system: - social mobility: low - social stability: high class system: - social mobility: medium - social stability: low meritocracy: - social mobility: high - social stability: high
what does the adrenal medulla release as a stress response?
catecholamines (epinephrine/ adrenaline and norepinephrine/ noradrenaline) - tyrosine derivatives - developed from ectoderm
mcgurk effect
categorical change in auditory perception that occurs whenever the auditory stimulus does not match the visual stimulus during speech perception
korsakoff's syndrome
caused by lack of vitamin b1 or thiamine - caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, especially alcoholism (don't process or absorb all the nutrients they need) - most cases are not caused by brain injuries individuals have trouble forming new memories (anterograde amnesia) and recalling old memories (retrograde amnesia)
phenylketonuria (PKA)
caused by mutations to a gene that encodes a liver enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) - because the enzyme is missing, amino acid phenylalanine doesn't get converted to tyrosine causes a build-up of phenylalanine which then causes brain problems 1 in 15k babies are affected symptoms can be managed by a specific diet (phenylalanine-free diet) - less problematic environment
central executive creates an integrated representation that stores it in the [...]
central executive creates an integrated representation that stores it in the episodic buffer
similarities between rogers and maslow
central feature of our personality is self-concept - genuine + acceptance = growth-promoting climate --> self-concept discrepancy between conscious values and unconscious true values --> tension - must be resolved importance of congruency between self-concept and our actions to feel fulfilled
structure of the nervous system
central nervous system - brain and spinal cord peripheral nervous system - everything else (nerves, ganglia, afferent and efferent neurons) - cranial (12 pairs) + spinal nerves (31 pairs)
psychoanalytic theory: libido
central to psychoanalytic theory natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind when this energy is stuck/ fixated at various stages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects - fixation at a particular stage is what predicts adult personality ex: someone fixated at the oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics (ex: smoking habits, overly talkative, etc)
brain
cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres, brainstems (midbrain, pons and medulla) and cerebellum forebrain --> cereberum midbrain --> midbrain hindbrain --> pons, medulla, cerebellum
discrimination magnet
certain groups may face discrimination
how to improve self control (3)
change environment operant conditioning classical conditioning
stage 3 of elaboration likelihood model
change in attitude central processing: creates a lasting attitude change peripheral processing: creates a temporary attitude change
intergenerational mobility
change in social class between generations ex: parent is working class and son is working class
sensory adaptation
change over time of receptor to a constant stimulus - down regulation of a sensory receptor in the body
how is mass media consumed?
changes across cultures in each group - older people might get their information via TV and newspaper while younger people can get it via the internet
neural plasticity
changes in brain size involves function of environmental influences
brain changes during adolescence
changes in the - prefrontal cortex (develops into early 20s) - limbic system - corpus callosum
temperament
characteristic emotional reactivity / intensity - broader than personality - ex: shyness and sociability develops with age many facts affect the extent to which a child's temperament remains stable
target characteristics
characteristics of listener - ex: mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc how we receive a message
type of collective behaviors: riots
characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior - ex: vandalism, violence and other crimes - very chaotic and cost cities millions in damage individuals who act cast aside societal norms and behave in very destructive ways and violate laws indiscriminately often seen as a collective act of defiance/ disapproval - can be result of a perceived issue (ex: sporting game outcome, frustration of working/ living conditions, conflicts between races/ religions) violent form of crowd behavior that results from feelings of injustice or feeling that needs have been ignored
social stigma is dervied from a [...]
social stigma is dervied from a symbolic interactionist perspective
2 forms of stigma
social stigma self-stigma
4 principles are posited to underlie social stratification
social stratification - is socially defined as a property of a society rather than individuals in that society - is reproduced from generation to generation - is universal (found in every society) but variable (differs across time and place) - invovles not just quantitative inequality but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status
ethnicity
socially defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, or some other cultural factor less statistically defined than racial groups and definitions can change over time not defined by physical characteristics (like race)
race
socially defined category based on physical differences between groups of people
symbolic interactionism
society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals looking at how people behave in normal, everyday situations can help us to better understand and define deviance
social stratification
society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income; wealth and social status; or derived power (social and political)
2 main foraging strategies
solitary foraging group foraging
asch conformity study
solomon asch was a gestalt psychologist - believed it was not possible to understand human behavior by breaking them down into parts - people must be understood as a whole 75% of participants gave the wrong answer at least once (because the first participant gave the wrong answer) and 35% conform every single time
cerebral cortex: parietal lobe
somatosensory cortex (touch, pressure, pain) - motor cortex (frontal) + somatosensory cortex (parietal) - involved in receiving sensory signals from the skin spatial manipulation (orient in 3D) if a piranah bites you on the top of your head (where the parietal lobe is located), that is a sensation the parietal lobe would process
savings
some foundation of the memory still exists even if it cant be produced - works with procedural skills too (ex: playing a piano)
PTSD treatment
some hallucinogens are used - allows people to access painful memories from the past that's detached from strong emotions so they can come to terms with it
ascending methods of limits
some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected - then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it
absolute threshold of sensation: low levels of stimulus
some subjects can detect and some can't individual differences as well
positive punishment
something is added to decrease tendency something will occur again ex: giving a speeding ticket (adding) to decrease behavior of speeding (behavior)
positive reinforcement
something is being added to increase tendency of behavior ex: gas gift card for safe driving
negative punishment
something is being taken away in an effort to decrease tendency it'll occur again ex: taking away your license
proactive interference
something you learned in the past impairs learning in the future earlier information interferes with later information ex: new password learning
tend and befriend response
sometimes better response to stress is to have support systems oxytocin is important for this - peer bonding and moderates the stress response - strongly linked to estrogen (why this response is stronger in women)
what is another term for REM sleep?
sometimes called paradoxical sleep - brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything - brainwaves look like they are completely awake
sometimes information we receive is based on a [...], instead of reality
sometimes information we receive is based on a schema, instead of reality
interactionist approach
sometimese called the social interactionist approach believe biological and social factors have to interact in order to children to learn language - children's desire to communicate with others make them motivated to learn language associated with vygotsky
origins of the signal transduction theory
sonar - had to determine whether a strong signal is a large whale or a school of fish
types of animal communication
sound chemical/ olfactory signals (pheromones) somatosensory communication visual vues
wernicke's area
sound processing, understanding temporal lobe
pheromones
specialized olfactory cells cause some sort of response in animals smelling them (ex: why dogs pee on fire hydrants; released in the urine that can be sensed by other dogs)
broca's area
speech and language expression frontal lobe
positive priming
speeds up processing caused by experiencing the stimulus thought to be caused by spreading activation - the first simulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task - the representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it
steps of fertilization
sperm binding --> acrosome reaction --> cortical reaction --> genetic transfer
proprioception
spindles (small receptors) located in our muscles sends signals that go up to the spinal cord and to the brain - has proteins that is sensitive to stretching cognitive awareness of your body in space - subconscious
organ of corti
splits cochlea into 2: upper and lower membrane - why sound can only move in one direction - as fluid flows around the organ, it causes hair cells to move back and forth upper membrane: pushed down --> hair cells (hair bundle with kinocilium and cilia) vibrates - kinocilium is connected by a tip link which is attached to gate of K+ channel - tip links get pushed back and forth by endolympth movement --> stretch and allows K+ to flow inside the cell from endolympth (which is K+ rich) - Ca2+ cells get activated when K+ is inside (Ca2+ flows into the cell) --> action potential --> activates a spiral ganglion cell --> activates auditory nerve
spotlight model (and resource model) say something about our ability to [...] and how we are not good at it
spotlight model (and resource model) say something about our ability to multitask and how we are not good at it
what theory explains why we are primed to respond to our name?
spotlight model of attention
diffusion
spread of an invention or discovery of ideas from one place to another can involve expansion of ideas across the globe
spacing effect
spreading out study sessions over time in shorter periods rather than cramming them into one study session cramming = bad
personality trait
stable predisposition toward a certain behavior straightforward way to describe personality - puts it in patterns of behavior - description of traits rather than explaining them
summary of aging and cognitive abilities
stable: implicit memory and recognition improve: semantic memory (~60yrs), crystallized IQ, emotional reasoning decline: recall, episodic memory, processing speed, divided attention
5 stages of the demographic transition model
stage 1: high birth and death rates (overall population is stable) stage 2: population rises as death rate decreases (beginning of developing countries) stage 3: death rates continue to drop and birth rates fall (population continues to grow) stage 4: population stabilizes (both birth and death rates are low) stage 5: speculation (world population will be forced to stabilize)
level 1 of moral reasoning (preconventional)
stage 1: obedience vs punishment - doing what's right to avoid punishment stage 2: hedonistic orientation - doing what's right for personal gain - individualism and exchange or self-interest
stages of social movement (4)
stage 1: shared idea with few stage 2: incipient stage (public takes notice of situation they consider to be a problem) stage 3: people begin to organize in a group and raise up stage 4: will either cueed in changing the society or have to adapt - in the end, they become part of the bureaucracy they try to change - if successful, they become absorbed into institutions once desired changes have been achieved - if failed, they are not active anymore but leave a mark on society/ culture
which stage of the demographic transition model does the malthusian theorem come into play?
stage 5
level 3 of moral reasoning (post-conventional)
stage 5: social contract or legalistic orientation - even though laws exist for the greater good, there are times the law must be broken to reach universal principles stage 6: universal ethical principle - people develop own set of moral guidelines - peeople who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences/ disapproval, imprisonment - very few people reach this stage (ex: ghandi, nelson mandela, MLK, etc.)
inner ear
cochlea and semicircular canals
what is social interaction important for the childhood development of?
cognition
components that make up prejudice
cognition (stereotype) affect discrimination
what connects the observable (behavioral) to mental (psychoanalytical) approach?
cognitive theory - bridge between classical behaviorism and other theories, like psychoanalytic because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behavior, it has a lot in common with behavior theory - albert bandura experiment
corticospinal tract
collection of axons that goees to the spinal cord cerebral cortex --> axon travels down through brainstem --> at spinal cord, most of axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN
basal forebrain
collection of structures located to the front of and below the straiatum - nucleus accumbens - nucleus basalis - medial septal nuclei these strutures are important in the production of acetylcholine --> distributed widely throughout the brain considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system
long tracts
collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem 2 long tracts that are important: motor (UMNs) and somatosensory
corticobulbar tract
collections of axons that goes to the brainstem
neutral judge
combination of both internal and external (situational) attributes
complex behavioral traits
combination of innate and learned behavior - relationship between genes and environment in adaptation can be a spectrum - most behaviors fit between innate and learned - ex: ability of insects to fly starts off as innate but through learning, becomes more efficient
categorical self
comes after existential self becoming aware that even though we're separate/ distinct objects/ beings, we also exist in the world with others - each of these objects/ entities have properties ex: age and gender are the first categories babies learn ex: skill and size comes next ex: traits, comparisons and careers are more developed
functionalism
comes from macrosociology looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning
aphasia
communication disorder that involves language (speaking, listening, reading, writing, etc)
companies that extend beyond borders of a country are called [...] corporations
companies that extend beyond borders of a country are called multinational/ transnational corporations
multinational/ transnational corporations (T&Cs)
companies that extend beyond borders of a country to take opportunities they can find in different countries to manufacture, distribute, market and sell their products
t-test
compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories or groups ex: comparing mean of a group to a specific value - can also compare mean of 2 groups
3 main assumptions of rational choice theory
completeness - every action can be ranked as being more or less preferable transitivity - since A is preferable to B is preferable to C, A is also preferable to C independence of irrelevant alternatives - if i have a 4th option X, won't change the order of how i ranked A-C
types of conformity and obedience (3)
compliance identification internalization
compromise is a synthesis of the thesis and antithesis, eventually becoming a new [...]
compromise is a synthesis of the thesis and antithesis, eventually becoming a new thesis
taste buds
concentrated anteriorly (front) of the tongue can be fungiform (anterior), foliate (side) and circumvallate (back) each taste bud are the 5-receptor cells that can detect each taste - each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue - each has cells specialized for each of the 5 tastese
meaning-focused coping
concentrates on deriving meaning from the stressful experience
meritocracy
concept that people achieve social positions solely based on ability and achievement (birth and parental background doesn't matter) - highly idealized extreme social mobility equal opportunity to achieve
social construct
concept/ practice everyone in osicety agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value ex: money
semantic networks
concepts are organized in your mind as connected ideas parallel to how information might be stored in a computer for closely related ideas, they might be closer - longer for less closely related ideas
dramaturgical approach/ theory
concepts of - front stage and back stage self - impression management - communication
inclusive fitness
concerns the - # of offspring an animal has - how they support them - how offspring support each other thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionarily advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves
substance-induced disorders
conditions that are caused by substances can lead to substance-use disorders - occurs when the drug causes a serious/ real degree of impairment in functioning in life, at work, school or home
do rods or cones have a faster recovery time?
cones
feature detection: color
cones trichromatic theory of color vision - 3 types of cones (60% red, 30% green, 10% blue) that reflect their respective color
conflict theory is a [...] perspective
conflict theory is a macro perspective
what impacts internal validity of an experiment?
confounding factors
what can representative heuristic lead to?
conjunction fallacy
what is the sclera lined with?
conjunctiva
perception
conscious sensory experience of neural processing
manifest functions
consequence of institutions ex: businesses provide a service. schools educate people so they can get a job. laws maintain social order
two views of institutions
conservative view: institutions are natural by-products of human nature progressive view: institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful (ex: businesses)
biopsychosocial model
considers abnormalities and might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorders - but also includes psychological and cultural/ social factors that might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorders
3 cues of kelley's co-variation model
consistency (time) - high consistency --> attribution of internal factors distinctiveneses (situation) - out of character --> attribution of external factors consensus (people) - high consensus --> attribution of external factors
3 main parts of external attribution
consistency - does the person usually behave this way? distinctiveness - does the person behave differently in different situations? consensus - do others behave similarly in situations?
inter-rater reliability
consistency when 2 different people measure the same thing
double approach-avoidant conflicts
consists of 2 options with both appealing and negative characteristics - seemed to represent the jury's dilemma
gustatory system
consists of taste receptors in taste buds (contained in structures called papillae)
which theory prevailed in harlow's monkey experiment and what did it show?
contact comfort - showed that attachment basis to mother is due to comfort, not food
vomeronasal system
contains basal cells and apical cells - have receptors at tips basal cells send axon through accessory olfactory bulb --> glomerulus --> mitral/ tufted cell --> amygdala (signal transduction --> binds to receptor which binds to GPCR --> depolarization)
internal capsule
contains many important pathways - including corticospinal tract
gray matter
contains most of the neuron somas
white matter
contains myelinated axons
gestalt principles: contextual effects
context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of the perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli - context can establish the way in which stimuli are organized
continuous reinforcement occurs on a [...] ratio
continuous reinforcement occurs on a 1:1 ratio
is vision, hearing and touch are ipsilateral or contralateral?
contralateral
how is the brain organized?
contralaterally - left visual field information gets processed by the right etc
cognitve behavioral therapy
control what your body is doing physiologically with your mind ex: when you are afraid, epinephrine causes an increased heart rate, etc (fight or flight) - when you are no longer scared, you become calmer and hormones get reduced
false consciousness is promoted by
controlling classes - making it more difficult for workers to see their oppression
upper motor neurons (UMN)
controls LMNs found in the cerebral cortex can divide them into tracts depending on if they go to the brainstem or spinal cord
efferent neurons in the PNS
controls smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscles and gland cells
thiamine
converts carbohydrates --> glucose needed for energy important for normal functioning of neurons
differences between cooley and mead
cooley - thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity - broader definition than mead mead - thought it was more restricted - only certain people can and only in certain periods of life - thought that the way others influence us changes across the lifespan
critical aspect of socialization theory
cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we imagine the opinions of others to be - can also be influenced by future interactions
old brain: cerebellum
coordates voluntary movement - motor plan information is sent to cerebellum - also receives position sense (ex: muscle stretch fibers) and sends feedback to the cerebellum and motor areas of motor cortex
cultural transmission addresses how culture is [...]
cultural transmission addresses how culture is learned
subculture
culture of a meso-level (medium) sub-community that distinguishes itself from the larger cominant culture or larger society/ culture
culture lag
culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations --> results in social problems
culture vs society
culture: rules that guide way people live society: structure that provides organization for people (includes institutions)
third gender
cultures that recognize non-binary gender
which 2 theories did the hawlow monkey experiment test?
cupboard theory vs. contact comfort theory
socio-cultural regulation of drugs
curiosity - novelty of drug rebel poor control of user cope with stress low self-esteem relief from fatigue more prevalent in areas of higher poverty
longitudinal study
daata is gathered for the same subjects reepeatedly over a period of time - can take years or decades follows variables over a long period of time to look for correlations
what do psychologists argue is the most important form of stress?
daily hassles mike lazarus and connor mcdonald
damage to [...] leads to conduction (associative) aphasia
damage to arcuate fasciculus leads to conduction (associative) aphasia
damage to the corpus callosum creates a [...] patient
damage to the corpus callosum creates a split-brain patient
why are emotions universally recognizable?
darwin hypothesized ability to understand and express emotion is an innate ability that allowed them to act in ways that gave them a better chance of survival - newborn babies react the same way/ have same emotions as adults - blind individuals have same facial expressions as those who can see
what decreases a population growth rate?
death and emigration
what can information overload lead to? (2)
decision paralysis increased regret
dementia
decline in memory and other cognitive functions to the point of interfering with normal daily life results from excessive damage to brain tissue - ex: from strokes or other causes alzheimer's disease is the most common form
what happens when the median level of income in a society gradually rises as a country gets richer?
decrease in poverty
activity in prefrontal cortex during REM sleep
decreased part responsible for logic - why things in our dreams can defy logic and don't seem weird
heritability estimates
define the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in a specific subgroups of individuals
social potency
degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations common in twins reared separately - genetic influence
lesion studies
deliberately making brain lesions/ destroying tissues in order to observe changes on animal's behavior - not done with humans can be done in several ways - tissue removal - radiofrequency lesions - neurochemical lesions - cortical cooling - temporary lesions can be created via neurochemical means
just world hypothesis: irrational techniques
denial of the situation reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause and the character of the victim
components of language: pragmatics
dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge affected by prosody - the rhythm, cadence and inflection of our voices
relapse
depends on environmental triggers and drugs they were addicted to more addictive --> more likely
what does the location of somatosensation rely on?
dermatomes
somatosensations: location
dermatomes - allows brain to register what is being stimulated
labeled-line theory of olfaction
describes a scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli directly linked to the brain
demand characteristics
describes how participants change behaviors to match expectations of the experimenter - conformed because they knew that's what the experimenter wanted them to do
obedience
describes how we follow orders/ obey authority - no cognitive component can be positive or negative
socialization theory
describes the process by which people learn the attitudes, behaviors and values expected by their culture/ community - occurs through observation of/ interaction with people who we are surrounded by developed by charles cooley
smell adaptations
desensitized receptors in nose to molceule sensory information over time
glomerulus
designation point for various sensory olfactory cells that are sensitive to the same molecule (ex: benzene glomerulus)
desires vs temptations
desires - motivations associated with pleasure or release from displeasure - aren't necessarily bad temptation - when desire conflicts with values or long-term goals - ex: wanting to eat a candy bar while having the long-term goal of losing weight
cones
detects color (Cones = Colors) discerns high level of detail in what you are observing cone shaped
feature detection: parallel processing
detects/ focus all information (color, form, motion) at the same time
example of signal transduction theory
determining whether a traffic light has actually turned green on a very foggy day
main criticism of social constructionism
doesn't consider effects of natural phenomenon on society for strong constructionism, it has difficulty explaining those phenomenon because they don't depend on human speech or action
problem with behaviorist theory
doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before or unique sentences
transformationalist perspective
doesn't have specific cause or outcome believe national governments are changing - perhaps becoming less important - difficult to explain change so simply they see the world order is changing - just a new world order is being developed many factors that influence change of world patterns but outcome is unknown
non-material culture (symbolic culture)
doesn't include physical objects inclides ideas, beliefs and values - tends to resist change
dominant groups have [...] minority groups
dominant groups have radicalized minority groups
ecclesia
dominant religious organization that includes most members of society ex: lutheranism in sweden ex: islam in iran
gender queer
don't identify as either male or female
mary ainsworth's strange situation
done to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't - focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregivers) mother and child in room with stranger mom quietly leaves the room (what is the child's response?) mother returns (again, what is the child's response?)
[...] from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention
dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention
sight adaptation
down regulation (light adaptation) - pupils constrict - desensitization of rods and cones (become desensitized to light) up regulation (dark regulation) - pupils dilate - rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules
dramaturgy uses the metaphor of [...] to understand social interactions
dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions
transdermal
drug is absorbed through the skin (ex: nicotine patch) - drug in patch has to be pretty potent - released into bloodstream over several hours occurs slowly, since the drugs have to be absorbed through the skin before the effects can be felt
psychoactive drugs
drugs that can alter our consciousness and perceptions classified by actions and effects they have on our bodies 4 main categories: - depressants - stimulants - hallucinogens - opiates/ opioids
stimulants
drugs that excite CNS effect is similar to stress (increased glucose metabolism in the brain - cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake - amphetamines: block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release - caffeine: inhibits enzyme that breaks down cAMP - nicotine: acts on acetylcholine - THC: works on anandamide; increased dopamine and GABA activity
damaging effects of stress on our metabolism
during stress, body secretes cortisol and glucagon (converts glycogen --> glucose) - we don't always need all of this glucose --> exacerbate metabolic conditions (ex: diabetes) too much blood sugar can also cause heart disease
durkheim imagined a balance between institutions and [...]
durkheim imagined a balance between institutions and social facts
mnemonic devices: acronym
each of the letter of a popular word you know stands for the first letters of a set of words you need to remember
labeled lines model
each taste bud receptor has 5 axons, all which send separate taste information to different parts of the gustatory cortex remain separate to the brain all synapse on different parts of the gustatory cortex ex: glucose hits tongue and binds to GPCR --> activates sweet cell --> conformational change --> (cascade) G-protein dissociates --> opens ion channels --> cell depolarizes --> action potential --> travels down AP to the brain
dual coding hypothesis
easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone (visual / verbal) can use the method of loci - imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place, leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered
what causes the health disparities we see in the US?
economic and environmental conditions race - hispanics and african-americans have higher mobidity and mortality rates (doesn't necessarily have to do with SES) gender differences - men use fewer preventative services - women require reproductive services which may have reduced access LGBT
contributors to globalization
economic interdependence between countries advancements in communication technology technology in general
what is usually the cause of spouse abuse?
economic issues
globalization has 2 major impacts on...
economy and culture
education system can reinforce [...]
education system can reinforce social stratification
lower motor neurons (LMN)
efferent neurons of the PNS synapse control skeletal muscles - controls muscles of limbs and trunk - those that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of head and neck skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit - forms a neuromuscular junction abormalities can cause lower motor neuron signs (LMN signs) - can happen in addition to weakness
transmission
electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron
light
electromagnetic wave ranges from violet (400 nm) to red (700 nm)
elementary mental functions is to higher mental functions as social interactions is to [...]
elementary mental functions is to higher mental functions as social interactions is to cognition
5 kinds of social support
emotional support esteem support informational support tangible/ instrumental support companion support
emotions are contingent on [...]
emotions are contingent on senses
behaviorists
empiricist believe language is just a conditioned behavior
what does pluralism encourage?
encourages racial and ethnic variation
endolymph allows us to detect what [...] our head is moving in
endolymph allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in
why do we get dizzy?
endolymph does not stop spinning the same we do, so it continues moving and indicates to brain we're still moving even when we've stopped
transduction
energy is transformed from one form to other - ex: light energy --> electrical energy by rods and cones
arousal on attention
enhanced arousal can enhance attention - but too high of an arousal state can be detrimental to attention
encoding specificity
enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning
external (situational attribution)
environment
what is autobiographical memory a combination of?
episodic and semantic memory
equal rights and women's suffrage movements were all conflicts that resolved in a new [...]
equal rights and women's suffrage movements were all conflicts that resolved in a new thesis
who created the psychosocial development theory?
erikson
psychosocial theory of development
erikson - proposed personality/ identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan (lifespan perspective) each stage depends on overcoming a conflict - success/ failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory 8 stages
2 examples of drives
eros (life drive) - health, safety, sex - comes with love, cooperation, collaboration - working with others to promote yours and others wellbeing thantos (death drive) - self-destructive/ harmful to others - comes with fear and anger (inward or outward) - hate
2 examples of aversive control
escape avoidance
churches
established religious bodies in a larger society ex: roman catholic church
[...] minorities have greater degree of inequality
ethnic/ racial minorities have greater degree of inequality
secondary appraisal
evaluation of the individual's ability to cope with the situation - what is the individual's material preepareedness to deal with the stressor? appraisal of - harm: what damage has already been caused - threat: how much damage could be caused - challenge: how to overcome it
mere exposure effect with anterograde amnesia
even if patients are incapable of forming new memories, if the patient saw a picture of a face before, they consider them more attractive
iron rule of oligarchy
even the most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by a select few
modified semantic network
every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge all ideas in your head are connected together - when you activate one concept, you pull related concepts with it (spreading activation) some links might be shorter/ longer for different individuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories to exemplars
functionalist
everyone is required to have a responsibility in society
spearman's theory of generalized intelligence
evidence comes from the fact that people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of tests factors underlying these consistent abilities is called the g factor - generalized intelligence - used factor analysis to identify clusters of related abilities
surface traits
evident from a person's behavior
5 approaches to motivation
evolutionary approach drive-reduction theory (drive vs need) optimum arousal theory cognitive maslow's hierarchy of needs in reality, all approaches are related and help us learn motivation a bit better
buss
evolutionary psychologist that theorized that males and females have different mating strategies that influence costs associated with passing on genes - males can have many mates - females are more selective due to the cost of pregnancy
group meetings
ex: AA (alcohol anonymous) or NA (narcotics anonymous) involve 12-step program (3 categories) that help people go through the process of recovery - acceptance - surrender - active involvement steps are sequential but one can experience certain steps repeatedly over time sometimes there are parallel group meetings for families of recovering addicts
vigilance
ex: active search, selective attention, divided attention a type of attention - often described as main functions rather than subfunctions of attention
gestalt principles: law of common fate
ex: if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while half the dots are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units
pressurized sound wave
ex: in between your hands are a bunch of air molecules and when hands move toward each other, there is less space so the molecules compress and there is higher pressure - air molceules are becoming pressurized
tokenism
ex: one minority character is added to a movie as a stand-in for the entire group
visual cues
ex: painting a room pink vs black
past-in-present discrimination
example of unintentional discrimination how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed, can have consequences for people in the present ex: after brown vs. boe verdict, the girl in the integrated school still didn't feel welcomed in her classroom
side-effect discrimination
example of unintentional discrimination talks about how one institution, organization, sector, etc. can influence another negatively
complex societies
exhibit features of stratification - total stock of valued goods is distributed unequally (most privledged enjoy a disproportionate share of income, power and other valued resources)
what part of self-concept comes first?
existential self
parts of development of self-concept
existential self categorical self
2 types of cues that direct our selective attention
exogenous and endogenous
ludwig gumplowicz
expanded on marx by proposing that society is shaped by war/ conquest cultural/ ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others
sick role
expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities - but if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society
coping
expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems adaptive or constructive coping strategies - strategies to reduce stress levels seeking to master, minimize or tolerate stress or conflict - but some can be maladaptive effectiveness of coping efforts depends on - type of stress/ conflict - particular individual - circumstances
lazarus theory
experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled) - if we label the emotion as good --> positive - if we label the emotion as bad --> negative cognitive --> emotion + physiological how we label is based on cultural/ individual differences event is the same and deepending on the label, it produces 2 very different emotions - ex: skydiving is terrifying for some but exhilarating for others, depending on the label
james-lange theory
experience of emotion is due to pereception of physiological responses - physiological --> emotion ex: a man who is allergic to bees encounters a bee - heart rate increases, starts to sweat --> interprets as fear event --> physiological response --> interpretation of response --> emotion
affective
experience of emotions
elaboration likelihood model
explains how attitudes are formed and likely they are to be changed target characteristics are the most important characteristics of this model, but all will play a factor (message and source) we want to evaluate information along 2 possible paths: central and peripheral - after a route is chosen, information is passed through 3 different stages
gender schema theory
explains how individuals should be gendered in society how sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture what constitutes male/ female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in the society - cognitions regarding what constitutes a sex identity
information processing model: explicit output
explicit (declarative) - facts/ events you can clearly describe - focuses on recalling previous experiences and information - divided into episodic (event-related) and semantic (words/ facts)
how can diffusion occur? (6)
exploration military conquest missionary work mass media tourism internet
haptic perception
exploration of objects through touch, most often by the hand or fingers
priming
exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been consciously paying attention to it previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event - refers to the change in the response toward a stimulus due to a subconscious memory effect implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (ex: perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus
content validity
extent that the test measures the construct accurately - estimate of how much a measure represents every element of a construct measure of the comprehensiveness and examines whether or not a test covers every single element of a construct
internal validity
extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warrented confounding factors often impact the internal validity
construct validity
extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research - how the terms are defined
EEG
external can't tell us about activity of individual/ groups of neurons - can only look at sum total can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cognitive tasks, etc not invasive easier set-up than MEG
what does certain types of phobia therapy use?
extinction - exposing patient to their phobia repeatedly until the stimuli no longer elicits the same response (fear) anymore
difference between extinctive burst and extinction
extinctive burst: - short term - will often occur when extinction procedure just begun - temporary increase in the response frequency --> decline --> extinction extinction: - eventually long-term decrease of desired behavior - when implemented consistently over time
stigma
extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person 2 forms - social stigma - self-stigma
social stigma
extreme disapproval/ discrediting of individual by society can be fueled or associated with - stereotypes - prejudices - discrimination
delusions in schizophrenia
extremely common - occurs in more than 90% of those who have the disorder involve illogical or bizzare ideas or fantasies common delusions - delusions of persecution (belief that others are out to get them) - delusions of reference (neutral environmental event is believed to have a special and personal meaning) - delusions of grandeur (belief that one is a famous or important figure; involves the belief that one has unusual powers no one else has) - delusions of control (belief that one's thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside, alien forces
studying brain struture and function together
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) PET (positron emossion tomography) scans
microsociology
face-to-face interactions, families, schools and other social interactions interpretive analysis of society - looks at samples of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society ex: doctor-patient interactions or family dynamics
[...] attraction is more important than body attraction
facial attraction is more important than body attraction
what method does cattell, eysenck and big 5 all use?
factor anaylsis - statistical method that categorizes and determinees major categories of traits allport's theory did not - he used different methods
source traits
facts underlying human personality - fewer and more abstract
3 types of collective behaviors
fad mass hysteria riots
change blindness
fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment - ex: you don't notice when your mom gets a haircut different from in-attentional blindess (subtle difference)
heritability describes the amount of individuals with a specific gene or disorder (true or false?)
false
heritability is a broad estimate of nature vs nurture in a general population (true or false?)
false
delusions
false fixed beliefs not explained by a person's culture firmly-held idea what a person has despite clear and obvious evidence that it isn't true
institutions need individuals but individuals don't need institutions (true or false)
false individuals need institutions but institutions don't need individuals
type II error
false negative - saying something doesn't exist when it does
type I error
false positive - saying something exists when it doesn't
what is exchange theory used to study?
family relationships, work relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc - interpersonal interactions
foraging behavior is driven strongly by [...], but can also be gained through learning
foraging behavior is driven strongly by genetics, but can also be gained through learning
immigration reform and control act (1986)
forbade hiring of illegal immigrants extended amnesty and legal status to illegal immigrants already there
counterconditioning
form of respondent conditioning involves conditioning of an unwanted behavior - or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior - or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus also called stimulus substitution
synciotrophoblasts
form villi --> forms fetal blood vessels (which are in close contact to uterine blood)
what are the 3 cues monocular cues can give?
form, motion and consistency
secondary groups
formal, impersonal, temporary, business-like relationships based on a limited purpose/ goal usually short-term and you only see them sometimes
paul ekman
found 6 main universal emotions that can be identified by everyone around the world - happiness - sadness - fear - disgust - anger - surprise
mirror neurons
found in areas of the brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premotor cortex (frontal lobe) and somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) can be helpful in understanding imitation further
bipolar cells
found in the retina send visual signals from the rods and cones to the ganglion cells on-center: when light hits retina --> rod cell is turned off --> on-center bipolar cells are active --> activates on-center ganglion cells off-center: when dark --> rod cell is turned on --> off-center bipolar cells are active --> activates off-center retinal ganglion cells imagine polar bears standing on top of the rods and cones
who created the psychosexual theory of development?
freud
psychosexual theory of development
freud - believed early childhood (ages 0-5) was the most important age/ period in which personality developed 5 stages - if completed successfully, result is a healthy personality - if issues aren't resolved at a certain age, then fixation occurs
dream theories
freud - dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted - little scientific support evolutionary biology - threat stimulation, to prepare for real world - problem solving - no purpose other - maintain brain flexibility (allows us to learn and be creative when we are awake) - consolidate thoughts to long-term memory and cleaning up thoughts (people who learn + sleep retain more than those who do not sleep) - preserve and developing neural pathways (why babies spend most of their time in REM)
differences between freud and erikson
freud: personality develops in childhood erikson: personality develops throughout the lifespan
cerebral cortex
frontal lobe parietal lobe occipital lobe temporal lobe F-POT
what is the hypothesis of relative deprivation linked to?
frustration aggression hypothesis
frustration-aggression principle
frustration causes anger --> sparks aggression
psychology and how it relates to aggression
frustration-aggression principle - frustration causes anger --> sparks aggression reinforcement-modeling - can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement - parents who give into demands of a child during a temper tantrum leads to more temper tantrums in the future
node link strength
function of exposure - increased exposure --> increases node link strength relative strength of the node links determines amount of activation emitted to a network of a specific node stronger nodal links decreases processing time - learning reduces processing time
functionality and dysfunctionality of immigrants
functional: alleviating labor shortages dysfunctional: can be exploted by countries interested in maximizing their profits while being unconcerned about global, social and economic inequalities that results from profit seeking
mnemonic devices: method of loci
good for remembering things in order - links information to locations ties information you already need to remember to certain stops along a route that you already know ex: bananas raining down on bus stop you get on, next stop there are oranges being thrown at, and the final stop you have a cat eating blueberries also ties imagery
trait theories (4)
gordon allport - everyone has different traits (4500) - categorized into 3 categories (cardinal, central, secondary) raymond cattell - we had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality hans eysenck - we all propose traits which we express in different degrees - we have 3 major dimensions of personality 5 factor model - big 5 personality traits
monarchy
government embodied by a single person - king/ queen is the figurehead
ways to help social inequality
government schemes (ex: food stamps) improve access to education and healthcare figure out social interventions that allow integration to society
population pyramid
graphs the age and sex distribution of a population x axis: males/ females y axis: increasing age
grey and white matter in the spinal chord
grey is on the inside white is on the outside
population transfer
group is forcefully moved from their territory
group polarization
group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want can turbo charge the group's viewpoints
mob
group of individuals who are emotional and violent target specific individuals or categories of individuals
nucleus basalis with alzheimers
group of neurons at the base of the cerebrum that is lost early in the course of alzheimers - important for cognitive fucntion sends long axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum - releases acetylcholine
scapegoats
group of people towards whom the aggression is directed ex: jews during WWII
factors that influence conformity and obedience (7)
group size (more likely for groups of 3-5) unanimity group status group cohesion observed behavior (when we believe our behaviors are observed) public response internal factors (prior commitments and feelings of insecurity)
cluster c
has 3 personality disorders - anxiety and fearful avoidant - inhibited - feel inadequate - try to avoid putting themselves in a situation where they can be criticized dependent - submissive and clingy obsessive-compulsive personality disorder - very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect and for them being in control to an extent where it annoys other people
cluster a
has 3 personality disorders - odd and eccentric traits paranoid - profound distrust + suspicion of other people (paranoid of others) schizoid - emotionally detached in relationships and shows little emotion (what people sometimes incorrectly consider antisocial) schizotypal - odd beliefs/ magicall thinking
cluster b
has 4 personality disorders - dramatic, emotional, erratic traits antisocial - little or no regard for others - commit crimes and show no remorse - inconsiderate of others borderline - unstable relationships - emotions are unstable - variable self-image and compulsive - brink of an emotional/ relationship issue histrionic - very attention seeking - display emotions outwardly - wear bright clothes
problem with deutch and deutch's late selection theory
has to occur quickly given limited resources of attention and knowing that our brains are super-efficient, it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won't ever need
structure of sperm
head - contains DNA material and acrosome tail - flagellum / propeller middle - lot of mitochondria
how do small societies stay together?
held together by similarities - only works for small ones
early developmental trajectory in altruism
heloping behaviors begin early - some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies diress) helping behavior begins around age 2 - children share toys and play act helping/ altruism age 4 is when they begin to actually start helping
why do people believe in the just world hypothesis?
helps individuals rationalize theirs or others good fortune or misfortune allows people to feel like they can influence their world - easier to engage in goal-oriented behavior and plan for the future
emile durkheim
her ideas formed the ideology of functionalism (/ structural functionalism) says society is always heading towards equilibrium
who continued mead's work?
herbert blumer
means-end analysis
heuristic where we analyze the main problem and break it down into smaller problems then we attack the problem that has the most difference between current state and goal state - solving biggest --> smallest problem current state --> goal state ex: planning a trip to a new country - bigger problem would be to get to the new country, so you book a plane ticket
hierarchical semantic network is supported by [...] principle
hierarchical semantic network is supported by cognitive economy principle
expansive population pyramid
high birth rates and high death rates
clinical trial
highly controlled interventional studies
flashbulb memories
highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid - even though they seem as real as life, they are still susceptible to reconstruction as less emotional memories people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing event
types of bias (10)
hindsight bias normalcy bias reconstructive bias attrition bias social desirability bias selection bias subjective bias implicit bias cognitive bias social deesirability bias
what parts of the brain have the most glucocorticoid receptors?
hippocampus and frontal cortex - subject to atrophy with stress
heinz dilemma
his wife was dying from cancer and drug was discovered by local chemist that could save her chemist charged 10x the price it took to make the drug- more than heinz could afford - he asked his family and only had half the money desperate to save his wife, he broke into the chemist's office and stole the drug
options for signal detection theory
hit false alarm correct rejection miss different than type 1/ type 2 errors
neonatal reflexes: stepping
hold an infant upright and their feet touch a flat surface, they will start to step as if they are trying to walk disappears in 2 months
[...] social network is similar to reference group
homophilous social network is similar to reference group
binet's idea of mental age
how a child acts at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years
neonatal reflexes: babinski
how baby will turn/ unturn toes when the bottom of the foot is stimulated disappears before 12 months - fans toes outward
wavelength
how close peaks are wavelength and frequency have inverse relationship - longer wavelength --> lower frequency
auditory processing
how cochlea differentiates between 2 different sounds of varying frequency - distension maintained by the brain with basilar tuning can hear frequencies between 20-20,000 Hz
conflict perspective: role of media
how media portrays and reflects and exacerbates divisions that exist in society - ex: race, ethnicity, gender, social class gatekeeping
growth rate
how much population a country grows or shrinks over a period of time
sanctions
how norms are reinforced rewards/ punishments for behaviors in accord with or against norms positive - reward for conforming negative - punishment for violating formal - officially recognized and enforced (written down) informal - unofficially recognized and doees not result in specific punishment (understood but less precise)
unintentional discrimination
how policies can discriminate unintentionally examples - side-effect discrimination - past-in-present discrimination
intensity of somatosensation
how quickly neurons fire for us to notice - slow = low intensity - fast = high intensity
relearning
how quickly relearning happens can show if someone has learnt something before initially and just can't retrieve it
somatosensations: intensity
how quickly they are fired involves how intense the signal is
how [...] someone is to us is a huge predictor of attraction
how similar someone is to us is a huge predictor of attraction
language
how we communicatee ideas, thoughts, feelings how we respond to thoughts/ feelings of others
attribution theory
how we explain behaviors of others around us - by breaking down our understanding/ explanation of their behaviors to factors about them and factors related to their environment/ surrounding relates the ways in which people attempt to explain various behaviors and events
components of language: syntax
how words are put together in sentences - all language have some form of syntax refers to the way words are placed together to form language - to form grammatically correct sentences p600 response - bigger with bigger violation in ASL, this would mean combining multiple signs, gestures and body movements to communicate effectively
framing effects
how you present the decision can affect decisions as well
galton's idea of hereditary genius
human ability is hereditary
carl rogers
humanistic theorists believed qualities maslow described are nurtured early in life - self-actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting climate (through growth and acceptance)
"which theory answers the question ""who am i?"""
humanistic theory
monocular cues
humans have visual cues they receieve which they do not need 2 eyes for
humans receive visual cues from environment by [...]
humans receive visual cues from environment by binocular cues
defense mechanisms: mature (4)
humor - expressing humor to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable sublimation - channeling negative to positive energy - ex: violent energy --> beecomes a boxer - transforms into socially accetable behaviors suppression - conscious thought gets pushed to unconscious - can access thoughts at a later time altruism - in service of others - we feel fulfilled and gain pleasure/ satisfaction Mature HASS
coping with stress: optimisim
humor and optimism linked to decreased stress - nurture an optimistic outlook
step 2 of categorizing with social identity theory
identification when we adopt identity of the group, we see/ categorize us as belonging - behaving and acting like the category we belong to (ex: acting and behaving like a student, it begins to feel normal) our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging
lexical access
identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory
2 main factors of gender
identity and expression
most important psychosocial stage
identity vs role confusion
if a country's invome rises up, [...] doesn't change but median income level would
if a country's invome rises up, absolute poverty line doesn't change but median income level would
deviance standards: strain theory
if a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, they may become frustrated/ strained and turn to deviance - individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have the means or legitimate ways to achieve sucess society values a certain behavior but the opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone - lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to illegal means to achieve success
what does consistency mean for attribution?
if a person is consistent in all situations, then maybe it is not external/ environment and more internal - their behavior is not dependent on the situation
intra-generational mobility
if change in social class happens in a person's own lifetime
what causes parkinson's disease?
if dopamine cannot be projected to the striatum (part of basal ganglia)
when are traits selected for in darwin's theory of evolution?
if they contribute to the success of the species
normative social influence
if we do something to gain respect/ support of peers, we're complying with social norms - because of this, we might go with the group outwardly, but internally believe something differently ex: friends are all obsessed with a certain singer - you tell the group you like the singer even though you hate it - you continue to say you like it (or even go to their concert)
if we have [...] and consensus, then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external)
if we have distinctiveness and consensus, then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external)
problem with broadbent's early selection theory
if you completely filter out unattended information, you shouldn't be able to identify your own name in unattended ear - but you can, as explained by the cocktail party effect
how do you overcome stereotype threat?
if you make them aware that the threat exists, they will perform better
belief perserverence
ignoring facts or rationalizing disconfirming facts ex: during elections, people tend to ignore facts that they didn't like about a candidate they wanted to vote for
norms
standards for what behaviors, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable and which are not rules that dictate how a person should behave around a certain group of people - defined by that group - usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group vary/ are dependent on context, physical location, culture and by country - can change with time as individual attitudes shift or circumstances change to allow certain types of behaviors to be valued
information processing model: implicit output
implicit (non-declarative) - involves things you may not articulate - previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences - evidence arises in priming (a process whereby subjects are measured by how they have improved their performacne on tasks for which they haev subconsciously prepared, ex: riding a bicycle) - procedural memory is a type of implicit memory for actions or habits (inform unconscious motor skills) - all memories formed by conditioning (formed unconsciously) - stored in the basal ganglia
stable memory in aging
implicit memory - procedural memories - ex: riding a bike recognition memory - being able to pick something out of a list
negative priming
implicit memory effect prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus caused by experiencing the stimulus and then ignoring it lowers the speed to slower than un-primed levels
similarity bias
implies we will not befriend people different form us
world-systems theory
importance of the world as a unit rather than individual countries divides the world into 3 countries: core, periphery and semi-periphery
variable duration
in between primacy/ recency
relative poverty
in developed countries, we use a different marker % level below the median income of the country - ex: in US, insteaed of $1-2 a day, median income is above $80/day not about survival; about exclusion from society
minnesota study
in monozygotic twins reared apart.. religiosity is r = 0.49 personality is r = 0.50 information processing speed is r = 0.56 intelligence is r = 0.69
how did catell define fluid intelligence?
in novel situations, the ability to recognize and reason relationships between objects and ideas independent of previous experiences
brain abnormalities with parkinson's
in the brainstem, the substatia nigra (part of basal ganglia) is less dark or not dark at all - suggests only one type of neuron is involved these cells/ neurons lost are only dopaminergic neurons
where are cones located?
in the fovea
semicircular canals
in the inner ear posterior, lateral and anterior - each orthogonal to each other filled with endolymph (fluid) - shifts when we rotate
where is melatonin produced?
in the pineal gland
are there stronger interactions within the in-group or the out-group?
in-group
anterograde amnesia
inability to code new memories
anomia
inability to name things
anosmia
inability to perceive order smell blindness
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall information previously encoded - problem recalling old memories
source amnesia
inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge
agraphia
inability to write
false information
inaccurate recollection of an event problematic for police officers to ask leading questions
inattention relating to memory formation
inattention impacts memory formation negatively - being bored would do this
[...] can solve problems with evolution that states that animals can be predisposed to act selfishly
inclusive fitness can solve problems with evolution that states that animals can be predisposed to act selfishly
problems with adoption studiese
incomplete information about biological families for adoptive children adoption isn't random - adoptive families sometimes matched to be similar to the biological family (of having the same community or culture) - more difficult to understand if something is genetic or environmentally driven
increase in trade has been created and supported by international regulatory groups like the [...]
increase in trade has been created and supported by international regulatory groups like the world trade organization
increase in trade has been created and supported by transnational agreements like the [...]
increase in trade has been created and supported by transnational agreements like the north american free trade agreement (NAFTA)
damaging effects of stress on our heart
increased BP - blood volume distends --> builds up more muscle and becomes more rigid can lead to hypertension and vascular disease spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels - worst place to experience this is coronary arteries (coronary artery disease)
global brain changes during adolescence
increased myelination - faster communication increase in brain volume in early adolescence and then decrease later in adolescence - synaptic pruning
world-systems theory: semi-periphery
india and brazil huge middle-ground between core and periphery not dominant in international trade but diversified/ developed economy can come either from periphery countries moving up to core countries or core countries declining toward periphery status
stationary/ constrictive pyramid
indicate low birth and death rates in population
test validity
indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results
individual discrimination
individual person acting to discriminate based on something - ex: sex, religion, race, age, etc.
what is another name for counterconditioning?
stimulus substitution
what is another term for counterconditioning?
stimulus substitution?
what happens to the anterior cingulate with depression?
stops responding to serotonin
noise distribution: c
strategy can be expressed as the choice of the threshold (pick an intensity as a threshold and anything above it you say yes and anything below you say no) - what is the threshold needed to surpass in order for them to say yes vs no
variable c
strategy in signal detection theory conservative: always say no unless 100% sure signal is present (c>1) - positive: all correct rejections - negative: might get some misses - no more often than an ideal observer liberal: always say yes (c<1) - positive: all hits - negative: might get some false alarms - no less often than the ideal observer
d'
strength of a signal in signal detection theory strong signal = hit > miss - easier to detect weak signal = miss > hit - harder to detect
bf skinner
strict behaviorist associated with the concept of operant conditioning - uses reward and punishment to increase or decrease behavior, respectively
2 types of self-efficacy
strong and weak
nature vs nurture with intelligence
strongest correlation between IQ scores is in identical twins raised in the same home - raised apart --> not as high correlation (some environmental component) fraternal twins raised together show lower correlation (genetic component)
ventral tegmental area
structure in the midbrain which sends dopaminergic neural projections to both the limbic and cortical areas
albert bandora
studied social cognitive theory did the bobo doll experiment - studied aggression in children - studied learning-performance distinction
epigenetics
study of changes in gene expression resulting from changes other than to the gene/ DNA sequence - can override our behavior ex: addition of methyl groups to the genes - makes it more difficult for transcription factor to come in and activate the gene - methylation inhibits activation of certain genes
ethnography
study of particular people and places more of an approach than a single research method - generally combines several research methods (ex: interviews, observations, physical trace measures)
what were the 3 tenants proposed by blumer to explain symbolic interactionism
we act based on meaning we've given something - ex: tree is placed next to a rest different people assign different meanings to things - we give meaning to things based on social interactions - ex: someone tells us the tree is infested with ants, but we have a different view of the tree and act differently the meaning we give something isn't permanent - ex: something bites my back, so i might not sit under the next tree i find (tree is now defined as a source of shade with a potential of getting bit)
lesion studies: tissue removal
surgical removal - surgical aspiration (sucking out brain tissue) - severing the nerve with a scalpel (allows for a destroying of the brain tissue in place, less invasive)
ciliary body
suspensory ligaments + ciliary muscle - secretes aqueous humor
symbolic interactionism addresses the [...] people believe to be true
symbolic interactionism addresses the subject meanings people believe to be true
symbolic interactionism is a [...] perspective
symbolic interactionism is a micro perspective
what component of language has a p600 response?
syntax
what process did joseph wolpe develop?
systematic desensitization
most widely used type of counterconditioning
systemic desensitization
methods of problem solving: trial + error
taking random guesses until something works not efficient
negative reinforcement
taking something away to increase tendency behavior will occur again ex: taking loud buzzing noise away once you put in your seatbelt
what is the most important characteristic of the elaboration likelihood model?
target characteristics
traditionalism
tedency to follow authority
central executive
tells the visuo-spatial sketchpad + phonological loop to coordinate supervises the cognitive process of memory creates an integrated representation that stores it in the episodic buffer - acts as a connecter for information to be stored in long-term memory
evolutionary game theory
tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass onto offspring and those genes will become common in successive generations strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players
thermoreceptors
temperature
types of somatosensation (4)
temperature (thermoception) pressure (mechanoception) pain (nociception) position (proprioception)
touch adaptations
temperature receptors are desensitized over time
sects
tend to be smaller and established in protest of the established church - tend to break away from churches ex: mormons/ amish
homophily
tendency for people to choose relationships with other people who have similar attributes people often prefer mixing with those who are similar to themselves
components that make up prejudice: discrimination
tendency for prejudice to lead to behavior capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice
halo effect
tendency people have inherently good/ bad nature, rather than looking at individual characteristics if we have overall positive first impressions, we start to analyze their skills based on our overall first impression rather than just skill
actor-obserever bias
tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes
social loafing
tendency to put forth less effort in group tasks if the individual contributions aren't evaluated - individuals put less effort when part of a group group produced reduction of individual effort - groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort and perform poorly
cognitive bias
tendency to think in certain ways often causes deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgement
generalization
tendency/ ability of a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response the more similar the stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus, the greater the conditioned response - has an adaptive value allows us to make appropriate response to similar stimuli
reliability checks (3)
test-retest inter-rater internal
sexual drive/ activity is related to
testosterone - for men and women
discriminant (divergent) validity
tests that constructs that have no relationships do, in fact, not have any relationships
convergent validity
tests that the constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact, related
self-control
the ability to control our impulses and delay gratification influences how we behave
how did catell define crystallized intelligence?
the ability too retrieve and acquire knowledge
memory reconstruction
the brain does not save memories exactly or perfectly - every time we retrieve a memory, we change it in small ways, according to our goals, moods, or environment sometimes these alterations are due to our own desires and moods - if there is a gap in our memory, our brain might fill it with something logical or desireable ex: someone tells a story about a fish they caught - every time they tell the story, the fish gets bigger
sexual dimorphism
the degree of difference between male and female anatomical traits
cultural imperalism
the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture
source characteristics
the environment around the message and the speaker's background what is their level of expertise of speakers around us - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy and is the information credible or not where does the information come from? - ex: internet poll, street poll, or psyc fournal physical environment, venue of event (campus or bar?)
context retrieval
the environment you encode and take the test (retrieve the information) is helpful not always the case, so if you can't take the test in the same place, studying in different places gives you different cues for retrieval - multiple cues that will help you remember the material ex: scuba divers learnt information in water or on land, then later tested in water or land - those people who learned and were tested in the same place scored better than learning in one location than getting tested in another
locus of control (and types)
the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives internal - when a person believes he/ she can influence events/ outcomes - feel like they control their own destiny external - attribute events to environmental events/ causes
the [...] is a part of the visual system in the brain, and plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition
the fusiform gyrus is a part of the visual system in the brain, and plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition
"which stage led to the development of ""i"" and ""me""?"
the game stage of social behaviorism
how do large societies stay together?
individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles - forced mutual independence
bystander effect
individuals feel less inclined to take action because of the presence of others in the group group process in which individuals observe an injustice or crime being perpetuated and do not intervene small group = small bystander effect large group = more bystander effect can be due to many factors, including diffusion of responsibility theory
unrelated physiological arousal and how it relates to attraction
individuals who just walked across a narrow bridge (sympathetic arousal) leads to increased rating of women - because during attraction, sympathetic arousal occurs as well (ex: fast heartbeat) our brain recognizes the sympathetic arousal from high height and being attracted together
indulgent parenting is the same as [...] parenting
indulgent parenting is the same as permissive parenting
what does conflict theory focus on?
inequalities of different groups in society
"what is considered ""enough sleep""?"
infant: 12 hours preschooler: 10 hours school age: 9 hours older adults: at least 7 hours
neonatal reflexes: swimming
infants in water move their legs/ arms in a swimming motion - involuntarily holds breath allows small infants to swim/ float for a short period of time disappears at 6 months
somatosensations
information about sensation - types - intensities - timing - where in the body the sense is originating (location)
information processing model assumes [...] processing
information processing model assumes serial processing
2 reasons why you would agree/ conform with the group
informative influence - look to a group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct normative influence - even if you know what's right, you follow the group's negative actions to avoid social rejection
unconditioned
innate - not learned
reference groups
the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves - evaluating their own qualities, circumstances, atittudes, values and behaviors these groups influence our social decisions (our beliefs, attitudes and behaviors) any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior
primary reinforcers
innately satisfying/ desireable ex: food, water, sexual activity
trait theory: hans eysenck
we all pose all traits which we express to different degrees we have 3 major dimensions of personality, which encompass all traits we possess, but the degree to which we individually express them are different psychoticism - degree to which reality is distorted - we don't all necessarily have psychoticism extroversion vs introversion - degree of sociability neuroticism - emotional stability Eysenck's PEN
what happens when the just world hypothesis is threatened?
we use rational techniques or irrational techniques
secularization
weakening of social and political power of religious organizations - ex: religious involvement declines
how does weber and marx differ?
weber: does not see class as the supreme factor in stratification; corporate executives control firms they typically do not own marx: would've placed these people in the proletariat despite their high incomes by virtue of the fact that they sell their labor instead of owning capital
gestation in weeks
week 0: last menstrual period week 2: fertilization week 10: fetal development - embryogenesis - divided cells and organ system form week 24: 50% chance of survival if birth occurs week 40: full term (37-42 weeks)
what influenced asch's conformity study?
the holocaust - was interested in studying how group behavior can influence behavior of an individual
self-serving bias
the idea that you could never see yourself doing it
the immediacy of [...] is an important factor in influencing behavior
the immediacy of feedback is an important factor in influencing behavior
what did the zimbardo prison study show us?
the influence the situation can have on our behavior - situational attribution becomes easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization - lost of self bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate - tried to overly justify internalization - participants internalized their prison roles
the [...] and basal ganglia are most often associated with disgust
the insula and basal ganglia are most often associated with disgust
the recognition of facial expressions associated with sadness have been linked to the [...]
the recognition of facial expressions associated with sadness have been linked to the subcallosal cingulate
the reverse halo effect is also called the [...] effect
the reverse halo effect is also called the devil effect
foraging
the search for food in animal's environment can't survive or reproduce with out
disadvantages of stereotyping
it's inaccurate
cohort study
following a subset of a population over a lifetime
prospective cohort design
follows a group of individuals over a period of time
is language in the left or right hemisphere?
for 90% of people, it is in the left
reflexes
pre-programmed motor skills involuntary motor movement (automatic)
how do neurons communicate?
though electrochemical signals through synapse
in-attentional blindness
"AKA perceptual blindness - we aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field ""miss something right in front of you"" inability to recognize an unexpected object, event, or stimulus that is in 'plain sight' - due to a psychological lapse in attention, rather than a defect or deficit in sensory perception ex: you can't say where the nearest fire extinguisher is because you fail to notice it because your attention is typically directed elsewhere - even though fire extinguishers are brightly colored and essential to survive (which should bring them to your attention)"
non-REM stage 3
"N3 (Stage 3) - slow wave sleep - very difficult to awaken - delta waves - where sleep walking/ talking happens - declarative memory consolidation - ""regular breathing and regular slow brain waves"""
K-complexes
"associated with N2 sleep stage supress cortical arousal and keep you asleep help sleep-based memory consolidation - some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep (particularly declarative/ explicit memories) even though they occur naturally, you can also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping - ""that touch was not threatning, stay asleep brain"""
coping styles in schema therapy: overcompensation
"attempting to fight against the schema and prove it is not true aggression, hostility - counterattacks through defying, abusing, blaming, attacking or criticizing others dominance, excessive self-assertion - controls others through direct means to accomplish goals recognition-seeking, status-seeking - impressing, high achievement, status, attention-seeking, etc manipulation, exploitation - meets own needs through covert manipulation, seduction, dishonesty or conning passive-aggressiveness, rebellion - appears overtly compliant while punishing others or rebelling covertly through procrastination, pouting, ""backstabbing"", lateness, complaining, rebellion, non-performance, etc excessive orderliness, obsessionality - maintains strict order, tight self-control or high level of predictability through order and planning, excessive aherence to routine or ritual or undue caution - devotes inordinate time to finding the best way to acommplish tasks or avoid negative outcomes"
piaget's view on language
"believed once children were able to think a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts - influences build it language is influenced by cognitive development - ex: when children develop object permanance, they start to develop words like ""gone"" and ""missing"" use of language begins in the sensorimotor stage - but piaget believed that the world of a child in this stage is understood through sensation of action - a child in the concrete operational stage will use categories, logic and concrete reasoning to understand the world"
gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
"believed that sternburg's and thurnston's theories was not very inclusive - only considered ""book smart"" to be intelligence divided intelligence into originally 7, and then 9 independent intelligences that don't rely or depend on eeach other - linguistic - musical - spatial - body-kinesthetic - intrapersonal - interpersonal - naturalist - existential not a lot of evidence to support this theory - partially comes with the fact that there is no real way to test it"
internal locus of control
"can control fate of our own destiny ""i should have studied harder"""
overdose
"can occur when your body is not prepared for the drugs - ex: if you're in a new location but take the same level of drugs, you might overdose because your body does not have its normal cues that it would use to get a ""head start"" (lowering heart rate) to maintain homeostasis"
humanistic tendency
"carl rogers focuses on healthy personality development - believes humans are inherently good most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency (self-actualization) - innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential - people will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles focuses on the conscious says people have free will answers the question ""who am i?"""
emotional effects of stress: anxiety
"centers on amygdala - perceives more things as fearful - accompanies the ""flight"" aspect of the sympathetic response"
learning (behaviorist) theory
"children aren't born with anything - they only acquire language through operant conditioning ex: child learns to say ""mama"" because every time they say that, the mom reinforcese the child associated with BF skinner"
3 categories of symptoms of schizophrenia
"cognitive - abnormalities of attention, organization, planning abilities negative - lack of emotional expression (affective flattening) - lack of interest or enthusiasm (avolition) - seeming lack of interest in the world - speech difficulties and abnormalities (alogia) positive - psychosis - hallucinations, delusions - ""perceptual abnormalities"""
psychological coping mechanisms
"commonly termed ""coping strategies"" or ""coping skills"" subconscious or non-conscious strategies (defense mechanisms) are usually excluded"
role conflict
"conflict/ tension between 2+ different statuses - different statuses compete for someone's time ex: husband has an anniversary and a friend is calling him for a monthly get-together ""stress that people feel when they are confronted with incompatible role expectations across different social statuses they occupy"""
hierarchical semantic network
"first semantic network theory suggested that we stored information in a hierarchical way - higher order categories to lower order categories (we store information at the highest category possible) - broad categories/ characteristics are stored at higher level nodes - the longer it takes us to verify connections between nodes, the longer it takes for us to make that link supported by cognitive economy principle ex: animal --> bird --> ostrich - more specific characteristics like ""sings"", ""long legs"", etc. are stored at lower nodes - ""can breathe"" is more general so it's at a higher node"
innate learning
"fixed action patterns that are ""hard wired"""
receptive aphasia
"fluent aphasia (similar to wernicke's aphasia) can read or hear - unable to understand the meaning of the communication - words will come out as ""word salad"""
old brain: reticular formation
"forms brainstep to other brain areas filters information and sends important information to the thalamus big role in autonomic functions and controlling things like respiration, digestion, lower/ higher functions, etc involved in motivation and alertness if you were ""tickled"", your reticular formation would wake you up"
ganglion cells
"found in the retina bipolar cells send signals to the ganglion cells - takes electrical impulses from the bipolar cells - the impulse travels down their axes and make up the optic nerve imagine a ""gang of lions"" standing on top of polar bears"
cued recall (recall cues)
"having extra cues to remember the words - still have to produce an answer but still get more cues to help you get more retrieval cues --> better than free recall ex: giving you the cue ""pl____"" and asking for what word was on the list, you can remember the word ""planet"" easier"
schema: assimilation
"how we describe new information/ experiences in terms of our current understanding/ schemas ""ss"" = same schema"
accomodations
"how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences - to remember ""cc"" = change or create"
problem with twin studies
"identical twins are treated more similarly than fraternal twins are - monozygotic twins share even ""more"" of the same environments than fraternal twins"
id
"innate - unconscious - develops after birth reservoir of all psychic energy seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation - ""pleasure principle"" - immediate gratification made up of all instincts and wants to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings - drive reduction theory"
growth mindset
"intelligence is changeable if you learn more praises effort, perseverence, improvement, and strategies rather than the end result - ex: ""you worked really hard on your assignment"""
superego
"internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions develops around age 4 subsections (conscious and unsconscious) - the conscious - the ego ideal ""morals"" - tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection interjection/ internalization inhibits sexual and aggressive impulses classic angel (superego) and devil (id) on your shoulder - you need to decide (ego) but if your ego is week, the superego or id will take over, leading to an imbalance"
weak linguistic determinism (relativism)
"language influences thought - but does not determine the context of everyday encounters it makes it easier/ more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured there are differences in language between cultures - ex: ""girl pushes the boy"" - if you read that statement with the girl on the left, your native language probably reads from left to right (like English)"
biological regulation of hunger
"lateral hypothalamus (LH) - lacking LH --> ""lacks hunger"" - normally sends positive signal to start eating ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) - missing --> ""very much hungry"" - normally sends signals to stop eating - lectin present in high amounts in blood when full (appetite suppressing hormone) insulin - too much = lots of sugar/ fat store metabolism rate - in dieting, we get a slowdown in metabolism - makes it easier for people to gain weight when resuming normal eating genetic predisposition - set point influenced by parents"
incubate
"letting problems ""sit"" for some time - insight comes after some time"
somatosensory homunculus
"map of your body in your brain - topological map of the entire body in the cortex - ex: information that comes from your hand to the brain will end up in one part of the sensory strip information comes to ""sensory strip"" - part of the cortex that receives all the sensory information via spinal cord - different areas of the body have signals that go to different parts of the strip"
amnesia
"meaning ""without"" in greek AKA amnesic syndrome deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease or psychological trauma (loss of memory) - can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs - medial temporal lobe injury memory lost can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of the damage that was caused memories stored in the long-term memory are completely or partially forgotten"
face validity
"measure of how representative a research project is at ""face value"" - whether it appears to be a good project to the degree to which a layperson who takes a cursory look at an experiment agreees that an experimenter is measuring what they say they are measuring"
heuristic
"mental shortcut to make a decision - a quick decision rule (""rule of thumb"") there is a - availability heuristic (actual memories in mind) - representativeness heuristic (not thinking of exact memories; thinking of a prototype of idea) - anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic"
behavior effects of stress: anger
"meyer friendman and ray rosenman were testing the notion that stress is associated with increased vulnerability to heart disease - categorized patients as either type A or type B type A - easily angered, aggreessive, competitive - more likely to have heart attacks type B - easy going accompanies the ""fight"" aspect of the sympathetic response"
DSM-5
1. neurodevelopmental 2. neurocognitive 3. sleep-wake 4. anxiety 5. depressive 6. bipolar and related 7. schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders 8. trauma/ stressor-related 9. substance-related and addictive 10. personality 11. disruptive, impulse-control and conduct 12. obsessive-compulsive and related 13. somatic symptom and related 14. feeding and eating 15. elimination 16. dissociative 17. sexual dysfunctions 18. gender dysphoria 19. paraphilic 20. other
development of higher mental functions (cognition) from elementary mental functions (social interactions)
1. requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other) 2. zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/ guidance should be given - link between the zone of can't do and can do 3. language - main means by which adults transmit information to children - powerful tool of intellectual adaptation
three theories of cities
1. site of culture, but also host to more crimes 2. source of inequality (conflict theory perspective) 3. places where people can get different perspective of looking at life (symbolic interactionism)
formal operational stage
12+ years old reason abstract consequences and reason consequences - moral reasoning - hypothetical reasoning
beta brainwaves
12-30Hz associated with awake/concentration if you are alert for too long, beta levels get high and you experience increased stress, anxiety, restlessness (constant awakened alertness)
rod
120 million of them sensitive to light - good for night vision (sensitive to little light) found all around the periphery - allows you to see on the sides and at night
gi (greatest) generation
1901-1924 oldest people alive today
silent generation
1925-1945 born during the great depression
baby boomers
1946-1964 born post-world war II
generation x
1965-1980
generation z
1995-2003
studying brain structure
CAT (computerized axial tomography) scans MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
non-REM stage 1
N1 (Stage 1) - dominated by theta waves - can experience strage sensations (hypnagonic hallucinations, hearing/ seeing things, etc) - or the tetris effect (if you play tetris right before bed, you might see visual images of blocks during sleep) - hypnic jerks (muscle twitches that makes you feel like you're falling)
non-REM stage 2
N2 (Stage 2) - deeper stage of sleep - harder to awaken - more theta waves as well as sleep spindles and K-complexes
molecular genetics
a new field of science that looks at the molecular structure and function of genes - as we study genes and environmental interactions, we are getting to understand specific genes that regulates our behavior - we are looking at specific parts of DNA
overt orienting
a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event
a person who acquires a stigmatized illness is likely to [...] the stigmatization directed against him or her
a person who acquires a stigmatized illness is likely to internalize the stigmatization directed against him or her
optimism bias
belief bad things happen to others but not to us
self-efficacy
belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation/ to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation - plays a role in how individual goals and challenges are approached more specific than self-esteem - can have an impact on everything from psychological states, to behavior and motivation types of self-efficacy - strong - weak
physical attractiveness stereotype
believe attractive people have more positive personality traits
george herbert mead
believed development of individuals was a social process as were the meeanings individuals assigned to things people change based on interactions with objects, events, ideas, others, etc., and assign meaning to things to decide how to act
phrenologists
believed each brain area is devoted to a certain personality characteristic, thought and emotion - they were wrong, but there are brain areas associated with specific tasks
carl rogers and self-concept
believed self-concept has 3 components self-image - what we believe we are - the view we have of ourselves self-esteem/ self-worth - how much value we place on ourselves ideal-self - what we wish/ aspire to be
thurnston's 7 factors of intelligence
believed there was more to intelligence than just one factor - word fluency - verbal comprehension - spatial reasoning - perceptual speed - numerical ability - inductive reasoning - memory focused on primary mental abilities
lens
bends the light so it goes to back of eyeball - focuses light specifically on the fovea of the retina - adjust how much it bends the light by changing its shape, using the suspensory ligaments (gets thicker or thinner)
recognition
best out of the 3 tests - easiest to recall present 2 words and say which one you heard - retrieval of correct words is highly likely
exurbs
beyond suburbs prosperous areas outside the city where people live and communte to the city to work - similar to suburbs
kluver-bucy syndrome
bilateral destruction of amygdala can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality and disinhibited behavior - these are all drunken behaviors
capsaicin
binds the TrypV1 receptor in your tongue in response to pain
binocular cues give humans a sense of [...]
binocular cues give humans a sense of depth
monoamine neurotransmitters
biogenetic amines - amino group and aromatic group connected by 2C chain cognition, thinking, emotion, attention, etc - associated with drugs - serotonin, histamine, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine subgroup: catecholamines (benzenes with 2 OH groups) - dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine
olfactory bulb
bundle of nerves that sends little projections through cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off - at end of each connection are receptors (sensitive to 1 type of molecule) - molecule travels into nose and binds one of receptors on nerve endings
exceptions to the mere-exposure effect
burn out - ex: hating the song that always plays on the radio
how is motivational state defined?
by depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus for a period of time
drug classification
by legal status or how likely they are to be abused ex: cannabis - active substance: THC - cannibis metabolites can be present in the blood of users for up to 3 months - can build up tolerance (metabolites accumulate in fat cells for 3+ months)
how can source monitoring be improved?
by using more retrieval cues, discovering and noting relations and extended reasoning - ex: angry with someone but forgot it happened in a dream
neonatal reflexes: rooting
check stroking = baby turns head allows for orientation to mother's nipple or bottle disappears in few weeks of life - then baby turns head voluntarily
pheromone
chemical signal released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response important in animals (particularly insects) - linked to mating, fighting and communication
strange situation: insecure attachment
child clings to mother and stayed with the mother - did not explore when mother left, they became upset/ distressed distress did not go away when she came back
result of secure attachment
child feels secure and trusting of partner
strange situation: secure attachment
child was secure with parent and explored room when parent left, child became really distressed/ upset when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy
how do children evaluate their existential self?
children as young as 2-3 realize they exist as distinct entities due to the relationship the child has with the world when someone smiles, someone smiles back - they have a relationship with objects and they are separate/ distinct from that
neonatal reflexes: palmer grasp
children closes their hand on anything that comes into their palm disappears at 3-4 months - child then grabs voluntarily
critics of piaget's cognitive development
children do not necessarily develop these abilities in certain age brackets, but they do tend to progress in a predictable fasion
strange situation: avoidant attachment
children were not upset when the parent left the room and were indifferent when they returned
marshmallow test
children's experiment of self control some children ate the marshmallow right away and others waited - those who waited tended to have better life outcomes when followed 10 years later
what is within the front 2/3 of the tongue?
chorda tympani
chorda tympani carries signals via the [...] cranial nerve
chorda tympani carries signals via the 7th cranial nerve
urban areas
cities and towns with >1000 people per square mile
phobic responses are acquired through
classical conditioning
classical conditioning does not involve change in [...] like operant conditioning
classical conditioning does not involve change in behavior like operant conditioning
communism
classless moneyless community where all property is owned by community
maladaptive coping techniques: escape
closely related to avoidance often demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias - want to flee the situation at the first sight of anxiety
primary groups
closest members of the group to you - close, intimate long-term relationships
low-effort syndrome (low-effort coping)
coping responses of minority groups in attempt to fit into the dominant culture ex: minority students at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe they are being discriminated against by the dominant culture
neurulation
core in the mesoderm differentiates into notochord - notochord induces change on cells above in the ectoderm (cells become thicker) called the neural plate neural plate begins to divide into mesoderm - ring structure/ tube forms --> neural tube - neural crest cells are on the side
what covers the anterior 1/6th of the eye?
cornea
where is the worst place to have fat clog and narrow blood vessels?
coronary arteries
homunculus
cortical body map of how different areas of the skin are represented in the primary somatosensory cortex
categories of individuals based on what connections they are looking for in a city and what communities they form (4)
cosmopolites - drawn to the city due to cultural benefits and convenience singles - looking for jobs, partners and entertainment deprived/ trapped - can't afford to leave the city ethnic villages - native culture brought here when the people who life here immigrate
cost-benefit analysis associated with foraging
cost: going out to get food can take up time and energy benefit: animal survives
counterculture results when laws of [...] is violated
counterculture results when laws of dominant society is violated
anti-malthusian theorem
couples only want to have one child or have children later in life (low birth rate)
mnemonic devices: imagery
crazier the better
richard lazarus
created the appraisal theory of streses stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/ interpretation of those stresse events
overview of validity
criterion validity - concurrent - predictive contruct validity - convergent - divergent content validity face validity
skeptical perspective
critical of globalization - considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized 3rd world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits as 1st world countries - current economy is not leading towards global capitalism transnational corpoorations still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important
study types (11)
cross sectional study cohort study longtitudinal study case-control study clinical trial randomized controlled trial experimental study quasi-experimental study 3x2 factorial design observational study self report study
cons of moving to urban areas
crowding can occur in cities - less sense of belonging in a city compared to a town
lesion studies: cortical cooling
cryogenic blockadee involves cooling down neurons until they stop firing cryoloop - surgically implanted between skull and brain - most important part is it's temporary/ reversible, unlike other techniques
retinal disparity (stereopsis)
cues that humans use in order to perceive depth our brain effectively triangulates the distance to an object, using the two different images that are eyes present to us. merges these two images into the picture that we see that contains the 3D information that is crucial to us larger the difference (disparity) in the 2 images, the closer an object is to you
social-cognitive theory
developed by bandura views behaviors as being influenced by people's traits/ cognitions and their social context - talks about interaction between individual and situation they're in cognition --> environment --> behavior - order can change
social behaviorism
developed by george herbert mead the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others - beginning of symbolic interactionism
systematic desensitization
developed by joseph wolpe process that involves teaching the patient to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation - works great with phobias
defining poverty in developing and developed nations
developing nations: use absolute poverty - about survival developed nations: use relative poverty - about social exclusion
moral reasoning
develops through level of cognitive development
max webber
did not believe the collapse of capitalism was inevitable argued that several factors moderate people's reaction to inequality - class - status/ prestige - power
noise distribution: d'
difference between the peak of signal distribution curve and noise distribution curve big d' = large difference = more obvious signal
potential
difference in charge between outside and inside
transformationlist grammar
different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information
which temperament sparked the most interest in thomas and chess's model?
difficult - placed children at higher risk for adjustment problems
anomic aphasia
difficulties in naming objects or in retrieving words
cannon-bard theory
disagreed with james-lange believed that you can experience physiological response without emotion - believed physiological response and emotion occured simultaneously (physiological + emotion) ex: your heart can race if you had a long run - if only physiological response was required to produce an emotion, you should feel afraid once your heart starts to race noticed many different emotions had same physiological responses - ex: heart racing shows feeelings of anger and excitement
neonatal reflexes (9)
disappear as the baby ages - some are survival reflexes while others might be evolutioanry holdovers or precursors - helps doctor assess if something is not developing correctly rooting babinski monro tonic neck galant plamer grasp sucking stepping swimming
cognitive dissonance
discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, emotional reactions, etc) - can be alleviated by alterations in our beliefs/ behaviors - we want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/ inconsistencies/ contradictions
coping styles in schema therapy: avoidance
disconnecting emotionally or physically from the people who mistreat you and/ or by disconnecting from your own emotions social withdrawal, excessive automony - copes through self-isolation, disconnection and withdrawal - may demonstrate an exaggerated focus on independence and self-reliance, rather than involvement with others - sometimes retreats through private activities (ex: excessive tv watching, reading, recreational computing or solitary work) compulsive stimulation-seeking - seeks excitement or distraction through compulsive shopping, sex, gambling, risk-taking, physical activity, novelty, etc addictive self-soothing - avoids through additions involving the body (ex: alcohol, drugs, overeating, etc.) psychological withdrawal - copes through dissociation, numbness, denial, fantasy, or other internal psychological escapes
relative depreciation
discrepancy of what people are entitled to and what they get
women face... (4)
discrimination objectification oppression stereotyping
visual agnosia
disorder of the ventral pathway inability to recognize an image
mass media
dissemination of information how information is transmitted within a culture includes print media and digital media
theories with hypnotism
dissociation theory: hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness social influence theory: people do and report what's expected of them - like actors being caught up in their roles
proximal vs distal stimuli
distal stimuli: object which provides information for the proximal stimulus proximal stimulus: registers (via sensory receptors) the information given by distal stimulus
hallucinogens (psychedelics)
distorted perceptions/ hallucinations ex: mescaline, peyote, PCP, LSD, psilocybin (active ingredient in mushrooms) heightened sensations - based on reality but is different from what's going on in the world around them can give energy or calm them down emotional response - feeling of connectedness and mood swings (changing moods) exact effect can be different depending on the individual's personality or who they are with dilation of pupils (mydriasis)
defense mechanisms: pathological
distorts reality denial - most important
behaviors of mania
distractibility insomnia grandiose fleeting thoughts agitation speech (pressured) thoughtlessness (risky behavior)
2 ways of thinking about poverty
does it threaten the survival of a person? does it exclude them from society?
damaging effects of stress on our immune function
divided into innate vs adaptive causes inflammation - acute stress can lead to overuse of immune system - can attack our own body - ex: arthritis chronic stress - you stop activating immune system response and it suppresses you - doesn't make you sick but makes you more susceptible to illness
max weber's 5 characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy
division of labor hierarchy of organization written rules and regulations impersonality employment based on technical qualifications
division of labor in government and economy is [...]
division of labor in government and economy is functionalist
what happens when the vestibular system goes wrong?
dizziness and vertigo (when you or objects around you are moving when they are not)
filiform papillae
do not contain taste buds exist all over the tongue - center of the tongue contains ONLY filiform papillae (why stimulation of the center of the tongue does not cause a taste sensation, while the back and perimeter produce a broud range of taste sensations)
ecological validity
do the conditions of the study mimc those of the real world? - if they don't we can only make limited conclusions
daydreaming
feel more relaxed not as focused as alertness can also be light meditation (self-induced)
culture shock
feelings of disorientation, uncertainty or even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices
result of insecure attachment
feels anxious about their relationship with parters as adults might avoid being too attached to any one person
what happens as a result of social inequality?
feels socially excluded lives in segregated neighborhoods feel politically disempowered
gender-pay gap
females experience differences in pay
neonatal reflexes: tonic neck
fencing posture when a baby's head is turned, the arm on that side straightens while the arm on the side that is the opposite bends disappears at 6 months
3 factors contribute to total growth rate
fertility migration mortality
karl marx's stages of evolution in society
feudalism --> capitalism --> socialism
constrictive period
fewer young people than old people (in developed countries) mortality rate does not compare well to a country where people are dying young from disease
vitreous chamber
filled with virteous humor (water, salt, protein = albumin) - a jelly-like substance to provide pressure to eyeball and give nutrients to the inside of the eyeball - helps suspend the eye in place and provide structure so the eye doesn't collapse in on itself - transparent so light can go right through - vitreous humor does not replenish
target behavior
final behavior you wish to train
stigma can be studied by 4 concentric circles
first circle: self second circle: family (close social groups) third circle: wider society fourth circle: media (important external society)
primacy bias
first impression is more important than later data
alfred-binet
first to develop an intelligence test, but wasn't intending to developed a test in order to establish a child's mental age and measure a child's intellectual development - to predict how they will do in school later on - designed for french children
fixation in psychosexual development is due to [...]
fixation in psychosexual development is due to libido
what are some complex innate behaviors (3)
fixed action patterns - mating dance migration - birds flying south in the winter circadian rhythm - biological clock
what are the intermitten schedules of reinforcement
fixed-interval fixed-ratio variable-interval variable-ratio
classification of norms (4)
folkways mores laws taboos
wenicke's aphasia
fluent/ receptive aphasia different pattern of behavior - words don't make any sense (can still produce many words and often speak using grammatically correect sentences) - can't understand what others say temporal lobe is damaged characterized by difficulty understanding spoken words and sentences, as well as difficulty producing sentences that make sense
endolymph
fluid in semicircular canal of inner ear allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in because we can detect how quickly it is moving, we can determine strength of rotation
physical abnormalities with schizophrenia
fluid-filled regions have been enlarged - leses tissue of brain cerebral cortex decreases - in frontal and temporal lobes increase in dopamine mesocorticolimbic pathway is affected - dysfunction in parts of frontal cortex that causes cognitive symptoms - limbic structure causes negative symptoms - abnormal activity in temporal cortex causes positive symptoms
weak self-efficacy
focus on personal failures/ negative outcomes avoid challenging tasks quickly lose confidence in personal abilities believe they lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations FAIL - Failures - Avoid challenging tasks - Lose confidence - Lack ability to take on complex tasks
attention
focus/ concentrating on something at the exclusion of the other stimuli in the environment
problems with functionalism
focuses entirely on institutions without regard for individuals (only acknowledged) - largely unable to explain social change and conflict - so focused on equilibrium between social facts and institutions that little change and conflict is modeled (no conflict can occur) there is more to society than just stable state of its part
biomedical models
focuses on biological, physical abnormalities ex: abnormalities of the cells of thee brain that might cause disorders or having abormal patterns of connections between cells of the brain
social epidemiology
focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations (the social determinants of a disease) - emphasizes how social factors (ex: class or race/ ethnicity) affect the distribution of disease and health
ethology
focuses on the observation of animal behaviors - overt behaviors (observable) innate behaviors learned behaviors complex behaviors
fundamental attribution error
focuses only on actions of others tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/ flaws attributing character too strongly to explain another group's actions
joint attention
focusing of attention on an object by 2 separate individuals
social theory overview (define: functionalism, conflict theory, social constructionism, symbolic interactionism)
functionalism - how society can exist over time (always trying to come to equilibrium) conflict theory - how societies change and adapt over time through conflict - two opposing positions would merge to create a new society where both are content social constructionism - what society is rather than how it exists/ changes - everything only has value beceause everyone agrees it has value; we construct the world around is symbolic interactionism - puts a lot of focus on the individual and how they behave (based on meanings we give to things; ex: tree = shade) - we interact with the world and give it meaning
components that make up prejudice: cognition (stereotype)
fundamental underlying thought overgeneralized belief
does fundamentalism or secularization come first?
fundamentalism is in response to secularization - secularization --> fundamentalism
difference between evolutionary game theory and general game theory
game theory: involves intention, where participants reason about behavior of others evolutionary game theory: helps us predict traits we would expect to see in a population - predicts the appearance of evolutionary stable strategies (behaviors that persist in population once present) - ex: altruism
critique of resource mobilization theory
gathering together people of shared ideas is not allowed everywhere for a social movement to occur, you need money, materials, political influence, media, and a strong organizational base to recruit members
different types of feminist theory (4)
gender differences gender inequality gender oppression structural oppression
collective behavior
generally violates widely held societal norms - can be very destructive often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividualization - certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in normal circumstances, which also occurs in a collective
what is another term for millennials?
generation y
millennials
generation y 1980s-2000s
biology and how it relates to aggression
genes brain structure - amygdala triggers aggressive behavior - frontal lobe is responsible for planning, decision making and impulse control testosterone - released in both men and women
what are current studies saying about genes and behavior?
genes don't play as large of a role - ex: steroids (environmental factors) and hormones affect our behavior - ex: pheromones do the same thing that cause a response that results in a function slightly reverses the central dogma - some of the environment is now affecting our proteins
biological regulation of drugs
genetic predisposition withdrawal and cravings biochemical factors - imbalance in our brain - ex: marijuana and heroin mimic neurotransmitters in our brain - ex: cocaine causes abornal release of natural neurotransmitters like dopamine
innate behavioral traits
genetically programmed behavior - present at birth and requires no experience with the environment has the following characteristics - inherited (encoded by DNA) - intrinsic (present even if raised in isolation) - stereotypic (performed the same way each time) - inflexible (not modified by experience) - consummate (fully developed right away, at first performance) (subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection, etc.) 3 main types - reflexes - orientation behaviors - fixed action pattern (FAP)
what negative thing can urban renewal lead to
gentrification - when urban renewal is over, they target a wealthier community which increases property value - people there before are pushed out because they can't afford property anymore and it leads to great inequality in cities
what is the most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships?
geographical proximity
who developed the idea of social behaviorism?
george herbert mead
ebbinghaus
german philosopher/ psychologist first person to look at decay in human memory found his rate of forgetting very fast, but if he remembered it after initial stage, it leveled out - most forgetting happens in the first few days, but after that point, forgetting will level out - the more integrated the initial memory, still follows the same pattern but takes longer time to forget
fixation
getting stick on a wrong approach to a problem - if we can start solving the problem, it typically occurs through insight
iris
gives the eye color muscle that constricts/ relaxes to change the size of the pupil - dark: relax --> more light - light: constrict --> less light
what does economic globalization result from?
global market competition for cheap labor and locating factories in cheapest locations
what is within the posterior 1/3rd of the tongue?
glossopharyngeal and vagus
glossopharyngeal and vagus carries signals via the [...] cranial nerves (2)
glossopharyngeal and vagus carries signals via the 9th and 10th cranial nerves (2)
what does the adrenal cortex release as a stress response?
glucocorticoid (cortisol) - steroid hormone - redistributes glucose energy in the body and suppressees immune system - developed by ectoderm - plays a role in development of muscles/ bones CORTisol is released by CORTex
working backwords
goal state --> current state start with the goal and use it to suggeset connections back to the current state used in mathematical proofs and in mazes
minority
group that makes up less than half the total population and is treated differently due to some characteristic can be absorbed into the majority after 1-2 generations
counterculture
group with expectations and values that strongly disagree with the main values from the larger society subculture that rejects some of the larger culture's norms and values - usually develops their own set of norms to live by
negative control
group with no response expected
residential segregation
groups of people separated into different neighborhoods - can be by race or income
zimbardo prison study - stanford prison expeeriment
guards grew to see the prisoner participants as dangerous people they needed to control none of the prisoners just stopped and left the experiment, even though they were told at beginning that they could
what are some learned behaviors? (5)
habituation classical conditioning operant conditioning insight learning latent learning
LSD
hallucinogen modifies serotonin neurotransmission, especially the 5-HT2 receptor family - interferes with serotonin --> hallucinations
estasy/ MDMA/ molly
hallucinogens synthetic drug between a stimulant and hallucinogen - like stimulant: increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria (can damage neurons that produce serotonin). also stimulates body's CNS - like hallucinogen: causes hallucinations and heightened sensations (ex: artificial feeling of social connectedness and intimacy)
biological theoriests (4)
hans eysenck - extroversion and introversion - personality is based on reticular formation jeffrey alan gray - biopsychological theory of personality - personality is based on punishment and reward c. robert cloninger - personality is due to brain systems
who developed the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
hans selye
muscle stretch reflex
happens on the same side (afferent and efferent) causes a muscle to contract after it's stretched as a protective response - ex: knee jerk response somatosensory neurons (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synpase in spinal cord with another neuron in the spinal cord --> sends axon out back to the same muscle that it was stretched --> excite skeletal muscle cells to contract (lower motor neurons - efferent)
hardy-weinberg equilibrium assumes [...] mating
hardy-weinberg equilibrium assumes random mating
upper motor signs (4)
hyperreflexia - increase in the muscle stretch reflexes - when muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get a bigger reflex clonus - rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscles - ex: foot goes involuntarily up and down - cause is hyperreflexia hypertonia - increased tone of skeletal muscles - increased muscle tension - reduce muscle stretch extensor plantar response - if you take a hard object and scrape along the bottom of the foot, normal response is flexor (toes will come down on the object) - with extensor, the toes extend up
induced states of consciousness
hypnosis + medication does NOT occur naturally
cyclorthymic disorder
hypomania + dysthymia
histamine
hypothalamus --> cerebral cortex
structures of the limbic system
hypothalamus amygdala thalamus hippocampus HIPPO wearing a HAT
effort justification
idea and paradigm in social psychology stemming from festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance people's tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieveing - ex: going to medical school after working so hard
looking glass self
idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others notion that we construct our identity out of our interpersonal interactions and perception of others developed by charles cooley
social selection
idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individuals in a population
ego depletion
idea that self-control is a limited resource - if you use a lot of it, it can get used up and less of it can be used in the future - can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control
just world phenomenon
idea that the universe is fair so people must get what they deserve - belief that good things happen to good people and vice versa
self-referencing: preparing to teach
idea that you are learning this material in order to teach it to someone else - you learn a lot better because you put more effort into organizing it and understanding the information the best you can (involves a great deal of proccessing)
internalization
idea/ belief/ behavior that has been integrated into our own values - we conform to the belief privately stronger than other types of conformity refers to the normal process where children learn and absorb (internalize) knowledge and rules about the world from social context, rather than through being specifically told - this is how children learn to alter their behavior in response to the situation that they are in ex: start going to the gym to comply with friends, but then might internalizee that exercise is good for you and continue that behavior
defense mechanisms: neurotic (5)
intellectualization - taing intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation - separating emotion from ideas rationalization - making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself - can have false logic or false reasoning regression - acting like a baby in some situations - ex: throwing temper tantrums, whining displacement - displaces anger to someone else (a safer target) - ex: mother who is mad at her husband gets mad at her child reaction formation - unsconsious feelings that makes a person react completely opposite - ex: a mother who bears an unwanted child may react to her feelings of guilt by becoming extremely overprotective to convince herself and the child that she is a good mother 3RID
fixed mindset
intelligence is biologically set and unchanging praise describes characteristics and actions as innate and unchangeable
noise distribution: c (d')
intensity is d'
theory of planned behavior
intentions + implications - we consider our implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave - the best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these intentions and implications intensions are based on 3 things - attitudes towards a certain behavior - subjective norms (what we think others think about the behavior) - perceived behavioral control (how easy/ hard we think it is to control our behavior)
reciprocal determinism
interaction between a person's behaviors, personal factors (motivation/ cognition) and environment - all determined by one another
similarities between vygotsky and kohlberg
interested in how cognition develops
similarities between freud and erikson
interested in how personality develops
overview of types of reliability
internal - split half method external - test-retest - inter-rater
multiple approach avoidance
internal conflict that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements
[...] is a large factor in urbanization
internal migration is a large factor in urbanization
intrinsic motivation
internal motivations
what does the modernization theory look at? (2)
internal social dynamics as the country adapts to new technologies political and social changes
cultural assimilation
interpenetration and fusion of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture
what is the most scientifically accurate way of dividing gestation?
into weeks
orienting attention
involves the capacity to change the focus of attention from one stimulus to another stimulus this network is predominantly modulated by acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain
motivational interviewing
invovles working with patients to find intrinsic motivation to change very focus, goal-directed therapy few sessions and can be doorway for patient to engage in another treatment (like CBT or group meetings)
is smell (and taste) ipsilateral or contralateral?
ipsilateral (occurring on the same side of the body) - doesnt synapse on to thalamus
choroid
is pigmented black in humans - some animals don't have it pigmented so the choroid is shiny (--> better night vision) network of blood vessels that helps nourish the retina if light wasn't absorbed by the retina, it would be absorbed by the choroid because black absorbs light - if choroid wasn't black (like in cats), the light would reflect off the choroid and hit the retina again and be absorbed by the retina (has 2 chances to absorb the light ray --> better night vision)
what can happen if a cell is overexcited?
it can die - ex: too much pain signal in pain receptor (capsaicin) --> cell can die
3 main characteristics that impacts on how we are persuaded for/ against a message
message characteristics source characteristics target characteristics
message characteristics
message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought it was, etc also includes how well written it was, does speaker have a good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc.
hormone concentration is regulated by
metabolism and kidneys secretion --> negative feeedback loop
persuasion
method for attitude/ behavior changes
content analysis
method for summarizing any form of content by counting various aspects of the content
counterbalancing
method to control for any effect that the order of presenting stimuli might have on the dependent variable ex: recognizing that if you're doing an experiment comparing left and right handed students, there is going to be significantly less left-handed people so you have to counterbalance
methods of problem solving: algorithm
methodical approach logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions until you hit the right one not efficient, but guaranteed to find the correct solution eventually
symbolic interactionism theory
micro-perspective focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives
[...] does not affect population growth of the world, but affects that of a country
migration does not affect population growth of the world, but affects that of a country
classification of norms: folkways
mildest type of norm common rules/ manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day basis - traditions individuals have followed for a long time ex: opening the door, helping someone who dropped an item, saying thank you, etc not engaging results in consequences that is not severe/ consistent - no actual punishment
noise distribution: c (ideal oberver)
minimizes miss and false alarm - when c=1 [intensity (B)-d']/2
absolute threshold of sensation
minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
assimilation
minority group is absorbed into the majority
inter-colonialism
minority group is segregated and exploited
[...] can be helpful in understanding imitation further
mirror neurons can be helpful in understanding imitation further
cannabis (marijuana)
mix of all 4 types of psychoactive drugs
demographic transition
model that changes in a country's population refers to a theory of economic development and population change - suggests that economic changes, specifically industrialization, affects the relationship between the fertility and mortality rates in a society population will eventually stop growing when country transitions from high birth/ death rate to low birth/ death rate --> stabilizes the population
how does a molecule bind to a olfactory receptor and cause an action potential?
molecule binds to the GPCR receptor on odor molecule --> GPCR on olfactory epithelia --> G-protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell --> G-protein binds to ion channel which allow cells outside of the cell to come inside --> opens and triggers action potential --> goes to cribriform plate --> glomerulus --> activate mitral/ tufted cell --> synapse to brain
elaboration likelihood model for persuation (ELM)
more cognitive approach - focuses on why/ how of persuasion 2 ways in which information is processed - central route of persuasion: - peripheral route of persuasion:
what does a higher dependency ratio mean?
more dependent people there are
public declarations
more likely to follow through if you've told everyone
cults
more radical - reject values of outside society rises when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems usually short-lived because they depend on an inspirational leader who will only live so long
rods vs cones
more rods than codes cones are in fovea rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones - better at detecting light/ telling us whether light is present (ex: black and white vision) cones detect color primarily - 60% red, 30% green, 10% blue rods have slow recovery time vs cones have fast recovery time - takes a while to adjust to dark (rods need to be reactivated) - cones adapt to change quickly (can fire action potential more frequently)
are there more rods or cones?
more rods than cones
glutamate
most common excitatory neurotransmitter associated with increased cortical arousal GLU is exciting
alzheimer's disease (AD)
most common form of dementia exact cause is unknown - build up of amyloid plaques in the brain neurons die off over time and as neurons die off, cerebral cortex shrinks in size progressive brain disorder that affects different aspects of memory over time
GABA
most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
glycine
most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord
depressants: benzodiazephines (benzos)
most commonly perscribed (perscribed for same things as barbiturates) enhance brain's response to GABA (open GABA-activated chloride channels in neurons and make them more negatively charged) bind to a site on GABA(A) receptor cmoplex that regulates sensitivity to receptor complex 3 types: - short - intermediate - long-acting (short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety
memory of retrieval
most difficult to easiest: - free recall - cued recall - recognition
coping styles in schema therapy
overcompensation (attempting to fight against the schema and prove it is not true) - aggression, hostility - dominance, excessive self-assertion - recognition-seeking, status-seeking - manipulation, exploitation - passive-aggressiveness, rebellion - exessive orderliness, obseessionality surrender (accomodating to the way you are treated and acting as if, and believing, it is the way things should be) - compliance, dependence avoidance (disconnecting emotionally or physically from the people who mistreat you and/ or by disconnecting from your own emotions) - social withdrawal, excessive autonomy - compulsive stimulation-seeking - addictive self-soothing - psychological withdrawal
what is important for the tend and befriend response?
oxytocin
nociceptors
pain
what causes some children to have secure attachment while others have insecure attachment?
parenting style
partial reinforcement schedules is more resistant to [...] than continuous reinforcements
partial reinforcement schedules is more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcements
good-subject tendency
participant bias (subject bias) refers to the tendency of participants to act accordingly to what they think the experimenter wants
internal reliability
participant gives consistent pattern of answers, no matter how the researcher phrased the question only applies to self-report scales with multiple items
one theory for why decay occurs
pathway between cue and memory become weaker over time or periods of disuse that makes it harder to stimulate those neurons - if you learn something once and never revisit, it is likely to decay over time
factitious disorders
patient wants to be sick - the patient will falsify or disease their signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis/ treatment
what does macrosociology look for?
patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups
high culture
patterns of experience and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of society tends to be associated with wealth and formality
proximal stimuli
patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.) - light that is actually falling on the retina
popular culture
patters of experiences and atittudes that exist within mainstream normative society - ex: attending a game or watching a parade
what's another term for classical conditioning? (2)
pavlovian conditioning respondent conditioning
types of social network (3)
peer network family network community network
neutral transmission
pre-synaptic neurons release neurotransmitters on post-synaptic neurons, allowing Na+ and Ca2+ to flow in neural transmission will flow from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic neuron
mcdonaldization
policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society, primarily - efficiency - calculability - predictability - uniformity - control ex: all movie theaters look and work similiarly
why is residential segregation important? (4)
political isolation - communities segregated are politically weak because political interests don't overlap with over communities linguistic isolation - communities that are isolated may develop their own langauge, even in the same city (may limit jobs) lower access to quality education/ health spatial mismatch - opportunities for low-income people may be present, but farther away and harder to access
meso-level
population size falls between micro and macro levels medium sized groups - ex: communities, organizations, cities, states, clans and tribes
mechanoreceptors
position + vibration + touch
5 main somatosensations
position sense vibration touch pain temperature
fast somatosensation
position vibration mechanoreceptors (touch) have large diameter axons - have thick myelin sheath --> fast
proactive coping
positive coping strategy anticipating a problem - anticipation is when one reducees the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it would be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it
positive priming was thought to be caused by [...]
positive priming was thought to be caused by spreading activation
is incentive positive or negative reinforcement?
positive reinforcement
eustress
positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating usually enjoyable
2-tailed t test
possibility of relationship in both directions
problems with self-report study
potential for poor reliability vulnerable to subjective interpretation have a multitude of validity problems - patients may exaggerate symptoms in order to make their situation seem worse - may under-report severity or frequency of symptoms in order to minimize their problems - can misremember
fecundity
potential reproductive capacity of a female
alongia
poverty of speeech lessening of speech fluency and productivity thought to reflect slowing or blocked thoughts - often manifested as short, empty replies to questions
what matters does macrosociology deal with?
poverty, war, health care, world economy, etc
cultural relativism
practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture - judge and understand another culture from within their culture refers to an awareness of differences across cultures in norms, values and other elements of culture
endogamy
practice of marrying within a specific ethnic group, class or social group - rejecting others on such a basis as being unsuitable for marriage or for other close personal relationships
what component of language is affected by prosody?
pragmatics
cross's migrescence model (5)
pre-encounter encounter immersion/ emersion internalization internalization-commitment
stage 1 of elaboration likelihood model
pre-processing stage due to target characteristics - before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by interest, motivation, importance, etc. of us (the listener) central processing: if interests, etc. are high (interested in topic) peripheral processing: if interests, etc. are low (doesn't care about the topic)
stratification system
refers to the complex social relationships that generate inequalities
what are some simple innate behaviors? (3)
reflexes - natural behaviors - ex: squinting or blinking taxis - purposeful movement - ex: bugs fly towards light kinesis - no purpose of movement - rats randomly scurrying in different directions
hypothalamus
regulates the autonomic nervous system - sympathetic (fight-or-flight) - parasympathetic (rest-or-digest) controls endocrine system by triggering hormones like epinephrine/ norepinephrine responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex, etc.
innate behavior: orientation behaviors
regulating specially in our environments ex: kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis) - change in rate in turning (klinokinesis) - can be in response to a stimulus (ex: tripping on a sidewalk) ex: positive taxis and negative taxis - movement towards/ away from stimulus respectively - ex: insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis)
consequences of behavior in operant conditioning
reinforcement (increase a behavior) - positive - negative punishment (decrease a behavior) - positive - negative
variable-ratio
reinforcement is delivered after average # of right responses has occured - average # of correct responses is the same ex: bonus is paid after selling 3 cars for his first bonus, 3 for the second, 7 for the third, 6, then 4, etc - average is 5 a lot of uncertainty - can't predict when they will get a bonus most effective - very-rapid
fixed-ratio
reinforcement only occurs after a fixed number of responses ex: car salesman only gets a bonus every 5 cars he sell
agender
rejecting gender categories
selection bias
related to how people are chosen to participate in a study
social desirability bias
related to how people respond to research questions
reconstructive bias
related to memory suggests our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think - especially when we are remembering times of high stress
is self-efficacy or self-esteem more specific?
self-efficacy
what is self-concept derived from?
self-esteem and self-efficacy
self-concept
self-identity how someone thinks about/ perceives/ evaluates themselves (self-awareness) derived from self-esteem and self-efficacy development has 2 parts - existential self - categorical self
what does socialization shape?
self-image and self-concept
subjective bias
self-reported information is always vulnerable
improving memory in aging
semantic memories improve until around age 60 - older adults have better verbal skills (why they are great at crossword puzzles) crystallized IQ is improved - typically tested by analofy tests and reading comprehension better at emotional reasoning
what component of language has a n400 response?
semantics
accessory olfactory epithelium
sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb which sends signals to the brain contains the vomeronasal system
olfaction
sense of smell
audition
sense of sound
proprioception adaptation
sense of the position of the body in space (sense of balance) - if you wore goggles that made everything upside down, you would eventually adapt and have to readapt if you took them off
piaget's stages of development
sensorimotor (0-2) preoperational (2-7) concrete operational (7-11) formal operational (12+)
innate behavior: reflexes
sensory and motor nerve loop without thinking ex: knee-jerk response
hallucinations
sensory perceptions without stimuli like hearing or seeing what's not there sounds or other sensations experienced as real when they exist only in the person's mind
thalamus
sensory relay station - everything you hear, taste, etc senses come through your nerves and end up in the thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex and other areas of the brain smell is the only one that bypasses the thalamus - goes to areas closer to the amygdala
neutral stimuli
stimuli you can sense by sight, taste or hearing that typically doesn't produce the reflex that is being tested
bottom up processing
start with no preconceived idea of what you're looking at - allows stimulus to influence perception - perception directs your cognitive awareness of the object - using stimulus itself to drive our perception data driven inductive reasoning - always correct
neonatal reflexes: monro
startle reaction - fan out arms and then retracts disappears in 4-6 months
strong social constructionism
states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits - all knowledge is social constrict and there are no brute facts
achieved status
status you earn after working for it - status a person takes on voluntarily that reflects both personal ability and merit ex: olympic athlete ex: teacher
ascribed status
statuses you can't change - given from birth ex: prince of a royal family ex: caste system
steps of fertilization: sperm binding
step 1 when sperm comes into contact with zona pellucida and binds
overview of steps to social identity theory (one word)
step 1: categorize step 2: identification step 3: comparison
steps of fertilization: acrosome reaction
step 2 enzymes leak into the zona pellucida and digest it - sperm gets closer to plasma membrane of egg
steps of fertilization: cortical reaction
step 3 in the egg, there are enzymes (contained within cortical granules) that gets ejected to zona pellucida and that digest it - prevents other sperm from binding (block to polyspermy) - if this doesn't happen, the zygote falls
steps of fertilization: genetic transfer
step 4 when sperm binds to the plasma membrane and acrosome is gone, cortical granules are released, the plasma membrane fuse and all the genetic material gets released into the egg - fusion of genetic material is fertilization nuclear DNA comes in but also mitochondrial DNA - mitochondrial DNA >>> nuclear DNA in egg (sperm doesn't have much effect)
self-fulfilling prophecy
stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes
3 factors that fuel social stigma
stereotypes prejudice discrimination
stigma may be detrimental to personal/ intimate relationship and interventions like [...] are important
stigma may be detrimental to personal/ intimate relationship and interventions like education and therapy are important
nicotine
stimulant (CNS stimulant) - works as acetylcholine receptor agonist increases heart rate and BP disrupts sleep suppress appetite at high levels, can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters (to counter hyper alertness)
caffeine
stimulant inhibits adenosine receptors - can disrupt sleep - increases energy
cocaine
stimulant stronger stimulant than caffeine and nicotine - causes brain to release so much dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine that it depletes your brain's supply - intense crash and very depressed when it wears off
amphetamines and methamphetamines
stimulant triggers release of dopamine (similar to cocaine) - feeling of euphoria for up to 8 hours long-term meth addicts may lose ability to maintain normal levels of dopamine because brain tries to adjust to intense highs blocks the reuptake of dopamine, which stimulates an increase in the release of dopamine from the presynaptic membrane
subliminal stimuli
stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation
subculture vs microculture
subculture is large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan - affects your life on a longer period than a micro-culture
subcultures can cause tension with [...]
subcultures can cause tension with dominant group
what is another name for good-subject bias?
subject bias = participant bias
tastant
substance that stimulates the sense of taste
catatonic schizophrenia
subtype of schizophrenia that includes extremes of behavior - at one end of the extreme, the patient cannot speak, move or respond (there is a dramatic reduction in activity where virtually all movement stops)
age stratification theory
suggests age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation
biologic theory
suggests important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes
malthusian theorem
suggests population will run out of resources --> global food shortage - won't be able to maintain natural resources for everyone on the planet currently 1b suffer from malnutrition already in a world of 7b
empathy-altruism hypothesis
suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy high empathy = high altruistic behaviors
what does the looking-glass self suggest about self-concept?
suggests that self-concept is influenced by how we perceive that others are viewing us a person who acquires a stigmatized illness is likely to internalize the stigmatization directed against him or her
meltzoff's conclusion
suggests we have mirror neurons - when one fires, another fires when we observe the same action performed by another person
master status
supesedes other identifying traits ex: if a women feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a daughter, woman, etc., she is more likely to identify herself as mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such
thomas theorem
the interpretation of a situation causes the action
gestalt principles: symmetry
the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point
the more similar the stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus, the greater the [...] response
the more similar the stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus, the greater the conditioned response
pupil
the opening in the middle of the iris size can get bigger/ smaller based on the iris relaxing/ contracting, respectively moderates the amount of light able to enter the eyeball
thesis + antithesis of 19th century capitalist europe
thesis: desire of working class to change antithesis: push-back from those unhappy with the status quo
why is avoidance behavior persistent?
they are self reinforcing - animal never experiences the aversive stimulus, but it receives negative reinforcement in the form of relief
treatments for korsakoff's syndrome
thiamine injections, staying on a healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins and relearn things effectiveness depends on how well patients follow the treatment guidelines and how early it is diagnosed
corpus callosum
thick band of nerve fibers which connects the two hemispheres - allows for communication between the hemispheres damage can lead to problems naming objects - creates a split-brain patient
conjunctiva
thin layer of epithelial cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye protects and moisturizes cornea - ex: why you don't scratch your cornea when you rub your eyes
self-referencing
think about new information and how it relates to you personally ex: imagine learning something about history, you then learn the information by talking to the general
deindividualization
those in a group are more likely to act inappropriately beeacuse the crowd conceals their identity - ex: how people behave on black friday - ex: cyberbullying
secondary reinforcers
those learned to be reinforcers - previously neutral stimuli requires a pairing or association with primary reinforcers for it to have value ex: money
those societies having the highest level of [...] mobility are considered to be the most open and malleable system of stratification
those societies having the highest level of intra-generational mobility are considered to be the most open and malleable system of stratification
closed stratification system
those systems in which there is little to no mobility, even on an intergenerational basis - ex: caste systems
which jobs are valued higher?
those that require a lot of specialization, rather than jobs essential in our society - creates inequalities because not everyone has access to those valued professions, due to limited education/ resources
problem with thurnston's 7 factors of intelligence
those who do well on one of these factors also tend to do well on the others, which suggests an underlying single intelligence factor strength for spearman's generalized intelligence theory
adaptive associations
those who have a biological advantage learned faster than those with no biological value
biological influence of phobias
we are more likely to develop phobias to something that impacted our ancestors rather than things that might be dangerous to us in the real world ex: heights, snakes, spiders used to have an evolutionary advantage to have the adaptive value to avoid food that made you sick, spiders, snakes, heights, etc. in the past, to they were passed on
situational approach to behavior
we are placed in new situations every day - these situations affect our behavior under the branch of social psychology
false consensus
we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they don't
projection bias
we assume others share the same beliefs as we do
out-group derogation
we discriminate those in the out-group
socio-cultural regulation of hunger
we eat for different occasions, times, desire, appeal, availability
in-group favoritism
we favor/ are friendly to people in our own group, but neutral to those in out-groups
chunking
we group information we're getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization
3x2 factorial design
we have 3 levels of the first variable crossed with 2 levels of the second variable such a design gives us 3x2=6 treatment conditions in the expereiment two independent variables - 3 of the first - 2 of the second
foot in the door phenomenon
we have a tendency to agree to small actions first - eventually over time, we comply with much larger actions basic concept of how people are brainwashed - door is eventually pushed completely open over time society behaviors strongly feed into your attitude
hidden curriculum in education
we learn to stand in line, wait our turn, and how to treat our peers we internalize social inequalities, when boys are girls are treated differently by their teachers
decision making
we make a judgement of the desirability/ probability of a certain outcome impacted by - heuristics - bias - framing shows our decisions are not as black and white or consistent as we think they are
embryogenesis
zygote after fertilization has occured splitting occurs in zona pellucida cleavage happens - splitting without growth
how far apart are eyes?
~2.5 inches
weber's law of jnd
ΔI/I = k JND / initial intensity = constant ex: if you have a 2lb vs 2.2lb weight 0.2/2 = 0.1 so the change must be 0.1 of initial intensity to be noticable