MCAT P/S

parasympathetic nervous system

"part of the autonomic nervous system - ""rest or digest"" response starts at the brain stem or bottom of spinal cord --> first neuron sends long axon --> synpase with ganglion of second neuron --> sends short axon to target cell long and then short"

representative heuristic

"people look for the most representative answer and look to match prototypes (a given concept to what is typical/ representative) when a decision's probability is judged based on how similar or representative the aspect is to a specific person, group or population and the degree that it reflects this feature of the population as a whole ex: someone who is outspoken, politically engaged, etc. will more likely to be assumed to be a ""feminist bank teller"" rather than just a ""bank teller"" - fits the prototype of how a feminist would act can lead to conjunction fallacy"

external locus of control

"perceived outside forces that help control your fate ""that was an unfair test"""

instinctual drift

"phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors - learned behaviors ""drifts"" to the organism's species-specific (instinctual) behavior tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response"

components of language: phonology

"phonetic component actual sound of a language - ""sound system"" there are 40 phonemes (smallest unit of sound) in the english language"

pros and cons of chemical (olfactory) signals

"pros: longer lasting cons: slower, ""noisy"" (a lot of chemical signals in a given area)"

psychophysics

"quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect described as the ""scientific study of the relation between stimulus and sensation"" - or ""the analysis of perceptual processes by studying the effect on a subject's experience or behaviour of systematically varying the properties of a stimulus along one or more physical dimensions"""

components of language: morphology

"refers to structure of words many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes (smallest significant unit of meaning of a word) ""grammatical system"" which puts meaningful elements together into ""words"""

medulla

"regulates autonomic activity of heart and lungs athletes receive ""med""als for exercise"

pons

"regulates waking and relaxing ""pon""ds are relaxing to look at"

mediating variable

"researchers may propose a mediating step between two of the variables with an established relationship a ""reason"" for the relationship"

segregation

"separating out groups of people and giving them access to a separate set of resources (often worse) ""separate but equal"""

insight learning

"solve a problem using past skills the ""aha"" moment"

temporal cortex

"sound (auditory processing) wenicke's area ""tempo"" and picture a metronome above your ear (where the temporal cortex is located)"

walter cannon

"spent his career expanding our understanding of homeostasis - interested in homeostatic response of animals to stressors (threats and dangers) - termed our response to threats the ""flight or fight response"""

level 2 of moral reasoning (conventional)

"stage 3: interpersonal concordance orientation - doing what's right to gain acceptance from society - following societal norms stage 4: law and order orientation - maintaining social order - following ""rules"""

cochlear implants

"surgical procedure to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural narrow hearing loss (""nerve deafness"") - problem with conduction of sound waves from cochlea --> brain microphone --> speech processer --> (electrical info) --> transmitter (outside the skull) --> receiver (inside the skull) --> stimulator --> cochlea --> (neural impulse) --> brain"

token economy

"system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior - reinforcers are ""tokens"" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex: prizes)"

operational span testing

"task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple math verification (ex: 4/2 + 1 = 3) and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/ read pair maximum number of words that can be recalled is the ""operation span"""

"""in"" group"

"the one we are connected with ""us"" stronger interactions with those in the in-group than those in the out-group - interactions are more common and more influenential"

i

"the response of the individual to the ""me"" thinks about what those things mean - attitudes of others spontaneous, less socialized component of the self"

sclera

"thick, fibrous tissue that forms substance of the eyeball (""white part"" of the eye) extra layer of protection and structure of eyeball lined with conjunctiva attachment point for muscles, so you can move your eyeball around when you're looking at different things covers posterior 5/6th of the eyeball light is usually absorbed by the time it gets to this"

universalism

"thought determines language completely - your thought dictates language believes that human cognition shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions shape human language - ex: the new guinea people, who only have two words for color (""mola"" for dark and ""milli"" for light) only think about dark and light. if they had other thoughts, they would develop words for them"

escape

"type of aversive control escape an unpleasant stimulus once it has occured - the stimuli usually has the element of surprise - when the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus - the ""get me out of here"" or ""shut this off"" reaction response is conditioned (of escaping) in response to a stimuli and then the stimuli goes away (negative reinforcement) typically, the response would not occur"

avoidance

"type of aversive control signal is given before aversive situation the behavior is to avoid the situation - results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/ undesirable stimuli - ex: fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to ""avoid"" the situation"

gestalt principles: law of past experiences

"under some circumstances, visual stimuli are categorized according to past experiences - if 2 objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together - ex: if you come across an english word you've never seen, you tend to interpret the letters ""L"" and ""I"" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the objects as an uppercase ""U"""

top down processing

"uses background knowledge to influence perception - recreating an image with what we know about that image despite it not being fully expressed - perception/ behavior is influenced by our expectations - ex: wheres waldo is ""goal driven"" theory driven deductive reasoning"

cerebral cortex: occipital lobe

"vision ""striate cortex"" (striated cells)"

optic nerve

"visual signals, after having been picked up by the rods and cones and bipolar cells to the ganglion cells, finally leave the eye through the optic nerve axons from the ganglion cells band together into a long strand (the optic nerve) and go through the retina at the back of the eye (your ""blind spot"") imagine that the tails of the ""gang of lions"" are the axons that make up the optic nerve and exit out the back of the eye"

resource model of attention

"we have limited resources in attention - resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things at once supported by research study - ex: Dichotic listening task (you aren't able to focus on both the ""attended channel"" and the ""unattended channel"". you are able to recall information from the attended channel but not the unattended channel)"

me

"what we learned through interactions with others - how individuals believes the ""generalized other"" perceives us, the social self and learned through interaction with others society's view - the part of self formed in interaction with others and social environment socialized and conforming aspects of self"

indicator of mature socialization

"when an individual accurately predicts how other people think about him or her - has incorporated the ""social"" into the ""self"""

example of looking-glass self (ex: trying on clothes before going out with friends)

"while deciding, the dialogue that is taking place inside their mind is usually a dialogue between their - ""self"" (portion of their identity that calls itself ""i"") - internalized understanding of their friends and society (""generalized other"")"

total population increease rate

(# births + # immigration) / 1000

total population decrease rate

(# death + # emmigration) / 1000

cocktail party effect

- ability to concentrate on what voice amongst a crowd - or when someone calls your name example of endogenous/ internal cue

sociocultural/ environmental factors of depression

- co-rumination/ empathy - low SES - social isolation/ child abuse

type of visual cues

- color - mimicry - camouflage (used to NOT communicate) - bioluminescent

cheynes-stroke breathing

- cresendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop-in breathing - normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern - believed heart failure/ stroke/ renal failure is the cause

central route of persuasion

- degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader - how much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion - argument and words are central

Freud's theory of dreams

- dreams represent our unconscious feelings, urges and thoughts (dreams have meaning and interpreting them can help us resolve and identify hidden conflict) manifest content: what happens (literal) latent content: what is the hidden meaning

thomas and chess's model of temperament

- easy (40%) - difficult (10%) - slow-to-warm-up (15%) - unclassified (35%) difficult sparked the most interest - placed children at higher risk for adjustment problems

3 underlying components of rothbard's definition of temperament

- emotion - attention - action

managing stress (5)

- exercise - meditation - religious beliefs/ faith - cognitive flexibility - coping

acute withdrawal

- few weeks - physical withdrawal symptoms - different for each drug/ person (ex: alcohol is only 2 days)

post-acute withdrawal

- fewer physical symptoms - more emotional/ psychologic symptoms (PAWS - post acute withdrawal symptoms) - feels like a rollercoaster of symptoms (in the beginning, symptoms change minute to minute but later, they only change every few weeks, etc) - same for everyone - each episode usually lasts for a few days - in general, lasts for 2 years

racial differences can cause drastic events like

- genocide - population transfer - inter-colonialism - assimilation

pros of moving to urban areas

- improved utilities and building - more job opportunities - more options/ services for education, healthcare, etc.

mesoderm

- inner layer of skin - muscles - bones - cardiac muscles - kidneys - bladder - ovaries/ testes

globalization allows for...

- international terrorism - civil unrest - foreign cultures integrated in each country - world-economy where countries become interdependent (global community)

first impressions are (3)

- long - strong - easily built upon

peripheral route of persuasion

- looks at superficial, expertise, nonverbal persuasion cues (ex: attractiveness and status of persuader) - ex: a doctor is peripheral

2 methods of heuristic problem solving

- means-end analysis - working backwards

depressants: alcohol

- most popular - disrupts REM sleep (and forming memories)

routes of drug entry

- oral (slowest) - inhalation (goes straight to the brain, ~10 seconds) - injection (most addictive and fastest because it goes right to the vein; most dangerous because can inject bacteria and unexpected toxins)

ectoderm

- outer layer of skin - sweat glands - hair - nervous system

coping with stress (3)

- perceived control - optimism - social support

3 main types of innate behavioral traits

- reflexes - orientation behaviors - fixed action pattern (FAP)

class consciousness involves (2)

- seizing and obtaining means - redistributing means of production among the workers

3 factors that influence our ability multitask

- task similarity (ex: easier to write a paper listening to classical music than an interview because there is less similarity) - task difficulty (harder tasks require more focus; ex: texting while driving is more difficult than talking to a passenger in a car) - practice (whether a task is automatic vs controlled is determined by the amount of pracctice; a controlled task would be struggled to complete if attention is divided)

methods of problem solving

- trial and error - algorithm - heuristics - intuition

depressants: barbiturates

- used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety - depress CNS - ex: anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures) - not often perscribed because of negative effects/ side effects

shadowing task

- wearing headphones with 3 different sounds in each - told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other (selective attention) - based on the unattended information that we do and don't end up comprehending, we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in the other ear

index of dissimilarity

0 is total segregation 100 is perfect distributions

sensorimotor stage

0-2 years old sensori-: children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch, etc -motor: active, as you develop how to use senses as you learn to move your body around object permanence develops

delta brainwaves

0.5-3Hz - slower/ lower frequency than theta waves associated with deep sleep or coma

theories of selective attention

1) Broadbent's early selection theory 2) Deutch & Deutch's late selection theory 3) Treisman's attenuation theory uses the shadowing task

"3 steps of ""looking glass self"""

1. how do i appear to others? 2. what must others think of me? 3. revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct or incorrect perceptions on others evaluations)

how does somatosensory information travel?

2 big categories - position sense, vibration sense and fine touch - pain, temperature and gross (less precise) touch delivers information to the spinal cord - crosses the other side immediately --> cerebrum why injury to one side of the brain often results in damage to the other side --> because all the somatosensory pathways cross to the other side

social group

2+ people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity

major motor milestones (reflexes)

2-4 months: head/ chest up 2-5 months: roll over 5-8 months: sit up 5-10 months: stand with support 6-11 months: pull up to standing position 7-12 months: able to crawl 7-13 months: walk while holding onto furniture 10-14 months: stand on their own 11-15 months: walk alone usually many individual differences - 50% will develop before 50% after

average number of births per women

2.1 children

always-on generation

2004+ - but debated

how many stages are in the moral development theory

3 stages of development, each with 2 stages - 6 stages total

3 types of nerve fibers

A-beta: fast ones are thick and covered in myelin (less resistance, high conductance) A-delta: small diameter, less myelin C fibers: small diameter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain)

MEG

AKA SQUIDS - superconducting quantum interference device better resolution than EEG rarer because it requires a large machine and special room to shield it records magnetic fields produced by the electric currents in the brain - measured by using SQUIDS

somatosensation

AKA tactile sense or sense of touch mixed sensory category includes all sensation received from the skin and mucous membranes, as well from as the limbs and joints

morula

32 cells cells become tighter - cells get closer together and the outside cells (trophoblast) become different than the inside cells (embryoblast) differentiation occurs

theta brainwaves

4-7Hz - lower/ slower frequency than alpha waves associated with drowsiness

how many phonemes are there in the english language?

40

how many stages are in the psychosexual theory of development?

5 stages

cone

6-7 million of them responsible for color vision - red cones - green cones - blue cones centered in the fovea (center of the macula) - almost no rods - part of the eye that allows you to focus on small details

milgram's experiment on obedience

65% of participants shocked all the way - the teacher protested and were trembling but they still obeyed the commander and shocked to 450V - in versions of the experiment where the learner claimed to have a heart condition and complained that the shocks were hurting their heart, compliance dropped very little (63%)

concrete operational stage

7-11 years old idea of conservation idea of reversibility - ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition begin to learn empathy and reasoning of math skills

how many stages are in the psychosocial development theory?

8 stages

alpha brainwaves

8-13Hz - lower frequency than beta waves in daydreaming state disappear in drowsiness but reappear later in deep sleep

critical period of nativist perspective

8-9 years old

cities

>50,000 people

metropolis

>500,000 people

central dogma

DNA --> RNA --> proteins

studying brain functions

EEG (electroencephalogram) MEG (megnetoencephalogram)

amino acid neurotransmitters

GABA (-) - CNS glycine (-) - PNS glutamate (+)

what are the most common inhibitory neurotransmitters?

GABA (brain) and glycine (spinal cord)

GPCR receptors vs ion channels

GPCR receptors: sweet, umami, bitter cells Ion channels: sour and salty (SOdium, which is an ion channel is SOur and Salty, think salt) - bind to receptors directly (NaCl binds to receptors --> ion channels open --> (+) flows in --> cell depolarizes --> action potential - salty: bind to salt receptors which detect presence of Na+ - sour: bind sourness receptors that react with H+ --> closes K+ channels

classification systems of mental disorders

ICD-10 (international classification of diseases, 10th ed) - system from the WHO - 11 top categories DSM-5 (diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edition) - from APA - 20 top categories

IQ scores only measure [...] intelligence

IQ scores only measure analytical intelligence

absolute threshold of sensation vs difference threshold (JND)

JND: smallest difference that can be detected 50% of the time ATS: mimumum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a simulus 50% of the time

K-complexes help sleep-based [...]

K-complexes help sleep-based memory consolidation

types of mechanoreceptors

MCM RP - feel touch, pressure, stretch - and then vibration meissinheiners corpuscle - light touch, flutter, light stretch, small receptive field, grip control merkel disk/ receptor - light touch, pressure, fine details, small recetive field ruffini endings/ corpuscle/ cylinder - deep stretch pacinian corpuscle (lamellar corpuscle) - vibration - deep push/ poke hair follicle receptor - hair movements - light touch

insight

"""aha"" moment hard to predict and hard to encourage, particularly when you are fixated on seeing a problem from the same inefficient approach"

normalcy bias

"""cant happen to me"" causes people to underestimate both the possibility of a disaster occuring and its possible effects"

type of collective behaviors: fad

"""fleeting behavior"" something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popularity just as quickly - lasts for short period of time but reach influence a large 3 of people at a time - not necessarily in line with normal behavior - perceived as ""cool"" or ""interesting"" by large groups of people"

"""out"" group"

"""them"" groups we're not associated with groups of people who we do not feel connected to"

entoderm

"- GI tract tube (forms esophagus, small intestines, large intestines) - lungs - liver - pancreas ""endernal"" organs"

theories of intelligence

"- spearman's theory of generalized intelligence - thurnston's 7 factors of intelligence - gardner's theory of multiple intelligence - sternburg's triarchic theory of intelligence (analytical, creative and practical) general (1) --> (7) factors --> (7-9) factors --> triarchic (3) ST[A]G[E]S - the two ""S"" are in alphabetical order"

stages of general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

"1. alarm phase - ready for ""fight or flight"" 2. resistance - fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, body bathed in cortisol 3. exhaustion - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted - our tissues become damaged and our dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness - negative impact of long-term stress"

stages of social behaviorism

"1. preparatory stage - interaction through imitation - cannot take perspective of others yet (egocentricism) 2. play stage - pretend play (more aware of social relationships), role-taking - mentally assuming perspective of others 3. game stage - start to understand attitudes, beliefs and behaviors of ""generalized other"" (society as a whole) - can take on multiple roles - only care about reactions of significant others"

preoperational stage

"2-7 years old -operational: mental operations like imagining things develop/ engage in pretend play - uses symbols to represent things (words symbolize objects and children start understanding symbols) very egocentric - only concerned about themselves (""i cant see you, you can't see me) - inability to understand perspective of others - no empathy"

ego

"conscious and unconscious - mediator between the unconscious desires of the id and moral demands of the superego ""reality principle"" operates on secondary processes (reality testing) - mediates the demands of reality vs desires of the id - perceptions, thoughts and judgements - seeks long-term gratification the self - this is who we identify with/ believe ourselves to be"

deviance standards: theory of differential association

"deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others - rejects norms/ values and believes new behavior a the norm relationships a person forms are very important - if strong relationship to someone deviant (who provides constant exposure to violated norms), the person is more likely to learn deviance than someone not ""monkey see, monkey do"""

exogenous/ external cues

"don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention - bright colors, loud noises, ""pop-out"" effect driven by bottom-up or external events"

vygotsky: higher mental functions

"elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes independent of learning and thinking cultivated by a ""tutor"" from who we model our behavior"

misleading information

"ex: two groups of participants observed a car crash; one group was told that the cars ""smashed"" into each other and the other group was told that they ""hit"" each other - the group that was told that they smashed one another was more likely to recall that glass was on the floor"

freudian slip

"example of a mental conflict ex: financially stressed patient says ""please don't give be any bills"" instead of ""pills"""

ways to reduce cognitive discomfort (4)

"modify our cognitions - ex: a smoker might say ""i dont smoke that much"" trivalize (make less important/ make trival) - ex: smoker might say that evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer add more cognitions (to make contradictions more comfortable - ex: smoker might say that they exercise a lot so it doesn't matter deny the facts - ex: smoker might say that there is no evidence that smoking and cancer are not linked"

back stage

"more private areas of our lives - when the ""act"" is over, you can be yourself and do what makes you most comfortable some things in backstage maybe no one knows about"

existential self

"most basic part of self-concept sense of being separate and distinct from others awareness that the self is constant/ consistent throughout life - ex: someone being ""tired"" isn't their self-concept"

monocular cues give a sense of motion of an object with

"motion parallax (""relative motion"") - farther = slower - closer = faster"

cerebral cortex: frontal lobe

"motor cortex (body movements) prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/ direct other areas of the brain) broca's area (speech production) ""front"" door to the brain"

suburbanization

"movement away from cities to get a larger home (the ""american dream"") commute for work can be long harder to get quick medical help suburbs form their own economic centers and become independent to cities they border"

does intelligence hold meaning?

"no - it doesn't matter if the musicians are labeled as having a ""high musical talent/ ability"" or a ""high musical intelligence"", they are still damn good"

are all bad experiences the same with taste aversion?

"no water-deprived rats that got sick after drinking sweet water had aversion but those that got shocked after drinking sweet water did not experience aversion - ""if you get physically sick, you probably ate something bad"" - ""if you get physically injured, it probably was caused by something in the environment"""

gate control theory of pain

"non-painful input closes the ""gates"" to painful inputs, which prevents pain sensations from traveling to the central nervous system - stimulation by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain (gate control theory of olfaction = theory of the process of nociception)"

groupthink

"occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing the problem at hand happens in very cohesive, insulated groups - often have important/ respected leads ad in the interest of group ""unity"", individuals suppress/ sensor their own opinions first suggestion proposed by the leader is adopted - especially if there is little hope in finding a better solution - not the most effective way to make a decision"

sympathetic nervous system

"part of the autonomic nervous system - ""fight or flight"" response starts in the middle of the spinal cord --> short axon synpases with the short ganglia close to spine --> second neuron goes to target cell (smooth, cardiac, gland cells) short and then long"

what stage do babies spend most of their sleep in?

REM stage

REM stage

Stage 4 - eyes move rapidly beneath your eyelids but most of your other muscles are paralyzed - most dreaming occurs in REM (paralysation inhibits action) - waking up during REM allows you to remember your dream - most important for memory consolidation (formation of episodic memories; consolidate procedural memories) - combination of alpha, beta and dyssynchronous waves (similar to beta waves seen when awake) BATS-Drink Blood (beta alpha theta sleep-spindle/ K-complex delta beta)

dopamine produced in the ventral tegmental area

VTA --> prefrontal cortex via mesocortical pathway - associated with cognition, affeect and negative symptoms of schizophrenia VTA --> nucleus accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus via mesolimbic pathway - associated with reward, motivation and positive symptoms of schizophrenia

lexicon

a set of vocabulary items entire set of morphemes in a language

oligarchy

a small group of people having control of a country, organization or institution

minority influence

a smaller group over time is able to persuade the majority to join their side.

imitation

a type of individual social influence - one of the most basic forms of social behavior begins with an understanding that there's a difference between others and ourself

what do social networks provide?

a valuable resource - believed to result in various health benefits for the individual (ex: reduction in the health risk of chronic inflammation)

a great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use legislation and [...]

a great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use legislation and anti-discrimination laws

maladaptive coping techniques: dissociation

ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories and emotions often assoicated with PTSD

conduction (associative) aphasia

ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted when the arcuate fasciculus is damaged makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things, even when they understand what is beeing said

categorical perception

ability to distinguish between sounds in ASL, hand movements and locations are analogous to phonemes

fluid intelligence

ability to reason quickly and abstractly - ex: solving novel logic problems ability to think on one's feet, be adaptable and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning helps one see patterns, organize and identify features and spatial relationships to solve complex problems

nociception

ability to sense pain SLOW reaction

thermoception

ability to sense temperature SLOW reaction

crystallized IQ

ability to use knowledge and experience

lewy bodies

abnormal structures inside dopaminergic neurons of substantia nigra contains a protein alpha synuclein, a normal protein preesent in brain cells under normal conditions, are clumped together in parkinson's

internal (dispositional attribution)

about them

old brain: thalamus

above brainstem relay station (eye/ ear info) sensory functions - all senses have pathways that travel to the thalamus higher functions of brain - cognition and emotion

absolute poverty

absolute level at which if you go below, survival is threatened minimum level of resources a human being needs to survive - approximately $1-2 a day

just world hypothesis: rational techniques

accepts reality prevent or correct injustice - ex: with charities, sign a petition, changes to a legal system, etc

coping styles in schema therapy: surrender

accomodating to the way you are treated and acting as if, and believing, it is the way things should be compliance, dependence - relies on others - gives in - seeks affiliation - passive, dependent, submissive, clining, avoids conflict, people-pleasing, etc

validity

accuracy

what is the basal forebrain important for the production of?

acetylcholine

covert orienting

act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement

3 assumptions for rational choice theory to be true

actions can be listed in order of preference and all preferences are transient assumes person has full knowledge about outcomes due to action people have ability to weigh different actions ((rarely all are true))

relative deprivation theory

actions of groups oppressed/ deprived of rights that others in society enjoy ex: civil rights movement - response to oppression to people of color in the US

confirmation bias

actively seeking out only confirming facts ex: only reading stories about how wonderful a candidate was

6 dimensions of rothbard's definition of temperament

activity level attention span/ persistance fearful distress irritable distress positive affect effortful control

2 stages of withdrawal

acute and post-acute

adaptation is at the [...] lvel and habituation is at the perceptive/ cognitive level

adaptation is at the sensory lvel and habituation is at the perceptive/ cognitive level

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

addresses both cognitive and behacioral components of addiction patients learn to - recognize problematic thought patters and develop more positive thought patters and coping behaviors - anticipate problematic situations and to self-monitor for cravings so they can apply their coping strategies early used successfully for patients addicted to alcohol, cocaine, meth and nicotine - skills learned are long-lasting even when therapy ends

endocrine stress response

adrenal glands - adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex adrenal medulla: catecholamines adrenal cortex: glucocorticoid (cortisol)

ABC model of attitude

affective (emotional) - we may feel or have emotions about a certain object, topic, subject - ex: i am scared of spiders is an emotional attitude and shapes our attitude about spiders behavioral - how we act or behave toward object/ subject - ex: i will avoid (action/ behavior) spiders and scream (action/ behavior) if i see one cognitive - forms thoughts/ beliefs - have knowledge about subject/ topic that will influence and shape our attitudes (perhaps prior knowledge that will help shape attitudes) - ex: i believe spiders are dangerous (belief) which forms our attitude

parts of reflexes

afferent (stimulus) and efferent (response) somatosensory neurons (afferent) lower motor neurons (efferent)

what is trying to fix the inequalities of the delivery of healthcare?

affordable care act

what are the first categories of self that babies learn?

age and gender

dependency ratio

age-based measurement takes people younger than 14 and older than 65, who are not in the labor force, and compares that to # of people who are

types of gender queer (4)

agender gender fluid non-binary third gender

what is counterconditioning a common treatment for

aggresesion, fears and phobias

life course theory

aging is a social, psychological and biological process that begins from the time you are born until the time you die holistic perspective that calls attention to the developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life

agreements often benefit [...] the most

agreements often benefit private industries the most

activist movements

aim to change some aspect of society

modernization theory

all countries follow a similar path of development from traditional to modern societies - with some help, traditional countries can develop similarly to how today's developed countries did

cultural universals

all cultures have a way of dealing with illness, medicine, healing, etc.

step 1 of categorizing with social identity theory

all humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it - part of human nature categorize in order to understand objects/ identify them - ex: by race, job, etc can make pre-judgements about them

random mating

all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other mating is not influenced by environment or heredity or any behavioral/ social limiations ensures a large amount of genetic diversity

broadbent's early selection theory

all information in the environment goes into a sensory register - briefly registers/ stores everything you receive gets transferred to selective filter right away - identifies what you are supposed to be attending to via basic physical characteristics - filters out stuff in unattended ear based on things you don't need to understand to identify (based on voice, pitch, speed, accents, etc) information moves to perceptual processes - identifies friend's voice and assigns meaning to words - can engage in other cognitive processes (ex: deciding how to respons) sensory register --> selective filter --> perceptual process --> conscious

old brain and structures involved (4)

all occur outside our awareness brainstem reticular formation thalamus cerebellum

gender norms

the socially acceptable way of acting out gender learned from birth through childhood socialization - we learn what is expected of our gender from what our parents teach us, as well as what we pick up from school, through religious or cultural teachings, in the media, etc.

what happens if a teacher puts a student in a wrong categorization with different expectations?

the student might just meet the teacher's expectations rather than exceeding them and reaching their true potential

is the hyperglobalist perspective good or bad?

theorists can't agree if it's good or bad

categories of problems

well-defined - clear starting and ending point - clear criteria that describes whether or not the goal has been achieved ill-defined - more ambiguous starting and/ or ending point - does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant information to solve the problem - ex: how to live a happy life

what type of aphasia occurs if the temporal lobe is damaged?

wenicke's aphasia

arcuate fasciculus

what connects the wernicke's and broca's areas bundle of nerve fibers also found in deaf people who know sign language - not specific to spoken language (brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication)

vehicular control

what experimental group does without the directly desired impact

gender script

what we expect men and females to do organized information regarding the order of action that are approximate to a familiar situation

place theory

theory of hearing our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane the pitch of a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of th eprimary auditory neurons posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlear's basilar membrane

"4 theories that answer ""how do our attitudes influence behavior"""

theory of planned behavior - intentions + implications attitude to behavior process model - attitude + outside knowledge --> behavior prototype willingness model (PWM) - 6 functions of behavior elaboration likelihood model for persuasion (ELM) - cognitive approach

gate control theory of pain is the same as what other theory?

theory of the process of nociception

brainwaves

there are 4 main types: alpha, beta, delta, theta each type oscillates at a different frequency and associated with different type of consciousness - beta (awake) > alpha (daydreaming) > theta (drowsiness) > delta (deep sleep) in sleep, the type of wave varies by stage

linguistic universals theory

there are characteristics that remain consistent across all languages of different cultures

difference between self-concept and self-identity

there is none - they are the same thing

what does research suggest about intelligence?

there is only one general intelligence - everything doesn't need to be an intelligence intelligence doesn't hold meaning

somatosensations: types

thermoception (temperature) mechanoception (pressure) nociception (pain) propioception (position)

basilar tuning

varying hair cells in cochlea allows the brain to distinguish between high and low frequency sounds - base (start of cochlea): activated by high frequency (1600 Hz) sounds (shorter wavelength --> travels short) - apex (end of cochlea): activated by low frequency (25 Hz) sounds (longer wavelength --> travels farther) as sound enters the cochlea, it travels and activates the hair cell that matches its frequency --> mapped to a particular part of the brain - primary auditory cortex (part of temporal lobe) receives all information from cochlea --> separated by regions which detect different frequencies (0.5-16 kHz)

types of control (3)

vehicular control positive control negative control

mnemonic devices: pegword system

verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number ex: 1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door, 5 is skydive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, etc. then you pair the list to each of the words you are trying to remember using imagery (ex: broccoli looks like a tree so it's 4th on the list)

language theories on a spectrum

thought ----------------------- language universalism --> piaget --> vygotsky --> weak determinism --> strong determinism

similartities between cooley and mead

thought others can play a significant role in how we viewed ourselves

ossicles

three smallest bones in the body - malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup)

just noticeable difference (jnd)

threshold at which you're able to notice a change in any sensation - ex: 2lbs vs 2.01lbs feel the same but 2lbs vs 2.5lbs would be noticeable

what is sensory register defined by?

time

fixed-interval

time is constant - ex: receiving a check every 2 weeks less incentive - response rate is slower

somatosensory homunculus: brain tumor

to determine which part of the brain is tumor and what is normal, surgeons use an electrode and touch different parts of the cortex, stimulating these cells - patients can be awake, determining where they feel like they're being touched to ensure surgeons aren't removing parts of the cortex involved in sensation

pleasure principle

to gain pleasure or avoid pain to accomplish this, it uses - reflex actions - primary processes (forming a mental image of desired object) - wish fulfillment

why does the authoritarian personailty use prejudice?

to protect their ego avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always so focused on others

what is aversive conditioning uses for?

to stop a particular behavior

tonotopy

tonotopic map special mapping of sound frequencies that are processed by the brain

critiques of world-systems theory

too focused on core countries and economics and ignoring class struggles and culture of individual countries

tyanny of choice

too many choices can negatively impact our cognition and behavior - due to information overload

immigration can cause problems if

too much immigration to one area - social services can't handle such an increase in demand too many skilled people may leave their home country - can be harmful to origin country fear/ dislike of immigrants a different race than those of the host country

is top down or bottom up processing theory driven?

top down

lexicon for ASL

total combination of hand movements, locations, facial expressions and body language that help them form meaningful words

meditation

training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness can be guided and focused on something in particular, like breathing, but can also be unfocused - more alpha waves than normal relaxation in light meditation deep meditation have increased theta waves in brain (only experts typically)

caste system

very little social mobility - role is determined entirely by background you're born to and who you're married to a lot of social stability

PTC cascade

transducin breaks away from rhopsin (alpha subunits binds to another part of the protein called phosphodiesterase [PDE]) --> PDE takes cGMP floating around the molecule --> converts to regular GMP sodium channels around the cell allow the cell to take in Na from the outside --> inside (to be open, cGMP needs to be bound, so channels will be closed) --> less sodium enters the cell --> cell hyperpolarizes and rods turn off

encoding

transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory

dopamine produced in the arcuate nucleus

transmitted from hypothalamus --> pituitary gland via tuberoinfundibular pathway dopamine released regulates secretion prolactin by inhibiting its release in the anterior pituitary

authoritarian parenting

very strict break will of child believes in punishmeent

vibrational theory of olfaction

vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile

who created the sociocultural cognitive development theory?

vygotsky

cornea

transparent thick seat of fibrous tissue covers anterior 1/6th of the eye first part of the eye the light hits - starts to bend light when you go underwater, there is water surrounding the cornea so light will bend a slightly different amount than when there is air around the cornea (why things are blurry underwater; if you wear goggles, it adds a layer of air around the cornea)

positive control

treatment with no known response

treisman's attenuation theory replaces the selective filter with an [...]

treisman's attenuation theory replaces the selective filter with an attenuator

gestalt principles (gestalt's laws of grouping)

tries to explain how we perceive things the way we do (ex: why we think of what's on tv as a fluid active representation of something rather than just pictures - similarity - pragnanz - continuity - closure - symmetry - law of common fate - law of past experiences - contextual effects

gastrulation

trilmainar disk (germ layers formed) - ectoderm - mesoderm - endoderm

sociocultural cognitive development theory

vygotsky - believed children learned actively through hands-on processes - suggest parents, caregivers, cultural beliefs, language, attitudes, etc. are all responsible fo rdevelopment of higher functioning of learning child internalizes information with interaction with others important in development of cognition

differences between vygotsky and kohlberg

vygotsky: hands-on social learning kohlberg: moral reasoning

world-systems theory: core country

w. europe and us strong central government with enough tax to support it economically diversified, industrialized and independent of outside control strong middle and working class focus on higher scope production of material goods rather than raw materials

watch out for [...] when studying animal communication

watch out for anthropomorphism when studying animal communication

culture

way of life shared by groups of individuals the knowledge, beliefs and values that bind a society together very diverse

social facts

way of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will exist after any individual is dead unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual - only noticable when we resist ex: the law, moral regulations, religious fates, social currents

society

way people organize themselves

means of production

way we produce goods (ex: factories and farms) owned by fairly wealthy individuals who hire a large mount of workers which offer their labor without owning any of the means of production

defense mechanisms

ways to protect ourselves - psychological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscoius psychological processes - a way to protect ourselves when we have to deal with unconscious wants, feelings, desires and impulses categorized into 4 categories - pathological - immature - neurotic - mature

important agents of socialization

what we use to transmit culture, values, beliefs about acceptable behaviors and beliefs includes people, organizations and institutions that help us learn about our social world - family (most important) - school - peers - mass media

extinction

when a conditioned stimuli (CS) does not elicit a conditioned response (CR) anymore

deviance

when a norm is violated - not necessarily negative depends on context, individuals, gropus and country - relative, just like norms standards can change based on - symbolic interactionism - theory of differential association - labeling theory - strain theory

fundamental attribution error with internal/external causes

when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when looking for causes of another person's behavior

maladaptive coping techniques: anxious avoidance

when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means most common strategy

obstructive sleep apnea

when airways are obstructed soft tissue around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time - gets worse as people get older at nighttime, this causes snoring or gasping or pauses in breathing at daytime, people are tired/ sleepy and unrefreshed

stages of psychosocial development

trust vs mistrust (0-1 yrs) - virtue: hope autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3 yrs) - virtue: will initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs) - virtue: purpose industry vs inferiority (6-12 yrs) - teachers become important - virtue: competence identity vs role confusion (12-20 yrs) - want to belong in society - virtue: fidelity - most important intimacy vs isolation (20-40 yrs) - virtue: love generativity vs stagnation (40-65 yrs) - bigger picture - virtue: care integrity vs dispair (65+ yrs) - virtue: wisdom

retrieval

trying to remember/ call up a memory of something you learned before - pulling out of long-term memory and bringing it into conscious memory (working memory) sucessful retrieval depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding

sensory register

two components based on type of input - iconic (memory for what you see; lasts half a second) - echoic (memory for what you hear; lasts 3-4 seconds) defined by time

mnemonic devices: pegword + method of loci

two methods that are good for remembering things in order that you already know verbally anchors and links words

approach-approach conflicts

two options are both appealing

when do you use a chi-square test?

when all variables are categorical - looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other

extinctive burst

when an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement, it's original behavior will sometimes spike (increase dramatically) temporarily --> decline --> extinction

self-stigma

when an individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudice and discriminatory experiences they've had may begin to feel rejected by society - avoids interacting with society

schacter-singer theory

two-factor theory of emotion physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion - physiological + cognitive --> emotion - if we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we are able to label/ identify reason for situation ex: a man who is allergic to bees encounters a bee - simultaneously, the man interprets that his allergy to bees makes this encounter threatening so his heart beat increases and he starts sweating --> fear

likelihood that someone will obey (8)

type of authorty giving orderscloseness to authority (someone we respect) physical proximity legitamacy of authority institutional authority victim distance depersonalization role models for defiance

population validity

type of external validity describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole - generalizability

ecological validity

type of external validity looks at the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior

habituation

type of non-associative learning when a person tunes out the stimulus - same stimuli results in a decreased response with episode of stimuli

non-associative learning

when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus learning where no punishment/ reward is occuring with increase/ decrease of response - simply noticing how response changes in relationship to the same stimuli over time

apposition

when blastocyst attaches to the endometrium

social isolation

when community voluntarily isolates itself from mainstream, based on their own religious/ cultural/ other beliefs

beck's cognitive therapy (CT)

type of psychotherapy based on the cognitive model - states that thoughts, feelings and behavior are all connected - individuals can move toward overcoming difficulties and meeting their goals by identifying and changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic behavior, and distressing emotional responses

seismic communication

type of somatosensory communication ex: movement of bugs in spider's web signals the spider to find it

electro-communication

type of somatosensory communication used by electric fish

self-report study

type of survey, questionnaire or poll in which respondents read the question and select a response by themselves without the researcher's interference

latent functions

unintended effects of institutions

amplification

up regulation opposite of sensory adaptation ex: light hits photoreceptor in eye --> cell to fire action potential --> can be connected to 2 cells - by the time gets to the brain, it is amplified

up vs down regulation

up regulation: sensory amplification down regulation: sensory adaptation

3 types of social classes

upper class middle class lower class

hypothesis of relative deprivation

upsurge in prejudice/ discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to linked to frustration aggression hypothesis

intelligence tests

use numerical scores to measure aptitude for those tasks and compare them to how well others do

when dopamine goes up, serotonin goes [...] (partially responsible for feelings of satiation)

when dopamine goes up, serotonin goes down (partially responsible for feelings of satiation)

bipolar I disorder

when hypomania becomes manic with or without major depressive disorder possible to ever experience hypomania but extremely unlikely

incongruity

when ideal-self doesn't match the real self

maladaptive coping techniques: safety behaviors

when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety

game theory

used mostly in social science/ economics - but can also explain everyday behavior tries to predict behaviors we would expect to see when individuals are playing a game - it looks at individual strategies and looks at the behaviors of what other animals will do

bipolar II disorder

when it remains hypomania + one major depressive episode - has never had a manic episode

feature detection

when looking at an object, you need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what you are looking at: color, form and motion

when is encoding the most successful?

when more cognitive effort is actively used - combining encoding strategies is more useful than using one

spontaneous recovery

when old CS elicits responses - doesn't know why this happens usually infrequently - doesn't persist for a long time - less strong

associative learning

when one event is connected to another ex: classical and operant conditioning

neural/ synaptic plasticity

when one part of the brain/ hemisphere is damaged, it doesn't mean the entire brain is damaged - when functions are divided, it's easier for the brain to adapt

identification

when people act/ dress a certain way to be like someone they respect - will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual according to freud, children adopt characteristics of the same-sex parent - involves development of superego by incorporating characteristics of the parent's superegos into the child's own

front stage

when people are in a social setting ex: someone watches baseball with friends even if they don't like baseball - manipulating how he's seen to gain/ make friends

lesion studies: radiofrequency lesions

used to destroy tissue on surface of brain and deep inside brain wire is inserted into the brain to determine the area - then pass high frequency current which heats up and destroys tissue (can varry current intensity/ duration to change size, but destroys everything in the area) can't tell if this area was responsible for the behavior that is not responding, or just has an axon passing through

feature detection: motion

uses magnocellular pathway - has high temporal resolution - poor spatial resolution (no color) rods are responsible

MRI

uses radio waves and are exposed to a magnetic field - radio waves are then added to the magnetic field and disrupts orientation of atoms - as atoms move back to alignment with the magnetic field, they release signals --> creates images doesn't tell us anything about brain function

availability heuristic

using examples that come to mind - choices are based on quick, easily accessible examplees helpful, but our easily memorable experiences don't match the state of the world - ex: shark attacks don't happen as often as people think they do

nativist perspective

innatist/ biological perspective children are born with the ability to learn language associated with noam chomsky - thought humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language all languages shared universal grammer - LAD enables children to pick up on undersatnding those types of words and their organization within a sentence for any language critical period is around 8-9 years old - after 9, it becomes harder to learn a language because LAD only operates in that critical period investigates transformationalist grammar

where does balance come from?

inner ear (focus) and limbs

hearing adaptation

inner ear muscle: - higher noise = muscles contract --> dampens vibrations in inner eat --> protects ear drum - has a few seconds delay so does not work for immediate noises (ex: gunshots, but works for being at a rock concert for an afternoon)

inpatient vs outpatient treatments

inpatient: require residence at a hospital or treatment facility outpatient: can live at home and come in for treatment

embryoblast

inside of a morula

building on brain structures

inside of the brain = older structures/ more simple (ex: breathing, sleeping, etc)

anterior chamber

inside the cornea space filled with aqeuous humor (basically water and salt) - provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball - allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells to cornea/ iris

PTC steps

inside the rods are optic disks stacked on top of one another inside the disks are multimeric proteins (rhodopsin) - consists of 7 subunits inside the protein is a molecule called retinal (11-cis retinal) - when light hits the rod, some of the light will hit the rhodopsin --> causes retinal conformational change from bent (cis) to straight (trans) --> rhodopsin conformational change --> cascade of events cascade of events - transducin breaks away from rhopsin (alpha subunits binds to another part of the protein called phosphodiesterase [PDE]) --> PDE takes cGMP floating around the molecule --> converts to regular GMP - sodium channels around the cell allow the cell to take in Na from the outside --> inside (to be open, cGMP needs to be bound, so channels will be closed) --> less sodium enters the cell --> cell hyperpolarizes and rods turn off

retina

inside, back area filled with photoreceptors - light is transformed from physical waveform --> electrochemical impulse that the brain can interpret - tinted red (when you take a picture, rays enter the eye and bounce back off the retina) sends fibers to the back of the eye so that they can actually go to the brain - form the optic nerve consists of macula (which consists of fovea)

treisman's attenuation theory

instead of complete selective filter, people have an attenuator - weakens, but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority replaces the selective filter with an attenuator - selectively allows the attended message to be processed to a greater extent than the unattended message sensory register --> attenuator --> perceptual process --> conscious Triessman is SHARP as a T. He is smart enough to only attenuate and then perceive

hypnotism

usually involves getting a person to relax and focus on breathing - becomes more susceptible to suggestion in this state, but only if they want to more alpha waves in this stage - an awake but relaxed state can use to retrieve memories - dangerous because memories are malleable (can create false memories, which incorporate hynotizers expectations even when not intended)

otolithic organs

utricle and saccule - beds of sensory cells in the inner ear, specifically small patches of hair cells help us detect linear acceleration and head positioning with respect to gravity - can also use buoyancy force in absence of gravity (especially without visual cues on which way is up/down) CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel - if we go from lying down to standing up, they move and pull on hair cells - triggers action potential that carries this information to the brain

normative culture

values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms - ex: avoidance of crime

heritability

variability of traits that can be attributed to differences in genes heritability = h^2 dependent on the population that is studied - would likely be different in different environments

what is the most effective schedule of reinforcement?

variable-ratio

sociocultural regulation of sex

varied sexual response due to - age - cultural backgrounds - stimulus - emotions - desires

influences on absolute threshold

variety of psychological states - expectations - experience (familiarity) - motivation - alertness

emotional effects of stress: addition

when searching for coping mechanisms, there are good options and bad options - bad options lead to addition impariment to the frontal cortex (reasoning) so impaired judgement can increase likelihood of inappropriate coping mechanisms

signal transduction theory in psychology

when shown 2 lists separately and asked which words on the 2nd list is also present in the 1st = uncertainty

neonatal reflexes: galant

when skin is stroked, baby moves/ swings to the side it was stroked disappears at 6 months

minimum justification principle

when someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through significant rationale can occur after buying something you didn't want to

depersonalization

when victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes and prejudices, people are less likely to object against them symptom of serious mental illness (although it cam happen to anyone) - repeated instances are suggestive of a dissociative disorder

hyperventilation disorder

when we are not able to ventilate our lungs fully and remove all CO2 - results in a buildup of CO2 and a decrease of O2 build up of CO2 can cause right sided heart failure decrease of O2 affects all organs/ tissues of the body - cognitive impairment, heart problems and polycythemia can occur due to medications that repress respiratory functions (narcotic pain killers such as opiods) or if there is a problem with the lungs or chest wall a common occurance is due to obesity

informational social influences

when we confirm because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us - because we think they know something we don't

ego preservation

when we consider our own behaviors, we are more likely to blame our behavior on external factors we consider ourselves victims of circumstances

when does out-group derogation occur?

when we feel that the out-group is threatening to or undermine in-group's success

life-table/ mortality table

when you break mortality rate by age tells you the probability someone will die given their age - can vary from country to country

false consciousness

instead of seeing they have solidarity with one another, they're unable to see their oppression

organizations

institutions designed for specific purpose, collective goal, try to achieve maximum efficiency

social scripts

instructions provided by society on how to act people use them in new situations to know how to act

what is another term for operant conditioning?

instrumental conditioning

operant conditioning

instrumental conditioning focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences - and how those, in turn, influence the behavior

biological regulation of sex: sexual response

investigated by master & johnson excitement phase --> plateau --> orgasm --> resolution/ refractory period

amygdala

involved in emotion, aggression, mating, etc in temporal lobe, involved in memory, decision making, emotional reactions, etc

executive attention

involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes and anticipating the effects of behavior

role strain

when you can't carry out all obligations of a status - tensions within one status causes individuals to be pulled in many directions by one status ex: student has to write 2 papers, 5 reading assignments, give a speech, 2 lab reports, etc., in one week

taste aversion

when you eat something because you like it, but then stop eating it because you became sick from it once (had a bad experience)

ethnographic research

involves observing social interactions in real social settings

aversive conditioning

involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, when an unpleasant stimulus (ex: electric shock or nausea) - shock is the UCS - pain is the UCR usually used to stop a particular behavior

gestalt principles: similarity

items similar to one another grouped together by the brain - brain naturally notices a pattern

theories of emotion

james-lange theory: - physiological --> emotion cannon-bard theory: - physiological + emotion schacter-singer theory: - physicological + cognitive --> emotion lazarus theory: - cognitive --> emotion + physiological

biopsychological theory of personality

jeffrey alan gray proposed personality is governed by the behavioral inhibition (punishment/ avoidance) and activation (reward) system

jobs that demand someone to work in a fast-paced manner typically pay workers on a [...] schedule

jobs that demand someone to work in a fast-paced manner typically pay workers on a fixed-ratio schedule

problem with treisman's attenuation theory

johnson and heinz proposed that the location of the information attenuator (bottleneck) was able to be varied by the listener depending on the demand necessitated by a particular attention task

xenocentrism

judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

ethnocentric

judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture

drowsineess

just before falling asleep/ after waking up can also be self-induced in deep meditation

who's ideas is conflict theory based on?

karl marx

hippocampus

key role in forming new memories - converts short term memories --> long term memories if destroyed, you still have old memories in tact, just can't make new ones - anterograde amnesia

types of altruistic behavior (3)

kin selection reciprocal altruism cost signaling

hindsight bias

knew-it-all-along effect = creeping determinism inclination, after an event has occured, to see the event has having been predictable, despite there having been little to no objective bias for predicting it

who created the moral development theory

kohlberg

moral development theory

kohlberg - focuses on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development - people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) = 6 stages total

amotivation

lack of motivation

vygotsky's view on language

language and thought are both independent, but converge through development - eventually learn to use them both at the same time via socialization believed children develop language through social interaction with adults who already knew the language - through the interaction, they learnt to connect the thoughts and language they eventually learn

discrimination

when you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others

role-playing

when you picture yourself in a new role, it may seeem strange/ fake at first because we're trying to follow social quota in that role - we are trying to fit the role and sound professional but over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you our behavior of playing this rule influences our attitude over time - what feels like acting starts to feeel like you and begins to fit your attitude changed attitude as a result of our behavior and carrying out that role

peter principle

where every employee in the hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach a level of incompetence - they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further

external validity

whether the results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people sample must be completely random and all situational variables must be tightly controlled

grey and white matter in the brain

white is on the inside grey is on the outside axons go down tracks of white matter

circadian rhythms

why you get sleepy in the afternoon regular body rhythms across 24-hour period controlled by melatonin (produced in pineal gland) changes as you age

strong linguistic determinism (sapir-whorfian hypothesis)

language determines thought completely - people understand their world through language and language, in turn, shapes how we experience the world ex: a native tribe called Hoppi does not use grammatical tense in their language, so they could not think about time in the same way as a langauge that does cognition and perception are determined by language one speaks - believes linguistic structure determines how and about what an individual is able to think

linguistic determinism

language has an influence on thought weak and strong hypothesis - refers to how much influence people think language has on thought

language leads to [...]

language leads to thought/ inner speech

fovea

within macula completely covered in cones (no rods)

chorda tympani

within the front 2/3rd of the tongue carries signals via the 7th cranial nerve

glossopharyngeal and vagus

within the posterior 1/3rd of the tongue carries signals via the 9th and 10th cranial nerves

information processing model: process

within working memory (short-term memory) processing occurs at the visuo-spacial sketchpad and phonologic loop - visuo-spatial sketchpad: visual + spatial info are processed in the phonological loop - phonological loop: verbal information (any words + numbres in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed (ex: repeating a phone # to yourself); capacity is about 2 seconds visual and verbal information (like a map that has street names and landmarks) need coordination of the visuo-spacial sketchpad and the phonologic loop - central executive

class consciousness

workers realize they have solidarity with one another and struggle to overcome this oppression and exploitation involves - seizing and obtaining means - redistributing means of production among the workers

working memory can hold [...] pieces of information at a time

working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time

working memory explains the [...]

working memory explains the serial position effect

is multitasking or working on a single fast more efficient?

working on a single task

experimental study

would involve manipulation of variables - independent and dependent variables

CT scans

x-rays to create image of the brain (tumor/ abnormal swelling and bleeding) can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active at a given time slightly lower resolution than MRI but faster - not as good for soft tissue sometimes combined with radioactive dye (like PET scans) to show structure and activity imposed in one image

can a test be reliable but not valid?

yes

is it possible for a minority group to become part of the majority?

yes

is it possible to feel high self esteem but low self-worth?

yes - it is possible to think you are good at something, yet still not feel convinced that you are loveable and worthy

is self a social construct?

yes - our identity is created by interactions with other people and reactions to the other people (and reactions to expectations to society)

is the idea of ego depletion true?

yes - self-control requires a lot of energy and focus ex: those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control than those who didn't resist

can a person with a low self-esteem have high self-efficacy?

yes ex: a perfectionist can have low self-esteem (critical about themselves) but high self-efficacy (still see themselves as capable of doing tasks) - competent at tasks with clear guidelines and lose confidence where there are no clear rules

type of collective behaviors: mass hysteria

large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at the same time reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumors and fears - often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat refers to behavior that occurs when a group reacts emotionally or irrationally to real or perceived threats - characterized by panic and spread of information (or misinformation) by the media

macrosociology

large scale perspective - looking at big phenomena that affects big portions of the population ex: social structures and instituions, whole civilizations/ populations

world-systems theory: periphery

latin america and africa relatively weak government - greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations economy focused on narrow economic activity (1 type usually) - ex: extracting raw materials high percentage of poor/ uneducated people and strong upper class that controls most of the economy - huge inequalities

democracy

law making chosing officials

latent learning

learned behavior is not expressed until required

attitude

learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way to evaluate people, issues, events and objects

can a person have more than one status?

yes ex: can be a son, student, friend, etc

learning-performance distinction

learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things - not performing it doesn't mean you didn't learn it

learning occurs with [...] potentiation

learning occurs with long-term potentiation

classical conditioning

learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus achieved by repeated pairings of the nuetral stimulus with potent stimulus

shaping

learning through sucessively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior

contralateral control

left brain controls right body and right brain controls left body - true for all senses EXCEPT smell (ipsilateral)

lewy body disease

less motor abnormalities from basal ganglia dysfunction and more cognitive dysfunction from loss of function from cerebral cortex separate from parkinson's

3 levels of moral reasoning

level 1: pre-conventional (pre-adolescent) - stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation - stage 2: hedonistic orientation level 2: conventional - stage 3: interpersonal concordance orientation - stage 4: law and order orientation level 3: post-conventional (moral) - stage 5: social contract or legalistic orientation - stage 6: universal ethical principle

method of constant stimulation

levels of a certain property of the stimulus are not related from one trial to the next, but presented randomly.

lewy bodies contains a protein [...], a normal protein preesent in brain cells under normal conditions, are clumped together in parkinson's

lewy bodies contains a protein alpha synuclein, a normal protein preesent in brain cells under normal conditions, are clumped together in parkinson's

2 instinctual drives in psychoanalytic theory

libido - natural energy source - fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc death instinct - drives aggressive behaviors fueled by unsconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/ others

socialization

life-long process where we learn to interact with others everything we considered to be normal is learned through socialization - how we learn to walk, talk, feed ourselves, etc

what happens when light hits your eye?

light enters through pupil hits retina in the back of the eye - composed of rods and cones (takes light and converts it into a neural impulse) phototransduction cascade (process of turning rod from on --> off) - at the rods: light = turned off --> turns on bipolar cell --> turns on retinal ganglion cell --> goes into optic nerve to enter the brain

what kind of relationship does weber's law predict and between what?

linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity

gestalt principles: continuity

lines are seen as following the smoothest path - ex: grouping shapes that are following a continuous line (if there are 2 lines, it organizes into the line that is more smooth or has a less steep angle)

mnemonic devices

link what you are trying to learn into previously exist long-term information that is already in your memory types - imagery - pegword system - method of loci - pegword + method of loci - acronym

c. robert cloninger

linked personality to brain systems in reward/ motivation/ punishment - ex: low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity

subcortical ceerebral nuclei

located deep in the cerebrum

prosody

located on the right hemisphere concerned with larger units of speech (syllables) contribute to linguistic functions - intonation, tone, stress, rhythm may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance - the emotional state of the speakeer - form of the utterance (statement, queestion, command) - presence of irony, sarcasm, emphasis, contrast, focus - other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or by choice of vocabulary

location of somatosensation

location-specific stimuli by nerves are sent to the brain relies on dermatomes

what is the left side of the brain used for?

logical sequential rational analytical objective looks at parts language - need to see an object with the right visual field to be processed by the left brain to be able to name the object

information processing model: output

long-term memory - capacity is unlimited - 2 main categories: explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)

long-term prediction from early temperament is best achieved after age [...]

long-term prediction from early temperament is best achieved after age 3

dopamine-4-receptors and personality

longer dopamine-4-receptors are more likely to be thrill seekers

identifying if someone has a substance use disorder

look at a person's substance - usage - presence of withdrawal - tolerance

cross-sectional study

looking at a group of different people at one moment in time

symbolic interactionist paradigm

looking glass self suggests that the self-concept is more than the product of self-reflection instead, the way in which people see themselves is based on how they believe others perceive them during social interactions

activity theory

looks at how older generation looks at themselves certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/ well-being

signal detection theory

looks at how we make decision under conditions of uncertainty how we distinguish important stimuli vs unimportant noise at what point is a signal strong enough that we are able to notice it

interactionist perspective: mass media

looks at mass media on a micro-level to see how it shapes day to day behavior - how mass media blurs lines between solidary and group activities ex: watching a movie - can be watching with other people but because of societal norms/ theater rules, you can't talk about it with those who you are watching with

resource mobilization theory

looks at social movements from differeent angle - instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/ hinder a social movement (ex: access to resources)

racial formation theory

looks at social/ economic/ political forces that result in racially constructed identities - sometimes real but sometimes only defined by history

environmental justicee

looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups

materialist

looks at what happens in the brain when people think, speak, write, etc

retrospective cohort design

looks back at events that have already taken place

3 main abnormalities of alzheimers

loss of neurons amyloid plaques (plaques are made of beta-amyloid) - occurs in spaces between cells, outside of neurons in abnormal clumps tangles - neurofibrillary tangles (clumps of a protein tau) - located inside neurons

2 universally attractive traits for women

low waist-hip ratio full breasts

depressants

lower body's basic functions and neural activitiy - vasodilate at low; vasoconstrictor at high ex: alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazephines (benzos): (-zelam, -zolam)

frequency

lower frequency --> travels further can listen to different frequencies at the same time - if you add different frequency waves together, you would get weird frequencies that the ear has to break up - can break up because sound waves travel different lengths along the cochlea

conflict theory

macro-perspective the idea that society is made of institutions that benefit the powerful and create inequalities - large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved

where does functionalism come from?

macrosociology

functionalist perspective: role of media

main role is to provide entertainment - occupy our leisure time can act as an agent of socialization - collective experience (ex: watching olympics on TV) - community building (entire internet communities) and can act as enforcer of social norms promoter of consumer culture

depression

major emotional response to stress - problem is anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure, so they perceive more stressors) anterior cingulate (anterior part of frontal cortex) stops responding to serotonin

basal ganglia

major role in motor functions doesn't have UMNs but help motor areas to perform proper movements cognition + emotions

phototransduction cascade (PTC)

makes the brain recognize that there is light entering the eyeball light --> neural impulse by turning off a rod (can turn on other cells and eventually be processed by the brain)

social effects of early puberty

males: both negative and positive consequences - positive: stronger and taller (more athletic) - negative: increased delinquency and alcohol use females: only negatives - teasing, sexual harassment - out of sync with friends in interests

puberty milestones/ landmarks

males: spermanche (first ejactulation) @ 14 years old females: menstruation @ 12/13 years old

middle ear

malleus to stapes (3 ossicles)

megalopolis

many metropolises are connected

coping with stress: perceived support

many studies show lack of control is associated with higher stress low SES increases stress robert sapolsky did an experiment with baboons who had social hierarchy structures similar to humans - primates at the bottom socially experienced more stress than ruling-elite baboons white-hall study showed the same effect based on relative rank in the workplace in humans in britain

tonotopical mapping

mapping of sounds with a higher frequency vs sounds of a lower frequency

personality disorder

marked deviation from how we expect the people to behave or how the person is experiencing the world - this difference leads to distress/ functioning there are 10 personality disorders which are split up into 3 clusters - cluster a (odd and eccentric traits) - cluster b (dramatic, emotional, erratic traits) - cluster c (anxiety and fearful) there is an overlap between the clusters

puberty

marks beginning of adolescence 2 year long sexual maturation period - males: 13 yrs old - females: 11 yrs old sequence of changes is the same - the timing depends on the individual

heterogamy

marriage between 2 individuals who are culturally different

homogamy

marriage between individuals who are, in some culturally important way, similar to each other may be based on SES, class, gender, ethnicity, religion, age, etc

first humanistic theorist

maslow - maslow's hierarchy of needs only 1% of people reach self-actualization

difference between maslow and rogers

maslow: actualizes rogers: accepts - believes people can actually reach self-actualization

mass psychogenic illness (epidemic hysteria)

mass hysteria can be a result of psychology when large amounts of people believe they have the same illness despite lack of disease

several theories of social movements form (4)

mass society theory relative deprivation theory resource mobilization theory rational choice theory

pituitary gland

master gland anterior: FLAT-PEG - FH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, endorphins, GH posterior: ADH + oxytocin intermediate lobe: pars intermedia - MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone)

4 sources to determine strong or weak self-efficiacy

mastery of experience - strengths social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, it helps overcome self-doubt psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/ elevate mood in difficult/ challenging situations can improve self-efficacy

why is culture lab common in societies?

material culture change rapidly while non-material culture tends to resist change

[...] is a marker for healthcare systems

maternal mortality rate is a marker for healthcare systems

what are animals trying to communicate? what is the main function of animal communication?

mating rituals (to attract opposite sex) - some animals use bright colors, complicated dances, specific verbal calls, etc to establish/ defend territory to convey information about food location alarm calls (warn about predators) signal dominance and submission

operation span

maximum number of words that can be recalled

what does a reappearance of prenatal reflexes in adulthood mean?

means the adult has a serious medical problem

predictive validity

measure of how well a test predicts abilities involves testing a group of subjects for a certain construct and then comparing them with results obtained at some point in the future extent to which an assessment is able to predict something it should be able to predict

split-half method

measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured

concurrent validity

measures the test against a benchmark test - measures how well a test matches up with a benchmark test (which is usually another valid measure of the same construct) high correlation --> strong criterion validity

self-serving bias

mechanism of preserving our self-esteem - more common in individualistic cultures if we suceed, it's due to our internal/ personal qualities - if we fail, we contribute it to factors outside of our control

receptors on the skin

mechanoreceptors - closest to the skin there are others deeper

what controls the circadian rhythms?

melatonin

utilitarian organization

member are paid/ rewarded for their efforts ex: businesses and government jobs ex: universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time)

normative organization

members come together through shared goals - positive sense of unity ex: religion groups ex: MADD (mothers against drunk driving)

coercive organization

members don't have a choice about membership - usually highly structured and have very strict rules ex: prisoners in prison ex: military (need to be discharged to leave)

who are animals communicating with?

members of the same species members of other species auto-communication (themselves)

earliest symptoms of alzheimer's

memory loss - particularly difficult to retrieve or decode recent memories (short-term memories) can still remember details about their childhood, how to use objects, procedural memory, episodic memory, semantic memory, etc.

autobiographical memory

memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at a particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory

schema

mental blueprint containing common aspects of the world

somantic symptom disorders

mental disorders can exacerbate existing physical conditions or can directly lead to their own physical symptoms can be any symptom may or may not be able to explain what we see (the physical condition) must cause functional impairments

schemas

mental models framework for us to organize and interpret new information - need to grow/ change models to develop through assimilation and accomodations piaget's belief of cognitive development was in the development of schemas

intelligence

mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems and use your knowledge to adapt to new situations

methods of problem solving: heuristics

mental shortcut that allows us to find solution quicker than trial + error and algorithm reduces # of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminates trying unlikely possibilities - doesn't guarantee a correct solution but simplifies a complex problem ex: focusing on one category of solutions (guessing an unknown password that contains your birthday) two methods: - means-end analysis - working backwards

evolution can shape culture, but can culture shape human evolution?

yes ex: hunter-gatherer society vs farming society - people moved less and populations grew - because of this, people were more exposed to outbreaks of disease - since only those who survived were the ones not killed by diseases, our culture/ these communities helped shape our immune systems

when we think of social positions, can there be movement?

yes, in various ways can move horizonally (horizonal mobility) - can move within the same system can move vertically (vertical mobility) - move up or down social hierarchy

trichromatic theory of color vision

you have cones that are receptive to 3 colors: red, green and blue - these 3 colors are mixed together to perceive all of the colors

opponent process theory of color vision

you have cones that perceive 4 colors: red, green, blue and yellow - red and green cones oppose each other - blue and yellow cones oppose each other - black and white sensitive cones are also opponents between these opponents, only one color can dominate at a time

learned helplessness

you learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control - lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because you are taking less control of outcomes in your life - cycle continues downward into major depression

you remember some actions a bit more if the action is [...]

you remember some actions a bit more if the action is unusual

why does discrimination have an adaptive value?

you want to respond differently to related stimuli

sleep stages

your brain goes through distinct brain patterns during sleep 4 main stages that occur in 90 minute cycles (cycle through these 4-5 times per sleep) - Step 1-3: N1, N2 and N3 are associated with non-REM sleep - Step 4: REM how long each stage lasts depends on how long you've been asleep and your age - babies spend more time in REM sleep More REM sleep before you wake up More N3 sleep right as you go to bed

state-dependent retreival

your state (or mood) at the moment you encode when you are in a certain mood when you encode, you can remember it when you are in the same mood ex: if you learn something while drunk, you'll remember it next time you're drunk - this happens because being drunk provides an internal retrieval cue to your brain

where does splitting occur during embryogenesis?

zona pellucida

social facilitation

most dominant response for a particular behavior would be shown - response most likely to occur occurs when individuals performs manageable task in front of an audience - challenging task might increase arousal beyond optimal and interferes with performance - increased arousal only occurs when the person's efforts are being evaluated

mary rothbard

most influential model of temperament combines related traits by thomas and chess - yields 6 dimensions activity level attention span/ persistance fearful distress irritable distress positive affect effortful control

developmental equilibrium

most information we encounter, we can assimilate and be back at a state of equilibrium - information --> assimilation --> equilibrium but sometimes, assimilation can't cause us to come into equilibrium and we engage in accomodation instead - information --> accomodation --> equilibrium (gain new schema)

cranial nerves

most of cranial nerves are attached to the brainstem - does many things 12 pairs all sorts of functions

most of our behaviors are on a [...]

most of our behaviors are on a partial reinforcement schedule

old brain: brainstem

mostly covered by the brain midbrain, pons, medulla (medulla oblongata) neuron somas scattered throughout brainstem is the reticular formation controls heart beat/ breathing crossover point for our nerves Pavlov's Really Frickin' Mad

socialism

motivated by what benefits society as a whole common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands

drive-reduction motivation

motivation based on the need to fulfill a certain drive (ex: hunger or thirst)

social mobility

movement of individuals, social groups or categories of people between the layer or strata in a stratification system

urbanization

movement of people from rural to urban areas

kinaesthesia

movement of the body more behavioral (ex: if I move in this direction, I will hit the baseball) not the same as proprioception - but both help tell you where your body is in space

internal migration

moves within the same country - doesn't change the population of the country but can effect economics/ culture of the country

gender fluid

moving across genders

problem solving

moving from a current state to a goal state

lesion studies: neurochemical lesions

much more precise method exitotoxic lesions - chemicals that bind to glutamate receptors and cause influx of calcium that causes so much excitement that it kills the neurons/ excites it to death ex: kainic acid - destroys cell bodies but doesn't influence axons passing by - doesn't sever connections like in knife cuts/ radiofrequency lesions ex: oxidopamine (6-hydroxydopamine) - selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons - can model parkinson's disease - very similar to dopamine (in reuptake, the presynaptic cell takes the oxidopamine back for recycling but then this neuron is destroyed; destroys substantia niagra neurons completely)

2 universally attractive traits for men

muscular chest v-shaped torso - broad shoulders - narrow waist

fungiform papillae

mushroom-shaped (folded) structures located on the tip and sides of the tongue consists of taste buds

conversion disorders

must look like neurological symptoms only - we cannot explain these symptoms based on test or clinical exam - sometimes have a level of psychological stress or traumatic events resulting in manifestation of neurological symptoms DSM-5: individual must exhibit at least 1 symptom of altered voluntary motor or sensory function that shows internal inconsistency, causes distress or impairment and cannot be explained by another mental or medical disorder ICD-10-CM: weakness (paralysis) and abnormal movement (tremor) listed as specific symptom types

theories of language development

nativist (innatist/ biological) - noam chomsky learning (behaviorist) - bf skinner interactionist - vygotsky

nativist perspective investigates [...]

nativist perspective investigates transformationalist grammar

aging

natural process which comes with changes in memory

sexual selection

natural selection arising through preference for one sex for characteristics in individuals of the other sex

need [...] from culture to allow a society to work

need human ideas from culture to allow a society to work

feature detection: form

need to figure out boundaries of the object and shape of the object brain uses parvocellular pathway (pink pyramid is a type of shape) - good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape - high levels of detail) and color - poor temporal (can't detect motion - only stationary) cones are responsible

intramuscular drug entry

needle stuck into muscle - can deliver drugs to your system slowly or quickly - fastest route of entry (most abused drugs are injected intravenously) quick deliver: (ex. epiPen) slow delivery: (ex: vaccines)

stereotype threat

negative consequence of stereotyping self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype - exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually decrease an individual's performance of that task

addiction/ reward pathways

negative consequences don't affect the brain if you give a non-addicted rat regular food it likes with a substance that makes it sick, the rat learns to avoid the food (it stops liking it) if you have an addicted rat its favorite drug paired with a substance that makes it sick, it still wants that drug

is drive-reduction positive or negative reinforcement?

negative reinforcement

distress

negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body - happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you in some way (physically or emotionally) and your body becomes primed to respond to the threat

[...] is more common than child abuse

neglect is more common than child abuse

what does stress trigger?

nervous system (sympathetic nervous system; part of ANS) endocrine response - hormones

social capital

network of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively provide valuable resource types include - peer networks - family network - community network

connectome

neural map of the connections within the brain

processing

neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception

prosopagnosia

neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar people based on facial information alone

synthestasia

neurological phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiencees in a second sensory or cognitive pathway ex: tasting a particular taste whenever you see a particular color

freud

neurologist and went to study hypnosis - turned him to medical psychopathology (psychiatry/ psychologist as we knew it was unknown before his work) psychoanalytic theory

dopamine produced in the substantia nigra

neuron soma --> axons projecting into the caudatee nucleus and the putamen of the neostriatum via nigrostriatal pathway associated with motor planning and purposeful movement

neustress

neutral type of stress happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but doesn't actively or directly affect you ex: news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world

retroactive interference

new learning impairs old information refers to later information interfering with memory of earlier information ex: writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address

can a test be valid but not reliable?

no

institutions need a very specific individual

no - need many of them - each individual is replaceable

is the mass society theory still persisting today?

no - people only join to satisfy a psychological need for involvement

can the thesis + antithesis coexist peacefully?

no - thesis is happy while antithesis is always looking for change

do humans use pheromones?

no - we have a vomeronasal system but no accessory olfactory bulbs

is growth rate always a positive number?

no - while world population grows, growth rate of some countries is negative

can self-esteem last without self worth?

no - you need both to have an long-term impact

dictatorship

no consent of citizens - obedience to authority

free recall

no cues in recalling better recalling first items on a list (primacy effect) as well as the last few (recency effect) - harder to remember things in the middle of a list

are all labors valued the same?

no ex: garbage men (essential to society) are not valued as athletes (non-essential)

is the just world hypothesis always true?

no people are not always rewarded for their actions and punished for their evil deeds - ex: people living in poverty didn't necessarily do anything bad to get to that point

blind spot

no photoreceptors (codes or rods) - where optic nerve connects to retina and exits the eye at the fovea, there are no axons in way of light to get higher resolution - dimples at retina because these photoreceptors are connected to other neurons that send axons through the optic nerve into the brain - no axons = light hits cones directly --> less light gets to rods at the periphery, light has to go through bundle of axons (some energy is lost) --> less light actually hits rods and cones

urban sprawl

no planning of suburbs once people leave

does deprivation improve self control?

no removing the object of temptation completely is problematic - can make you want it moore - leads to ego depletion (takes a lot of effort to deprive yourself of something completely)

is delivery of healthcare equal?

no we take care of elderly through medicaid and medicare and children through health child insurance, but the people in between are left behind (those that populate the working class)

is circadian rhythm constant throughout your life?

no, it changes as you age

slow somatosensations

nocireceptors (pain) thermoreceptors (temperature) has small diameter axons

timing of somatosensation

non adapting - neuron consistency fires at a constant rate fast adapting - neuron fires as soon as stimulus starts - then stops firing - starts again when stimulus stops slow adapting - neuron fires beginning of stimulus - calms down after a while

somatosensations: timing

non-adapting neuron: consistently fires action potentials - can look at active potentials and there is an equal amount of space between each successive action potential (no change in firing rate) slow adapting neuron: start firing really quickly (a lot of action potentials) --> over time it will slow down (space between action potentials increase) fast adapting neuron: fire quickly as soon as stimulus starts --> stops firing --> fires again when stimulus stops

what type of learning is habituation?

non-associative

what type of learning is sensitization?

non-associative

sensitization

non-associative learning increased when responsiveness to a repeated stimulus ex: repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise

dishabiutation

non-associative learning when previously habituated stimulus is removed

cultural capital

non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means ex: education, intellect, style of speech, dress, physical appearance, etc

broca's aphasia

non-fluent aphasia damage to the language production centers of the brain produces broken/ halted speech - but you can understand what someone else is saying frontal lobe region is damaged characterized by apraxia - disorder of motor planning, which causes problems producing speech

assortative mating

non-random mating individuals with certain phenotypes, genotypes, similarities, genes, physical appearances, etc. tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency ex: large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals can result in inbreeding

classification of norms: mores

norms based on moral values/ beliefs - dependent on group's values of right and wrong generally produces strong feelings - stronger if more is violated ex: truthfulness does not have serious consequences

classification of norms: laws

norms based on right and wrong but have formal/ consistent consequences ex: public figures who lie under oath does something morally wrong but also violates laws of the court there is punishment for the crime - violation can be simple (ex: J-walking) or severe (ex: murder) there is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law

sleep

not aware of self or world around you

non-binary

not identifying with any specific gender

is mcdonaldization a bad thing?

not necessarily - is pervasive throughout society

is aging associated with declines in cognitive performance?

not necessarily - some abilities decline, some remain stable and some improve

frustration aggression hypothesis

not personality based, but more emotional someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice - frustration --> aggressive impulses --> directed towards people

can you avoid the looking-glass self?

not really - simply one sociological construct for understanding how we build our sense of self

collective behavior vs group behavior

not the same beeacuse - collective behavior is time limited and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long periods of time - collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive - collectives have loose norms (which are murkily defined) while groups have strongly held/ well-defined norms

problem with the cognitive economy principle

not true for all categories people tend to categorize a pig as an animal faster than a pig as a mammal

what did erving goffman notice about people in his study of people's interactions?

noticed people - planned their conduct - want to guide and control how they're seen - act differently when alone than in public

acetylcholine

nuclei in the frontal lobe --> released to cerebral cortex (released for LMNs and the ANS) - basilis and septal nuclei involved in helping you contract your muscles

raphe nuclei

nuclei that releases serotonin also sends serotonin to other parts of the nervous system

authoritarian personality

obedient to superiors don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves oppressive rigid thinkers inflexible with their viewpoints

distal stimuli

objects and events out in the world about you aware of and respond to this - this is what is important

gestalt principles: closure

objects grouped together are seen as a whole - mind fills in missing information - ex: you fill in a triangle even if there is none

gestalt principles: proximity

objects that are close are grouped together - we naturally group the closer things together rather than things that are farther apart

culture is typically learned through... (3)

observation interactions biological components (shaped through evolution)

flynn effect

observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the next

case-control study

observational study where 2 groups differing in outcomes are identified and compared to find a causal factor ex: comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar

hawthorne effect

observer effect type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed

mesopic vision

occurs at dawn or dusk involves both rods and cones

photopic vision

occurs at high light levels

scotopic vision

occurs at levels of very low light

inbreeding

occurs if animals too genetically similar mate increases likelihood of harmful recessive traits being passed on to offspring

information processing model: input

occurs in sensory memory (sensory register) - where you first interact with information in your environment - temporary register of all information your senses are taking in

cultural component of fundamental attribution error

occurs more in individualistic societies who place an emphasis on individual achivement

active touch

occurs when a pesron uses haptic percetion to actively inspect an object

divided attention

occurs when an individual must perform 2 tasks which require attention, simultaneously

attentional capture

occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention

elder abuse

occurs when family isn't ready for responsibility of taking care of elders and expense of nursing homes

medicalization

occurs when human conditions previously considered normal gets defined as medical conditions - subject to studies, diagnosis and treatment process in which something, usually a behavioral problem (ex: alcoholism) becomes described and treated as a medical condition when it was not previously conceived in that way

attrition bias

occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study

steric theory of olfaction (shape theory)

odors fit into receptors similar to a lock-and-key

disengagement theory

older adults and society separate - assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age - separation allows for self-reflection considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable

pathway for olfaction

olfactory bulb --> amygdala and piriform cortex --> orbitofrontal cortex

olfactory epithelium

olfactory sensory cells area in the nostril

why do organizations become bureaucratic over time?

once a person gains leadership in an organization, they may be hesitant to give it up - those with power have vested interest in keeping it - those with power might have skills that make them valuable

long-term potentiation (LTP)

one example of synpatic plasticity connection between neurons strengthens - new cells are not grown with repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron stimulation converts into greater post-synaptic neuron potential --> stronger synapse - when it lasts a long time, it is called LTP how learning occurs

coping with stress: social support

one of the best coping mechanisms of stress allows us to confide the painful/ difficult feelings and allows us to understand we are not alone in stress - helps in our perceived control and optimism

approach-avoidance conflict

one option has both spects, but here there are 2 options

decay

one reason forgetting happens when we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we cant recall it anymore initial rate of forgetting/ decay is high but levels off over time

5 factor model (big 5 personality traits)

openness conscientiousness extroversion agreeableness neuroticism OCEAN 5

opiates/ opioids

opiates: natural (T=Tree=Natural) opioids: synthetic - opiate binds to opioid receptors by mimicking endorphins - vasodilator and pupillary constrictions ex: heroine, codeine, morphine, oxycodone - leads to euphoria (why its taken recreationally) - can die by respiratory failure

peptide neurotransmitters

opiods (endorphins) - perception of pain

dis-assortative mating (non-assortative mating)

opposite of assortative individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random

optic nerves

optic nerves from both eyes reach a point where they converge (optic chiasm) --> breaks off and dig deeper into the brain - all light that hits the temporal side of either eyeball does NOT cross the optic chiasm - allows information entering right visual field --> left side of the brain

stages of psychosexual development

oral (0-1 yrs) - mouth - development: feeding - trust and comfort - ego develops anal (1-3 yrs) - anus - development: toilet training - control and independence phallic (3-6 yrs) - genital - development: oedipus (boys) and electra (girls) complex - identification - superego develops - most important latent (6-12 yrs) - none - development: socialism skills - social and communication skills genital (12+ yrs) - genital (again) - development: sexual maturity - individual needs Old Age Parrots Love Grapes

[...] is associated with the processing of both positively and negatively balanced emotions

orbitofrontal cortex is associated with the processing of both positively and negatively balanced emotions

institutional discrimination

organization discrimination - ex: banks, schools, etc ex: brown vs board of education in 1954

3 things for a social movement to gain momentum

organization, leadership and resources

social cognitive theory

originally called social learning theory theory of behavior change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment unlike behaviorism (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important social factors, observational learning and environmental factors can influence your beliefs

impression management

our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage to be viewed in a positive way

constancy

our perception of object doesn't change, even if the image cast on the retina is different

sensory adaptation (and what are they?)

our senses are adaptable can change their sensitivity to stimuli hearing touch smell proprioception sight

trophoblast

outside of the morula

perceived similarity

over time, interests and beliefs are more aligned with someone you've been with for a while - reason why couples stay together can just be perceived - think the other person is similar to them but aren't actually

serial position curve/ effect

overall tendency to recall first few items well, last few items well and middle items not so great

conformity

peer pressure - tendency for people to bring behavior in line with group norms - powerful in social situations we use social situations to determine what is acceptable, when to question authorities, and get feedback on behavior

socio-culture and how it relates to aggression

people act more aggressively in groups - de-individualization (when an individual loses self-awareness in groups) social scripts - instructions provided by society on how to act - what people rely on in new situations

kin selection

people act more altruistically to close/ kin than distant/ non-kin people same when people share last names (especially if people have rare last names)

reciprocal altruism

people are more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future giving with expectation of future reward we feel more obligated to help someone if they have helped us - why charities send out small gifts- so you hopefully respond by giving a larger gift in the future

rational choice theory

people are not only motivated by money but do what's best to get better for their own personal gain - assumes that everything people do is fundamentally rational

rational choice theory

people compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and chose the ones they think is best for themselves - these choices shape pattern of behavior in society

rural rebound

people getting sick of cities and moving back out to rural areas - people who can affoord to leave the city and looking for simpler/ slower life happens relatively near to urban centeers so residence have convenience of a big city

cost signaling

people have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past - signals that the person is open to cooperation

yerkes-dodson law

people perform best when they are moderately aroused - bell-shaped curve relationship between long-term memory and fear follows this curve - extreme emotional response usually impacts memory negatively - moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall

recency bias

people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/ recent performancees, more than ones before

assumption of exchange theory

people seek to rationally maximize their profits behavior results in a reward is likely to be repeated - more often reward is available the less valuable it is

4 main points of culture

people share culture in society culture is adaptive culture builds on itself culture is transmitted

randomized controlled trial

people studied randomly given one of the treatments undeer the study used to test efficacy/ side effects of medical interventions (ex: drugs) gold standard for a clinical trial

continuity theory

people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives over time as people age, they make decisions that preserve the structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging

mass society theory

people who are socially isolated are especially vulnerable to the appeals of extremist movement

social reproduction

people with rich parents end up wealthy themselves

emotional intelligence

perceive, understand, manage and use emotions in interactions with others

confidence level/ interval

percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true population parameter

what is another term for in-attentional blindness?

perceptual blindness

visual cues allows us to do what by taking into account what 4 cues?

perceptually organize depth, form, motion, constancy

learned behavioral traits

persistent changes in our behavior that results from our experiences present at birth, but is acquired after experience with the environment has the following characteristics - non-inherited - extrinsic - permutable - adaptable - progressive

important element of social cognitive theory

personal control

parts of social identity theory

personal identity - things unique to each person (ex: personality traits) social identity - include the group you belong to in the community

behaviorist theory

personality is the result of learned behavior pattens based on a person's environment deterministic - people began as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/ personalities - does not take thoughts and feelings into account environment --> behavior focuses on observable and measurable behavior

most important psychosexual stage

phallic stage

regression to the mean

phenomenon in which, over time, scores become more average

group polarization

phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members - a stronger version of the decision is adopted for a viewpoint to influence a group's final decision making - all the view does not have equal influence - viewpoint is shared by majority - arguments made tend to favor majority group view - criticism is directed towards minority - confirmation bias towards majority

components of language (5)

phonology morphology semantics syntax pragmatics

components of major depressive disorder

physical and emotional components - sadness + SIG: E CAPS: suicidal thoughts interests decreased guilt: - energy decreased - concentration decreased - appetite disturbance - psychomotor changes/ symptoms - sleep distubrnaces

material culture

physical and technological aspects of our daily lives - ex: food, house, cell phones, etc

proximal stimulus

physical stimulation that is available to be measured by an observer's seensory apparatus can also refer to the neural activity that results from the sensory transduction of the physical stimulation - patterns of stimuli that reach your senses

what can be selected for in charles darwin's theory of evolution?

physical trait and behaviors

3 components of emotion

physiological cognitive (can vary from person to person) - results from emotions and can cause emotions behavioral - expressions vary by individual and culture

sound (auditory waves) path

pinna (outer ear) --> auditory canal (external auditory meatus) --> tympanic membrane (eardrum) --> causes malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup) to vibrate - stapes is attached to oval window (elliptical window) --> vibrates --> pushes fluid around cochlea (round structure lined with hair cells - tip of cochlea --> goes back to the round window (circular window) --> pushes it out - cant go back to the oval window because in the middle of cochlea is the organ of Corti (basilar membrane and tectorial membrane) - cilia moves back and forth in cochlea --> electric impulse is transported by auditory nerve to the brain

external/ outer ear

pinna to tympanic membrane

place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the [...]

place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlear's basilar membrane

deutch & deutch's late selection theory

places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes - you DO register and assign everything meaning, but then selective filter decides what you pass onto conscious awareness (moved the selection filter from before perception to after the perceptual process) sensory register --> perceptual process --> selective filter --> conscious the Dutch pay attention (perceptualize) to EVERYTHING

wernicke's encephalopathy

precursor to korsakoff's syndrome damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion and/ or memory loss if diagnosed at this stage early, it can reverse damage or at least prevent further damage - if untreated, will progress to korsakoff's syndrome

just world hypothesis

predictable results as a consequence for our actions noble actions performed/ good deeds by an individual are rewarded while evil acts/ deeds are always punished

what undergoes the most development from birth?

prefrontal cortex

components that make up prejudice: affect

prejudice carries an emotional component

prejudice vs discrimination

prejudice: attitudes that prejudge a group; makes assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences discrimination: differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities

trial

presentation of both stimuli

sound waves

pressurized air molecules --> try to escape - creates areas of high and low pressure can be far apart or close together - different soundwave = different noise

necessary to hear sound

pressurized sound wave (stimuli) hair cell (receptor)

what does the method of constant stimulation prevent?

prevents the subject from being able to predict the level of the next stimulus - reduces errors of habituation and expectation

bias

prevents us from making correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made can result from - overconfidence - believe perseverance - confirmation bias

primacy and recency events are more important to developing [...]

primacy and recency events are more important to developing memory

primary group vs in-group

primary group: core social group; long-term relationships formed in-group: group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.

primary groups provide an [...]

primary groups provide an anchorpoint

what did thurnston's 7 factors of intelligence focus on?

primary mental abilities

priming retrieval

prior activation of nodes/ associations, often without our awareness ex: reading a story about rabits and then hearing the word hair/ hare - you are more likely to think of the word hare

capitalism

private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand

central sleep apnea

problem with the brain's control system for ventilation (that control brain for breathing)

bureaucratization

process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy ex: customer service - now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you

stress

process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges encompasses both the stressor and the stress reaction

gatekeeping

process by whitch a small number of people and corporations control what information is presented on the media - describes informattion and how it moves through a series of gates before they reach the public has more effect on some media than others - ex: lots of control on big-budget movies but little overhead control on what's posted onlinee

illness experience

process of being ill and how people cope with illness - being ill can change a person's self-identity (with a chronic disease)

attribution

process of inferring causes of events/ behaviors can be either internal or external

social network analysis (SNA)

process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theories

social dysfunction

process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society

positive feedback

process that increases production of product - one product stimulates production of another product ex: domino or chain effect

negative feedback

process that needs to be controlled to decrease product - ex: in our body put into place to inhibit production of product

vigilance attention and signal detection

processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest - allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest (ex: a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken)

4 different dopamine pathways

produced in arcuate nucleus (hypothalamus --> pituitary) - tuberoinfundibular pathway - regulates prolactin by inhibiting it produced in substantia nigra (neuron soma --> axons) - nigrostriatal pathway - associated with motor planning and purposeful movemement produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA --> prefrontal cortex) - mesocortical pathway - associated with cognition, affect and negative symptoms of schizophrenia produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA --> nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus) - mesolimbic pathway - associated with reward, motivation and positive symptoms of schizophrenia

dopamine as it relates to drugs

produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in the midbrain --> sends dopamine to areas that have dopamine uptake receptors - prefrontal cortex (focus attention and planning) - amydala - nucleus accumbens (NAcc, controls motor functions) - hippocampus (part of temporal lobe, involved in memory formation)

psychoanalytic theory: defense mechanisms

projection - projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another reaction formation - someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/ feel regression - regresses to position of a child in problematic situations sublimation - unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful

defense mechanisms: immature (2)

projection - throw your attributes to someone else - ex: accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous - can cause projective identification (person targeted with projection can start believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them) - ex: the person now actually feels jealous and believes that they are a jealous person passive aggression - aggressively doing something for someone and failing to do it or doing it slowly - passive way to express your anger

biological regulations of sex: hormones

prolactin - related to sexual gratification - associated with relieving sexual arousal after orgasm endorphins - produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure - released post-orgasm oxytocin - released post-orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners

endometrium

proliferates in the blastocyst stage outer trophoblasts divide into the endometrium has blood vessels that are getting bigger - trophoblasts are getting larger and they start to fuse (syncitiotrophoblast) + cytotrophoblast (the ones that used to be trophoblast)

stage 2 of elaboration likelihood model

proocessing stage by message/ source central processing: focus on a deep processing of the information peripheral processing: focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of information) - ex: attractiveness of speaker, their powerpoint attractiveness, how many points the speaker made, how many times the audience got to laugh, etc.

psychoanalytic theory

proposed by freud personality is shaped by childhood experiences, a person's unconscious thoughts/ desires, feelings and past memories (particularly experiences in childhood)

convergent intelligence

proposed by guilford to describe IQ tests related to intelligence - ex: puzzles, vocabulary words and arithmetic

biological theory: hans eysenck

proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness) introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation

raymond attell

proposed we all had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality - turned this into 16 personality factor questionnaire

information processing model

proposes our brains are similar to computers - we get input from environment --> process --> output decisions bottom-up or stimulus driven model assumes limited storage capacity assumes serial processing - however, the human brain as the capacity for parallel processing

weak social constructionism

proposes that social constructs are dependent on - brute facts (most basic, fundamental facts) - institutional facts (created by social conventions and rely on other facts)

ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of hierarchy of organization

pros: clarify who is in command cons: deprive people of a voice in decision making (especially those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks - allows individuals to hide their (often serious) mistakes

ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of written rules and regulations

pros: clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, sense of unity/ continuity to organization cons: stiffens creativity, too much structure discourages employees from taking initiative - can lead to goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization)

ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of employment based on technical qualifications

pros: decrease discrimination cons: decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more) - leads to peter principle, where every employee in the hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach a level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further)

ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of impersonality

pros: equal treatment cons: alienation, discourage loyalty to the group

pros and cons of sound communication in animals

pros: fast and can reach many members at once cons: loud, so not very private and can expose an animal's location

pros and cons of conflict theory

pros: models drastic changes that occur in a society cons: doesn't explain the stabliity a society can experience, how society is held together (unity), despite some members not liking the status quo

ideal bureaucracy: pros and cons of division of labor

pros: people are better at tasks and increased efficiency cons: increased alientation in workers, separating them from other works and they don't see the work from beginning to end - can lead to less satisfaction --> less productivity - can lead to trained incapacity, wheree workesr are so specialized in tasks, they lose touch with overall picture

gustducin

protein associated with sensation of taste

classes of hormones (3)

protein/ polypeptide - small --> large steroids - from cholesterol - lipids - not charged (can pass freely through the membrane) tyrosine derivatives - thyroid hormones and catecholamines

psychoanalytic vs behaviorist theory (differences)

psychoanalytic - focuses on mental behavior behaviorist - focuses on observable behavior

primary difference between psychoanalytical and humanistic theory

psychoanalytical: deterministic - behavior is determined by unconscious desires humanistic: basic motive is actualizing tendency - focuses on the conscious

opponent-process theoery

psychological and neurological model that accounts for a wide range of behaviors, including color vision

diathesis-stress model

psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences

lewis terman

psychologist of standford university who furthered/ modified binet's intelligence test - noted that binet's test was not predictive of US children incorporated teenagers and adults named the stanford-binet intelligence test - started being used to measure intelligence of immigrants (huge problem because it tested language ability)

2 different ways a person can conform

publically - outwardly changing but inside you maintain your core beliefs - you only outwardly agree with the group privately - change behaviors or opinions to align with the group

andrew meltzoff

published study that questioned theory that understanding between self and others happen soon after birth suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others - babies 12-21 days old copied sticking their tongue out

maslow's hierarchy of needs

pyramid - we have basic needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top (in order) physiological safety love self-esteem self-actualization (differs from person to person) please stop liking stupid shit please safely love (OR) else suffer

2 ways of intramuscular drug entry

quick deliver: (ex. epiPen) - delivers epinephrine quickly and allows airways to open if having an allergic reaction - usually on thigh because it has the most access points to blood vessels slow delivery: (ex: vaccines) - why your arm gets sore after shots

prejudice and discrimination is based on what? (5)

race ethnicity power social class prestige

racialization

racial identity ascribed to a minority group

what is the right side of the brain used for?

random intuitive holistic synthesizing subjective looks at wholes action/ perception/ attention

mating strategies (3)

random mating assortative mating dis-assortative mating (non-assortative)

what is the gold standard for a clinical trial?

randomized controlled trial

how do you measure the factors that contribute to total growth rate?

rates (birth, migration and death rates) over one year per 1000 people

rational choice perspective assumes that individual behavior will be based on an implicit analysis of [...] of actions

rational choice perspective assumes that individual behavior will be based on an implicit analysis of cost and benefit of actions

rational choice theory vs exchange theory

rational choice theory - people always take rational actions, weighing costs and benefits of each action to gain the most benefit - 3 assumptions: completeness, transitivity and independence of irrelevant alternatives exchange theory - application of rational choice theory to social interactions - people can make rational choices in social norms, self interest, interdependence guide interactions and human relationships from cost-benefit analysis

nativists

rationalist language must be innate

dependency theory

reaction to modernization theory uses idea of core + periphery countries to look at inequalities between countries - periphery countries export resources to core countries (because they have been integrated into a world economy as an undeveloped country)

fundamentalism

reaction to secularization - goes back to strict religious beliefs creates social problems when people become too extreme

antithesis of 19th century capitalist europe

reaction to the thesis - the push-back from those unhappy with the status quo

gestalt principles: pragnanz

reality organized reduced to simplest form possible - ex: our brain reduces the olympic rings into 5 circles, rather than the individual smaller shapes

egg cell

really big not made for mobility has genetic material and a thick outer coating (zona pellucida that is a thick layer of glycoproteins)

declining memory in aging

recall becomes more difficult recognition is stable episodic memories are imparied - forming new episodic memories is difficult but old memories are stable processing speed and divided attention decline prospective memory is decreased

photoreceptor

receptor to neural impulse of light

TrypV1 receptor

receptor to sense temperature and pain heat causes a conformational change in the protein when the cell is poked, thousands of cells are broken up and release different molecules that bind to this receptor --> conformational change --> activates cell and send signals

what happens if we put salty receptors inside a sweet cell?

receptors in membrane bind to glucose but if salty receptor --> activates receptor --> (+) go inside --> sweet cell depolarizes and fires action potential --> brain interprets it as a sweet signal (can trick your brain into thinking salt is sugar)

cialidini's 6 key principles of influence

reciprocity commitment and consistency social proof authority liking scarcity

strong self-efficacy

recover quickly from setback have strong/deep interests strong sense of commitment to activities enjoy challenging tasks RISE - Recover - Interest - Strong sense of commitment - Enjoy challenging tasks

analgesic

reduce perception to pain - used to treat pain because they act at body's receptor sites for endorphins

maladaptive coping techniques

reduce symyptoms while maintaining/ strengthening the disorder - more effective in the short-term rather than long-term ex: dissociation, sensitization, safety behaviors, anxious avoidance, escape (ex: self-medication) - interfere with the person's ability to unlearn or break apart the paired association between the situation and the associated anxiety symptoms

cross-tolerance

reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target

affective flattening

reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expression not able to interpret body language nor use appropriate body language

avolition

reduction, difficulty or inability to initate and persist in goal-directed behavior often mistaken for apparent disinterest - ex: no longer interested in going out and meeting with friends, no longer interested in much of anything

perceived behavior control

refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior

crystallized intelligence

refers to accumulation of knowledge and verbal skills - tends to stay the same as we move into older adulthood (fluid intelligence decreases) based on fact, experience, prior learning and accumulation as one ages

functionalist theoretical paradigm

related to social anomie - the concept of anomie describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness and aimlessness - periods of rapid social change are often associated with anomie

3 things needed for social movement to form

relative deprivation feeling of deserving better belief that conventional means are useless

monocular cues give a sense of form of an object with... (4)

relative size: - bigger = closer interposition (overlap) - front = closer relative height - lower = closer shading and contour - depth/contours with lights and shadows

serotonin

released by lots of nuclei all over the brainstem - raphe nuclei low serotonin is associated with depression

basilis and septal nuclei

releases acetylcholine in the frontal lobe

reliability vs validity

reliability - consistent results with repeated experiments validity - accuracy of results

religion has been affected by [...]

religion has been affected by modernization

methods of problem solving: intuition

relying on instinct high chance of error

primacy effect

remembering the first things on a list

source monitoring

remembering the information's source ex: people might have difficulties calling out memories of a video car crash from other car crashes they rememer or from movies where there was glass on the ground

recency effect

remembering things at the end of a list not as strong if there is a break between exposure to the list and test

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

negative control

removing undesirable stimulus following correct behavior

mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them more often we see something, more often we like it

rote rehearsal

repeating the same things over and over again least effective technique (least amount of cognitive effort) - doesnt require you to process the information - more successful technique involves tying in the new information to previously known information

partial report technique

report one part of a whole field in cued recall equires participants to identify a subset of the characters from the visual display using cued recall - the cue was a tone which sounded at various time invervals (~50 ms) following the offset of a stimulus - the frequency of tones indicated which set of characters within the display were to be reported participants did not know which row would be cued for recall - performance is a random sample of an observer's memory for the entire display revealed that immediately after stimulus offset, participants could recall most letters (9 out of 12 letters) in a given row - suggests that 75% of the entire visual display was accessible to memory

2 central ideas to evolutionary game theory

reproduction and environment

damaging effects of stress on our reproductive system

reproduction is a huge expense in women - this gets shut down during stress response --> FSH/LH and then estrogen/ progesterone levels can be inhibited boys have reduced testosterone as well, but precise levels of testosterone are not required so there is never really a point of infertility - impotence/ erectile dysfunction are also caused by stress because blood vessels are being constricted (less blood flow to penis)

reticular activating system

required for consciousness (midbrain structure) has diffuse projection of glutamate to the cerebral cortex

whole report technique

required participants to recall as many elements from the original display in their proper spatial locations as possible participants were typically able to recall 3-5 characters from the 20 character display (~35%) - suggests that whole report is limited by a memory system with a capacity of 4-5 items

anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic

requires a person to create a set point or anchor the answer is adjusted based on comparing new information to the anchor

sensation

requires a physical stimulus to be converted into a neural impulse

endogenous/ internal cues

requires internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it

observational study

researcher is unable to control the assignment of groups

types of segregation (3)

residential conceentrattion centralization

regressive/ reactionary movements

resist change

self-esteem

respect and regard one has for oneself

what is counterconditioning a form of?

respondent conditioning

variable-interval

responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount ex: bonus can come randomly on different days

prefrontal cortex

responsible for (functions) - many higher-order functions (ex: executive control, problem solving, decision making, etc) - helps manage how you behave in social situations undergoes most development from birth

frontal cortex

responsible for impulse control, reasoning, judgement, planning, etc

operant extinction

results from some response no longer being reinforced ex: if you keep getting your dog to sit on command, but stop giving them a treat or any other type of reinforcement - over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command

2 types of interference

retroactive and proactive

urban renewal

revamping old parts of cities to become better

devil effect

reverse halo effect imagine someone who we think is overall very poor - even if baseline skills are the, same we all perceive them to be lower can carry over into how we see other attributes about the person happens if we have an overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative

incentive theory

reward (intangible or tangible) is presented after the occurance of an action with the intentions of causing the behavior to occur again - causes a positive association and the meaning toward a behavior - if a reward is given immediately, chance of the behavior happening again is higher focuses on conditioning / incentive to make a person happier - positive reinforcement argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives - ex: doing well at work and getting a promotion (tangible) - ex: job satisfcation (intangible) bf skinner - children are more likely to do actions that's positively received and less likely to do actions that is negatively received

reward pathway cycle is very [...] driven (evidence comes from animal models)

reward pathway cycle is very biologically driven (evidence comes from animal models)

macula

rich in cones (but also has rods) contains fovea

appraisal theory of stress

richard lazarus there are 2 cognitive stages of stress - primary appraisal and secondary appraisal

how does our brain make sense of what we are looking at?

right side of body is controlled by left side of the brain and vice versa

difference between role strain and role conflict

role strain is for one status that causes tension role conflict is for 2+ statuses that cause tension

what is the least effective memory technique?

rote rehearsal

bureaucracy

rules, structures and rankings that guide organizations does NOT mean something negative, lines or red tape

as a result from culture shock, people may feel...

sad, lonely, homesick, confused, etc.

sternburg's triarchic theory of intelligence

said there were 3 types of intelligences analytical intelligence - academic abilities: to solve well-defined problems creative intelligence - ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas practical intelligence - solve ill-defined problems (ex: how to get a bookcase up a curvy staircase)

fMRI

same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active - neurons that are active require oxygen - measuring relative amounts of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the brain more popular - calculated composite of several MRI images registering the changes (shows activity as colored areas over MRI)

PTC in cones

same process as in rods, except light hits conopsin/ photopsin (instead of rhodopsin)

how to obtain external validity?

sample must be completely random and all situational variables must be tightly controlled

spreading activation

says all ideas in your brain are connected together pulling up one memory pulls up others as well - ex: saying fire engine activates truck, fire, red, etc. which makes it easier to identify and retrieve those items can explain false memories or remembering wrong, but related information

cognitive economy principle

says our brain is efficient evidence is in how long it takes people to verify certain statements - ex: it takes people very little time to verify a canary is a canary, more time to verify a canary is a bird and even more to verify a canary is an animal longer the distance between nodes or more nodes in between --> longer it takes to verify the connections

problem with the trichromatic theory of color vision

says that while our eyes can mix together (ex: red + yellow = orange), we can't seem to mix red + green or blue + yellow - opponent process theory of color vision

what covers the posterior 5/6th of the eyeball?

sclera

attachment styles (2)

secure attachment (60%) insecure attachment (40%) - avoidant

social coping

seeking social support from others

maladaptive coping techniques: sensitization

seeks to learn about, rehearse and/ or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occuring in the first place

hyperglobalist perspective

sees globalization as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important countries become one global society

centralization of segregation

segregation + clustering in a certain area

selective attention

selecting one thing to divide your attention to at a time - like a flashlight on your attention (you can move it around at any spot; at any given moment, it illuminates one area of interest) - ability to maintain attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli we can take information from our environment, but we don't consciously process all of it - you probably see everything, but don't attend to it consciously (we can only attend to a small amount of information at a time, but we see a lot of information)

spotlight model of attention

selective attention takes information from 5 senses but don't pay attention to everything - aware of things on an unconscious level (priming)

where does the information from the somatosensory homunculus go to?

sensory strip - part of the cortex that receives all the sensory information via spinal cord - different areas of the body have signals that go to different parts of the strip

detoxification

separating the addict from the drug - sometimes require strong medications for strong additions to break the addiction cycle ex: methadone activates opiate receptors but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high - reduces cravings, eases withdrawals - user cant experiecne the high because receptors are already filled with longer-acting methadone ex: nicotine patch

innate behavior: fixed-action pattern (FAP)

sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption - similar to a reflex but more complicated ex: praying mantis - any prey-sized movement will elicit a strike response - once elicited, can't be changed or altered

gender roles

set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex

limbic system

set of structures in the brain - many structures play an important role in regulating emotions experts cannot agree on what structures make up the entire limbic system responsible for storage/ retrieval of memories - especially ones tied to emotions

noise distribution: c (beta)

set value of threshold to the ratio of height of signal distribution to height of noise distribution

main symptoms of korsakoff's syndrome

severe memory loss confabulation - patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories - not progressive (can get better)

sex vs gender vs sexuality

sex: biological traits that society associates with being male or female gender: cultural meanings attached to being masculine and feminine, which influence personal identities sexuality: sexual attraction, practices and identity which may or may not align with sex and gender

globalization

sharing of culture, money and products between countries due to international trade and advancements in transportation and communication social process where people become more aware of cultures of people across geographical, political and social borders

tolerance

shift in the dose-response curve that causes decreased sensitivity to a drug due to exposure

working memory

short-term memory - memory that is stored while it is held in attention sensory information you actually process - consists of what you are thinking about at the moment capacity is 7 - working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time (why phone numbers are 7 digits long) - varies by how complicated the stimuli are, how old you are, etc explains the serial position effect (primacy and recency effect)

deep meditation and its impact on the brain

showed increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus and right anterior insula (increased attention control)

test-retest reliability

shown by a high positive correlation between the first and second administration of the test

signal transduction theory: false alarm

signal is not present but subject was certain

signal transduction theory: hit

signal present and subject is certain

signal transduction theory: correct rejection

signal was not present and subject did not respond

signal transduction theory: miss

signal was present but subject did not respond

4 major categories of stressors

significant life changes catastrophic events daily hassles ambient stressors - global stressors that are integrated into the environment - perceivable but hard to contro - ex: pollution, noise, crowding, etc

opiods vs depressants

similar effects - different class than depressants, even though overlapping for anxiety - acts on endorphin receptors

difference between variable-ratio and fixed-ratio

similar except # of changes for each reward is different

difference between counterconditioning and extinction (classical conditioning)

similar in that they both get rid of unwanted stimulus but counterconditioning: - unwanted response doesn't just disappear - replaced by a new, wanted response

quasi-experimental deseign

similar to an experimental dseign but lacks random assignment describes an effect on a specific cohort of the population

feminist theories: mass media

similar to conflict theory - stereetypes/ misrepresents society towards the dominant ideology

implosive therapy

similar to systematic densitization but much quicker - produces a lot of anxiety idea is that if they face their fear and survive, they will realize their fear is irrational ex: throwing someone who has a phobia of spiders in a room with thousands of spiders

anova

similar to t-test compares distributions of continuous values between groups of categorical values, but can be used for 3+ groups

correlation vs regression

similarity: all variables examined are continuous difference: correlation makes no assumption about which variable is influencing the other

aversive control

situations where behavior is motivated by threat or something unpleasant example of negative control

compliance

situations where we do behaviors to get a reward or avoid punishment - goes away once reward/ punishments are removed tendency to go along with behavior without questioning why - change in behavior that is requested by another person or group (especially if there are certain factors present)

monocular cues give a sense of constancy of an object with... (3)

size constancy - appears larger because it is closer, but we still think it is the same size shape constancy - changing shape still maintains the same shape perception color constancy - despite changes in lighting, which change the image color falling on our retina, we understand (perceive) that the object is the same color

morpheme

smallest significant unit of meaning of a word - in ASL, when hand shape and location are combined

phonemes

smallest unit of language there are 40 in the english language

[...] is the only one that bypasses the thalamus

smell is the only one that bypasses the thalamus

exogamy

social arrangement where marriage is only allowed outside a social group social groups define the scope and extent of exogamy - rules and enforcement mechanisms ensure its continuity

step 3 of categorizing with social identity theory

social comparison - how we compare ourselves with other groups we do this to maintain our self-esteem critical to understanding prejudice - once two groups develop as rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem

gender

social construction theory that states that gender is not fixed nor an innate fact - varies across time and place

what theory is berger and luckman associated with?

social constructionism

social constructionism is a theory that [...] is not real and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement

social constructionism is a theory that knowledge is not real and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement

people are more likely to be honest when

social influences are reduced - ex: secret ballot general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one - principle of aggregation when specific actions are considered when attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection

key components of stratification system (3)

social institutional processes that define certain types of goods as valuable and desireable rules of allocation that distribute goods and resources across various positions in the division of labor social mobility processes that link individuals to positions and thereby generate unequal control over valued resources

observational learning

social learning/ vicarious learning learned through watching and imitating others - such as modeling actions of others mirror neurons found that support this ex: aggression is environmentally learnt and mass-media can have a performance effect

resolving social anomie

social norms must be strengthened groups must redevelop sets of shared norms

role exit

social role exit when an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity - process of establishing a new identity

gordon allport

all of us have different traits came up with a list of 4500 different descriptive words for traits - from those, he was able to come up with 3 basic categories of traits (cardinal, central, secondary) individuals have a subset of traits from universal set of possible traits - cardinal traits: characteristics that directs most of person's activity (the dominant trait that influences all of our behaviors) - central traits: less dominant than cardinal (ex: honesty, sociability, shyness) - secondary trait: preferences or attitudes (ex: love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat, etc.)

visual field processing

all right visual fields go to the left side of the brain and vice versa - ray of light from the left visual field hits the nasal side of the left eye --> hits temporal side of right eye (vice versa)

regression

all variables examined are continuous

directed attention

allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task (ex: single orientation of the Necker cube)

class system

allows for degree of social mobility - combination of background and movement, often by education less stability

open stratification system

allows for mobility between strata - typically by placing value on the achieved status characteristics of the individuals

advantages of stereotyping

allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social data

permissive parenting

also called indulgent parenting non-directive and lenient few behavioral expectations for the child

reciprocity

social rule that says we should repay, in kind, what another person has provided us

authoritative parenting

also strict consistent and loving, but more pragmatic and issue-oriented - listens to child's arguments balance responsibility with rights of the child discipline

variable c: conservative

always say no unless 100% sure signal is present (c>1) - positive: all correct rejections - negative: might get some misses - no more often than an ideal observer

variable c: liberal

always say yes (c<1) - positive: all hits - negative: might get some false alarms - no less often than the ideal observer

most common form of dementia

alzheimer's disease

convergence

amount of rotation your eyes have to do to focus on an object - far away = muscles of eyes are relaxed - close = muscles of eyes contract proprioceptive sense (a sense that shows our position in space). uses the information from the eye muscles (feedback) to gauge how much the eyes have rotated, and therefore how far an object is.

what structures are part of the mesolimbic pathway?

amydala, NAcc and hippocampus

prodrome

an early symptom indicating the onset of a disease or illness

social psychology

analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence focuses on interaction between individual and the changing external environment (situational) circumstances over internal traits/ internal motivations/ stable personality traits

emotional/ behavior effects of stress

anger anxiety addiction stress has 3 S's which corresponds to 3 A's

anger has been associated with the [...]

anger has been associated with the left superior temporal sulcus

auto-communication

animals can give information to/ communicate with themselves ex: bats and echolocation - allows them to gain information about the environment

chambers of the eye

anterior chamber: between iris and cornea posterior chamber: between iris and lens vireous chamber: largest part, filled with vitreous humor

what type of amnesia occurs if your hippocampus is destroyed?

anterograde amnesia

haloperidol

antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia

social selection is an alternative theory to [...] selection proposed by evolutionary biologist joan roughgarden

social selection is an alternative theory to sexual selection proposed by evolutionary biologist joan roughgarden

aggression

any physical/ verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy

rural

anywhere with <1000 people per square mile has to have <25,000 residents

exchange theory (exchange-rational choice theory)

application of rational choice theory to social interactions - looks at society as a series of interactions between individuals addresses decision making via cost-benefit analyses

what is broca's aphasia characterized by?

apraxia - disorder of motor planning, which causes problems producing speech

moderating variables

are these two variables linked the same way for everyone, or in every situation? - who is most vulnerable? for whom is the association strongest? can change relationship between the other two variables - making it more or less intense

posterior chamber

area behind the iris to the back of the eye - surrounds the equator of the lens, separating it from the ciliary body - the distance between the posterior of the lens and inner retinal layer is the aqueous humor

norepinephrine

area in ponds called locus coeruleus that releases it to cerebral cortex also ANS but less than acetylcholine

dermatome

area of the skin with sensory nerve fibers from a single posterior spinal root ganglion

who gets the most environmental burden?

areas with high poverty and a lot of racial minority ex: waste facilities, manufacturing/ factories, energy production, airports, etc

areas with high poverty and lots of racial minorities often have [...] environmental benefits

areas with high poverty and lots of racial minorities often have few environmental benefits

piaget

argued children weren't miniature adults - believed they actively construct their understanding of the world as they grow - as their bodies grow, their minds grow as well

social constructionism

argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/ agreements - something constructed, not inherited theory that knowledge is not real and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement

information overload

as a result of tyranny of choice can lead to decision paralysis and increased regret over choices made

urban decline

as people move out of city centers, city can fall into disrepair - buildings abandoned, unemployment/ crime rises, population of city declines

method of adjustment (method of average eerror)

asks the subject to control the level of the stimulus, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely detectable against the background noise, or is the same as the level of another stimulus. - this is repeated many times the observer himself controls the magnitude of the variable stimulus beginning with a variable that is distinctly greater or lesser than a standard one and he varies it until he is satisfied by the subjectivity of two

theory of intersectionality

asks us to consider all the different levels of discrimination calls attention to how identify categories intersect in a system of social stratification - ex: an individual's position within a social hierarchy is determined not only by their social class but also by their race/ ethnicity proposes that we need to understand how all these dicriminations can simultaneously exist

criterion validity

assesses whether a test reflexts a certain set of abilities refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome

primary appraisal

assessing stress in present sitations 3 categories of response - irrelevant - benign/ positive - stressful/ negative (stressor is actually threatening) --> move foward with secondary appraisal

sleep spindles

associated with N2 sleep stage burst of rapid brain activity some thing that they help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep associated with the ability to sleep through loud noises in some parts of the brain

pavlov

associated with classical conditioning - pavlovian dog experiment people have consistent behavior patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change - that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan

extrinsic motivation

associated with rewards or obligated behavior motivation to do something based on an external reward (ex: money or fame)

components of language: semantics

association of meaning with a word broad meaning of each word, phrase, sentence, or text n400 response - bigger with bigger violation

what type of learning is classical conditioning?

associative

what type of learning is operant conditioning?

associative learning

which strategy is the best?

assortative - despite the dangers of inbreeding, it helps to increase fitness of an organism

assortative mating can result in [...]

assortative mating can result in inbreeding

temporal monotocity

assumes that adding pain at the end of a painful experience will worsen the retrospective evaluation of the experienced pain adding pleasure will enhance the retrospective evaluation

at the core of prejudice is often [...] or frustration

at the core of prejudice is often fear or frustration

lower motor neuron signs

atrophy of skeletal muscles fasciculations - involuntary twitches of skeletal muscles hypotonia - decrease in tone of skeletal muscles (how much muscle is contracted when a person is relaxed) hyporeflexia - decreased muscle stretch reflex

suspensory ligaments

attached to a ciliary muscle - these two things together form the ciliary body, which is what secretes the aqueous humor

bandura's social cognitive theory: am i motivated to learn something?

attention memory imivation motivation AM I Motivated?

vygotsky's 4 elementary functions

attention sensation peception memory

attitude to behavior process model

attitude --> behavior an event triggers our attitude - attitude + some outside knowledge --> behavior ex: tommy has an attitude that junk food is unhealthy (attitude) because many of his relatives have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits (outside knowledge) --> he does not eat junk food

implicit bias

attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions and decisions in an unconscious manner encompass both favorable and unfavorable assessmeents activated involuntarily and without an individuals's awareness

what does the mere exposure effect apply to the most?

attraction

components of sexual orientation

attraction and fornication

universally attractive

attractive across cultural backgrounds ex: youthfulness, skin clarity/ smoothness, body symmetry

stereotyping

attributing a certain thought/ cognition to group of individuals overgeneralizing can involve race, gender, culture, religion, shoe size, etc

anthropomorphism

attributing human characteristics to non-human animals we can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animal

hallucinations in schizophrenia

auditory hallucinations are the most common - ex: hearing voices or some other sounds - occurs when people misinterpret their own inner self-talk as coming from an outside source visual hallucinations are also common

what is the best type of parenting style?

authoriative

types of parenting style (3)

authoritarian permissive authoritative

what type of personality is most subject to prejudice?

authoritarian personality

3 types of hormone effects

autocrine - effects the signal that makes it paracrine - regional effect endocrine - response that is far away - through the bloodstream

what does evolutionary game theory predict? (2)

availability of resourcees social behavior - important for who they mate with

are average or unique traits more attractive?

average traits

aversive control is an example of [...] reinforcement

aversive control is an example of negative reinforcement

alertness

awake, aware of who you are, code information for memory, etc

clsas consciousness

awareness of one's place in a system of social classes, especially as it relates to the class struggle

consciousness

awareness of our self and environment can have different levels of consciousness (awareness) - range from alertness to sleep can be natural or induced by external factors (ex: drugs) or internal factors (ex: mental efforts)

contact comfort theory

babies are attracted to their mother because they provide them with the comfort of their touch

cupboard theory

babies are attracted to their mothers because they provide them with food

which generation has the largest population in the us?

baby boomers

head to toe development

baby can lift head before they can crawl

neonatal reflexes: sucking

baby sucks on any object placed in its mouth disappears at 3-4 months

noise distribution

background noise exists in any task/ signal distribution

do you work on impression management in the front stage or back stage?

backstage

what does the vestibular system help with?

balance and spatial orientation

who developed the social-cognitive theory?

bandura

basal forebrain is considered to be the major [...] output of the central nervous system

basal forebrain is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system

functions of the nervous system

basic functions - motor (control of skeletal muscles) - sensory (senses) - automanic (reflexes) higher functions - cognition (thinking) - emotions (feelings) - consciousness

continuous reinforcement

becomes less reinforcing so there is a need for ulterior reinforcement occurs on a 1:1 ratio - for each behavior, there is a reward

prototype willingness model (PWM)

behavior is a function of 6 things - the combination of which influence our behavior our behavior is a function of - past behavior - attitudes (attitudes --> behaviors) - subjective norms (what we think about the behavior) - intentions - willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior - models/ prototyping

deviance standards: labeling theory

behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant - depends on what is acceptable in that society societies reaction to and label for deviant behavior and person who committed the deviant behavior are important - primary deviance (no big consequence; reaction is very mild) - secondary deviance (more serious consequence; characterized by severe negative reactions that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior)

partial reinforcement schedule

behavior is reinforced only some of the time more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement - behavior is shaped through a process of successive reinforcement of approximations of target behavior

basic principles behind exchange theory

behavior of individual in interaction can be figured out by comparing rewards and punishments rewards: social approval, money, positive gesures punishments: negative gestures, social disapproval, public humiliation

covert behavior

behavior that is not observable

psychological factors of depression

behavioral theory - learned helplessness cognitive theory - cognitive distortions - attribution

classification of norms: taboos

behaviors completely forbidden/ wrong in any circumstance - violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by community - considered very immral behavior ex: incest ex: cannibalism

2 categories that regulate food, sex and drugs

biological factors - hormones and brain socio-culture - our conscious choices on how we express our needs

aggression comes from a combination of (3)

biology psychological socio-cultural

what increases a population growth rate?

births and immigration

5 main tastes

bitter, salty, sweet, sour and umami (ability to taste gluamate) each taste depends on a specific receptor that is localized on the tongue

blastulation

blastocyst- inside of the morula clusters more --> develops inner cell mass and blastocoel (hollow space) - zona pellucida disintegrates - endometrium lining is proliferating (forming valleys called crypts) inner cell mass - makes an amniotic cavity - bottom cells differentiate into hypoblasts - cells above hypoblasts are epiplasts bilamar disk (epiblast + hypoplast) primitive stream forms - where epiblast starts to migrate

cribriform plate

bone with little holes that allow olfactory sensory to send projections to the brain separates olfactory epithelium from the brain

schizophrenia

both a genetic and environmental component

global aphasia

both broca's aphasia and wenicke's aphasia are damanged - combination of imparied comprehension and production of speech

both men and women are attracted to [...] levels of sexual dimorphism

both men and women are attracted to high levels of sexual dimorphism

extinction occurs in what type of conditioning?

both operant and classical

avoidant-avoidant conflicts

both options are unappealing

social support vs social capital

both suggest that social contracts will be beneficial to individual health and well-being - social network --> health social support: focus on emotional resources social capital: focus on tangible resources provided by network members

is top down or bottom up processing data driven?

bottom up

influence on perception in bottom up vs top down

bottom up: perception is influenced by new stimulus top down: perception is influenced by expectations

is the information processing model a top down or bottom up processing model?

bottom-up

thesis of 19th century capitalist europe

bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labor caused the formation of the reaction : antithesis

activation synthesis hypothesis

brain gets a lot of neural impulses in the brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex - brainstem = activation - cortex = synthesis our brain is trying to find meaning from random brain activity - dreams might not have meaning

social anomie

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community - a situation in which society doees not have the support of a firm collective consciousness can result in social group disbanding and alienation from social groups

permanent reflexes (4)

breathing eyeblink pupilary swallowing

avoiding groupthink

bring in outsiders/ experts have the leader of the group not disclose opinion discuss what should be done in smaller groups

concentration segregation

clustering of different groups

[...] is the only drug we cannot develop a substance-use disorder for

caffeine is the only drug we cannot develop a substance-use disorder for

lesion studies: temporary lesions

can be created by neurochemical means muscimol can bind to GABA receptors and inhibit those neurons

cerebral cortex with emotion

can be divided in many ways hemisphere - left: positive emotions - right: negative emotions also can be divided by functions

conjunction fallacy

can be due to a representative heuristic co-occurance of 2 instances is more likely than a single one - people tend to think the probability ot 2 events occuring together is higher than the probability of one alone ex: being a bank teller AND a feminist is more likely than just being a bank teller alone - but statistically speaking, it's more likely that they are just a bank teller rather than a feminist bank teller

institutions

can create rules that impact all of society and guide what we do don't need any 1 individual - just need many of them - each individual is very replaceable created by individuals but continue even after an individual is gone

gestation

can divide into - months (9-10 months) - trimesters (3 months each) - weeks (10/20/30/40 weeks) weeks is best/ scientifically accurate/ useful

ill health magnet

can drag people away - can't participate in society

poverty magnent

can drag people away from the core part of society experience a greater deal of social exclusion

sleep deprivation and mental illness

can increase risk for depression - REM sleep helps brain process emotional experiences, which can help protect against depression

can invest financial capital to obtain [...]

can invest financial capital to obtain social capital

reinforcement-modeling

can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement - parents who give into demands of a child during a temper tantrum leads to more temper tantrums in the future

negatives of state-dependent retrieval

can lead to depression - those feeling down are more likely to think of other reasons to be down (but converse is true too!!)

electroencephalograms (EEG)

can measure brainwaves

buoyancy force with otolithic organs

can sense orientation of crystals in otolithic organs with respect to buoyancy force in absence of gravity (especially without visual cues on which way is up/down)

non-verbal cues

can tell if someone is happy/sad or anxious/ angry

outcomes of ethnocentrism (3)

can view our own culture to be superior to that of others can lead to cultural bias and prejudice using one's own cultural standards (ex: norms and values) too make judgements about another culture

PET scans

can't give us a detailed structure, but can combine with CAT scans and MRIs inject glucose into cells and see what areas of the brain are the most active at a given point in time - active = use more glucose more invasive 3D images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis requires swallowing a radioactive tracer and shows activity, with low resolution

micro-culture

can't support people throughout their lifespan groups/ organizations only affecting limited period of one's life - ex: girl scouts, college sororities, boarding school, etc.

altruism

care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them beneficial to society and individuals

munchausen's by proxy

caregiver makes up or causes an illness or injury in a person under his or her care, such as a child, an elderly adult, or a person who has a disability

myers briggs personality test

carl jung 4 letters that characterize you in one of the 16 personality types ESTJ - extraversion - sensing - thinking - judgement INFP - introversion - intuition - feeling - perception

types of social constructs that allows for social mobility (3)

caste system class system meeritocracy

caste system vs class system vs meritocracy as it relates to social mobility and stability

caste system: - social mobility: low - social stability: high class system: - social mobility: medium - social stability: low meritocracy: - social mobility: high - social stability: high

what does the adrenal medulla release as a stress response?

catecholamines (epinephrine/ adrenaline and norepinephrine/ noradrenaline) - tyrosine derivatives - developed from ectoderm

mcgurk effect

categorical change in auditory perception that occurs whenever the auditory stimulus does not match the visual stimulus during speech perception

korsakoff's syndrome

caused by lack of vitamin b1 or thiamine - caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, especially alcoholism (don't process or absorb all the nutrients they need) - most cases are not caused by brain injuries individuals have trouble forming new memories (anterograde amnesia) and recalling old memories (retrograde amnesia)

phenylketonuria (PKA)

caused by mutations to a gene that encodes a liver enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) - because the enzyme is missing, amino acid phenylalanine doesn't get converted to tyrosine causes a build-up of phenylalanine which then causes brain problems 1 in 15k babies are affected symptoms can be managed by a specific diet (phenylalanine-free diet) - less problematic environment

central executive creates an integrated representation that stores it in the [...]

central executive creates an integrated representation that stores it in the episodic buffer

similarities between rogers and maslow

central feature of our personality is self-concept - genuine + acceptance = growth-promoting climate --> self-concept discrepancy between conscious values and unconscious true values --> tension - must be resolved importance of congruency between self-concept and our actions to feel fulfilled

structure of the nervous system

central nervous system - brain and spinal cord peripheral nervous system - everything else (nerves, ganglia, afferent and efferent neurons) - cranial (12 pairs) + spinal nerves (31 pairs)

psychoanalytic theory: libido

central to psychoanalytic theory natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind when this energy is stuck/ fixated at various stages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects - fixation at a particular stage is what predicts adult personality ex: someone fixated at the oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics (ex: smoking habits, overly talkative, etc)

brain

cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres, brainstems (midbrain, pons and medulla) and cerebellum forebrain --> cereberum midbrain --> midbrain hindbrain --> pons, medulla, cerebellum

discrimination magnet

certain groups may face discrimination

how to improve self control (3)

change environment operant conditioning classical conditioning

stage 3 of elaboration likelihood model

change in attitude central processing: creates a lasting attitude change peripheral processing: creates a temporary attitude change

intergenerational mobility

change in social class between generations ex: parent is working class and son is working class

sensory adaptation

change over time of receptor to a constant stimulus - down regulation of a sensory receptor in the body

how is mass media consumed?

changes across cultures in each group - older people might get their information via TV and newspaper while younger people can get it via the internet

neural plasticity

changes in brain size involves function of environmental influences

brain changes during adolescence

changes in the - prefrontal cortex (develops into early 20s) - limbic system - corpus callosum

temperament

characteristic emotional reactivity / intensity - broader than personality - ex: shyness and sociability develops with age many facts affect the extent to which a child's temperament remains stable

target characteristics

characteristics of listener - ex: mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc how we receive a message

type of collective behaviors: riots

characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior - ex: vandalism, violence and other crimes - very chaotic and cost cities millions in damage individuals who act cast aside societal norms and behave in very destructive ways and violate laws indiscriminately often seen as a collective act of defiance/ disapproval - can be result of a perceived issue (ex: sporting game outcome, frustration of working/ living conditions, conflicts between races/ religions) violent form of crowd behavior that results from feelings of injustice or feeling that needs have been ignored

social stigma is dervied from a [...]

social stigma is dervied from a symbolic interactionist perspective

2 forms of stigma

social stigma self-stigma

4 principles are posited to underlie social stratification

social stratification - is socially defined as a property of a society rather than individuals in that society - is reproduced from generation to generation - is universal (found in every society) but variable (differs across time and place) - invovles not just quantitative inequality but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status

ethnicity

socially defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, or some other cultural factor less statistically defined than racial groups and definitions can change over time not defined by physical characteristics (like race)

race

socially defined category based on physical differences between groups of people

symbolic interactionism

society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals looking at how people behave in normal, everyday situations can help us to better understand and define deviance

social stratification

society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income; wealth and social status; or derived power (social and political)

2 main foraging strategies

solitary foraging group foraging

asch conformity study

solomon asch was a gestalt psychologist - believed it was not possible to understand human behavior by breaking them down into parts - people must be understood as a whole 75% of participants gave the wrong answer at least once (because the first participant gave the wrong answer) and 35% conform every single time

cerebral cortex: parietal lobe

somatosensory cortex (touch, pressure, pain) - motor cortex (frontal) + somatosensory cortex (parietal) - involved in receiving sensory signals from the skin spatial manipulation (orient in 3D) if a piranah bites you on the top of your head (where the parietal lobe is located), that is a sensation the parietal lobe would process

savings

some foundation of the memory still exists even if it cant be produced - works with procedural skills too (ex: playing a piano)

PTSD treatment

some hallucinogens are used - allows people to access painful memories from the past that's detached from strong emotions so they can come to terms with it

ascending methods of limits

some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected - then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it

absolute threshold of sensation: low levels of stimulus

some subjects can detect and some can't individual differences as well

positive punishment

something is added to decrease tendency something will occur again ex: giving a speeding ticket (adding) to decrease behavior of speeding (behavior)

positive reinforcement

something is being added to increase tendency of behavior ex: gas gift card for safe driving

negative punishment

something is being taken away in an effort to decrease tendency it'll occur again ex: taking away your license

proactive interference

something you learned in the past impairs learning in the future earlier information interferes with later information ex: new password learning

tend and befriend response

sometimes better response to stress is to have support systems oxytocin is important for this - peer bonding and moderates the stress response - strongly linked to estrogen (why this response is stronger in women)

what is another term for REM sleep?

sometimes called paradoxical sleep - brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything - brainwaves look like they are completely awake

sometimes information we receive is based on a [...], instead of reality

sometimes information we receive is based on a schema, instead of reality

interactionist approach

sometimese called the social interactionist approach believe biological and social factors have to interact in order to children to learn language - children's desire to communicate with others make them motivated to learn language associated with vygotsky

origins of the signal transduction theory

sonar - had to determine whether a strong signal is a large whale or a school of fish

types of animal communication

sound chemical/ olfactory signals (pheromones) somatosensory communication visual vues

wernicke's area

sound processing, understanding temporal lobe

pheromones

specialized olfactory cells cause some sort of response in animals smelling them (ex: why dogs pee on fire hydrants; released in the urine that can be sensed by other dogs)

broca's area

speech and language expression frontal lobe

positive priming

speeds up processing caused by experiencing the stimulus thought to be caused by spreading activation - the first simulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task - the representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it

steps of fertilization

sperm binding --> acrosome reaction --> cortical reaction --> genetic transfer

proprioception

spindles (small receptors) located in our muscles sends signals that go up to the spinal cord and to the brain - has proteins that is sensitive to stretching cognitive awareness of your body in space - subconscious

organ of corti

splits cochlea into 2: upper and lower membrane - why sound can only move in one direction - as fluid flows around the organ, it causes hair cells to move back and forth upper membrane: pushed down --> hair cells (hair bundle with kinocilium and cilia) vibrates - kinocilium is connected by a tip link which is attached to gate of K+ channel - tip links get pushed back and forth by endolympth movement --> stretch and allows K+ to flow inside the cell from endolympth (which is K+ rich) - Ca2+ cells get activated when K+ is inside (Ca2+ flows into the cell) --> action potential --> activates a spiral ganglion cell --> activates auditory nerve

spotlight model (and resource model) say something about our ability to [...] and how we are not good at it

spotlight model (and resource model) say something about our ability to multitask and how we are not good at it

what theory explains why we are primed to respond to our name?

spotlight model of attention

diffusion

spread of an invention or discovery of ideas from one place to another can involve expansion of ideas across the globe

spacing effect

spreading out study sessions over time in shorter periods rather than cramming them into one study session cramming = bad

personality trait

stable predisposition toward a certain behavior straightforward way to describe personality - puts it in patterns of behavior - description of traits rather than explaining them

summary of aging and cognitive abilities

stable: implicit memory and recognition improve: semantic memory (~60yrs), crystallized IQ, emotional reasoning decline: recall, episodic memory, processing speed, divided attention

5 stages of the demographic transition model

stage 1: high birth and death rates (overall population is stable) stage 2: population rises as death rate decreases (beginning of developing countries) stage 3: death rates continue to drop and birth rates fall (population continues to grow) stage 4: population stabilizes (both birth and death rates are low) stage 5: speculation (world population will be forced to stabilize)

level 1 of moral reasoning (preconventional)

stage 1: obedience vs punishment - doing what's right to avoid punishment stage 2: hedonistic orientation - doing what's right for personal gain - individualism and exchange or self-interest

stages of social movement (4)

stage 1: shared idea with few stage 2: incipient stage (public takes notice of situation they consider to be a problem) stage 3: people begin to organize in a group and raise up stage 4: will either cueed in changing the society or have to adapt - in the end, they become part of the bureaucracy they try to change - if successful, they become absorbed into institutions once desired changes have been achieved - if failed, they are not active anymore but leave a mark on society/ culture

which stage of the demographic transition model does the malthusian theorem come into play?

stage 5

level 3 of moral reasoning (post-conventional)

stage 5: social contract or legalistic orientation - even though laws exist for the greater good, there are times the law must be broken to reach universal principles stage 6: universal ethical principle - people develop own set of moral guidelines - peeople who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences/ disapproval, imprisonment - very few people reach this stage (ex: ghandi, nelson mandela, MLK, etc.)

inner ear

cochlea and semicircular canals

what is social interaction important for the childhood development of?

cognition

components that make up prejudice

cognition (stereotype) affect discrimination

what connects the observable (behavioral) to mental (psychoanalytical) approach?

cognitive theory - bridge between classical behaviorism and other theories, like psychoanalytic because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behavior, it has a lot in common with behavior theory - albert bandura experiment

corticospinal tract

collection of axons that goees to the spinal cord cerebral cortex --> axon travels down through brainstem --> at spinal cord, most of axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN

basal forebrain

collection of structures located to the front of and below the straiatum - nucleus accumbens - nucleus basalis - medial septal nuclei these strutures are important in the production of acetylcholine --> distributed widely throughout the brain considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system

long tracts

collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem 2 long tracts that are important: motor (UMNs) and somatosensory

corticobulbar tract

collections of axons that goes to the brainstem

neutral judge

combination of both internal and external (situational) attributes

complex behavioral traits

combination of innate and learned behavior - relationship between genes and environment in adaptation can be a spectrum - most behaviors fit between innate and learned - ex: ability of insects to fly starts off as innate but through learning, becomes more efficient

categorical self

comes after existential self becoming aware that even though we're separate/ distinct objects/ beings, we also exist in the world with others - each of these objects/ entities have properties ex: age and gender are the first categories babies learn ex: skill and size comes next ex: traits, comparisons and careers are more developed

functionalism

comes from macrosociology looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning

aphasia

communication disorder that involves language (speaking, listening, reading, writing, etc)

companies that extend beyond borders of a country are called [...] corporations

companies that extend beyond borders of a country are called multinational/ transnational corporations

multinational/ transnational corporations (T&Cs)

companies that extend beyond borders of a country to take opportunities they can find in different countries to manufacture, distribute, market and sell their products

t-test

compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories or groups ex: comparing mean of a group to a specific value - can also compare mean of 2 groups

3 main assumptions of rational choice theory

completeness - every action can be ranked as being more or less preferable transitivity - since A is preferable to B is preferable to C, A is also preferable to C independence of irrelevant alternatives - if i have a 4th option X, won't change the order of how i ranked A-C

types of conformity and obedience (3)

compliance identification internalization

compromise is a synthesis of the thesis and antithesis, eventually becoming a new [...]

compromise is a synthesis of the thesis and antithesis, eventually becoming a new thesis

taste buds

concentrated anteriorly (front) of the tongue can be fungiform (anterior), foliate (side) and circumvallate (back) each taste bud are the 5-receptor cells that can detect each taste - each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue - each has cells specialized for each of the 5 tastese

meaning-focused coping

concentrates on deriving meaning from the stressful experience

meritocracy

concept that people achieve social positions solely based on ability and achievement (birth and parental background doesn't matter) - highly idealized extreme social mobility equal opportunity to achieve

social construct

concept/ practice everyone in osicety agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value ex: money

semantic networks

concepts are organized in your mind as connected ideas parallel to how information might be stored in a computer for closely related ideas, they might be closer - longer for less closely related ideas

dramaturgical approach/ theory

concepts of - front stage and back stage self - impression management - communication

inclusive fitness

concerns the - # of offspring an animal has - how they support them - how offspring support each other thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionarily advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves

substance-induced disorders

conditions that are caused by substances can lead to substance-use disorders - occurs when the drug causes a serious/ real degree of impairment in functioning in life, at work, school or home

do rods or cones have a faster recovery time?

cones

feature detection: color

cones trichromatic theory of color vision - 3 types of cones (60% red, 30% green, 10% blue) that reflect their respective color

conflict theory is a [...] perspective

conflict theory is a macro perspective

what impacts internal validity of an experiment?

confounding factors

what can representative heuristic lead to?

conjunction fallacy

what is the sclera lined with?

conjunctiva

perception

conscious sensory experience of neural processing

manifest functions

consequence of institutions ex: businesses provide a service. schools educate people so they can get a job. laws maintain social order

two views of institutions

conservative view: institutions are natural by-products of human nature progressive view: institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful (ex: businesses)

biopsychosocial model

considers abnormalities and might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorders - but also includes psychological and cultural/ social factors that might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorders

3 cues of kelley's co-variation model

consistency (time) - high consistency --> attribution of internal factors distinctiveneses (situation) - out of character --> attribution of external factors consensus (people) - high consensus --> attribution of external factors

3 main parts of external attribution

consistency - does the person usually behave this way? distinctiveness - does the person behave differently in different situations? consensus - do others behave similarly in situations?

inter-rater reliability

consistency when 2 different people measure the same thing

double approach-avoidant conflicts

consists of 2 options with both appealing and negative characteristics - seemed to represent the jury's dilemma

gustatory system

consists of taste receptors in taste buds (contained in structures called papillae)

which theory prevailed in harlow's monkey experiment and what did it show?

contact comfort - showed that attachment basis to mother is due to comfort, not food

vomeronasal system

contains basal cells and apical cells - have receptors at tips basal cells send axon through accessory olfactory bulb --> glomerulus --> mitral/ tufted cell --> amygdala (signal transduction --> binds to receptor which binds to GPCR --> depolarization)

internal capsule

contains many important pathways - including corticospinal tract

gray matter

contains most of the neuron somas

white matter

contains myelinated axons

gestalt principles: contextual effects

context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of the perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli - context can establish the way in which stimuli are organized

continuous reinforcement occurs on a [...] ratio

continuous reinforcement occurs on a 1:1 ratio

is vision, hearing and touch are ipsilateral or contralateral?

contralateral

how is the brain organized?

contralaterally - left visual field information gets processed by the right etc

cognitve behavioral therapy

control what your body is doing physiologically with your mind ex: when you are afraid, epinephrine causes an increased heart rate, etc (fight or flight) - when you are no longer scared, you become calmer and hormones get reduced

false consciousness is promoted by

controlling classes - making it more difficult for workers to see their oppression

upper motor neurons (UMN)

controls LMNs found in the cerebral cortex can divide them into tracts depending on if they go to the brainstem or spinal cord

efferent neurons in the PNS

controls smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscles and gland cells

thiamine

converts carbohydrates --> glucose needed for energy important for normal functioning of neurons

differences between cooley and mead

cooley - thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity - broader definition than mead mead - thought it was more restricted - only certain people can and only in certain periods of life - thought that the way others influence us changes across the lifespan

critical aspect of socialization theory

cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we imagine the opinions of others to be - can also be influenced by future interactions

old brain: cerebellum

coordates voluntary movement - motor plan information is sent to cerebellum - also receives position sense (ex: muscle stretch fibers) and sends feedback to the cerebellum and motor areas of motor cortex

cultural transmission addresses how culture is [...]

cultural transmission addresses how culture is learned

subculture

culture of a meso-level (medium) sub-community that distinguishes itself from the larger cominant culture or larger society/ culture

culture lag

culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations --> results in social problems

culture vs society

culture: rules that guide way people live society: structure that provides organization for people (includes institutions)

third gender

cultures that recognize non-binary gender

which 2 theories did the hawlow monkey experiment test?

cupboard theory vs. contact comfort theory

socio-cultural regulation of drugs

curiosity - novelty of drug rebel poor control of user cope with stress low self-esteem relief from fatigue more prevalent in areas of higher poverty

longitudinal study

daata is gathered for the same subjects reepeatedly over a period of time - can take years or decades follows variables over a long period of time to look for correlations

what do psychologists argue is the most important form of stress?

daily hassles mike lazarus and connor mcdonald

damage to [...] leads to conduction (associative) aphasia

damage to arcuate fasciculus leads to conduction (associative) aphasia

damage to the corpus callosum creates a [...] patient

damage to the corpus callosum creates a split-brain patient

why are emotions universally recognizable?

darwin hypothesized ability to understand and express emotion is an innate ability that allowed them to act in ways that gave them a better chance of survival - newborn babies react the same way/ have same emotions as adults - blind individuals have same facial expressions as those who can see

what decreases a population growth rate?

death and emigration

what can information overload lead to? (2)

decision paralysis increased regret

dementia

decline in memory and other cognitive functions to the point of interfering with normal daily life results from excessive damage to brain tissue - ex: from strokes or other causes alzheimer's disease is the most common form

what happens when the median level of income in a society gradually rises as a country gets richer?

decrease in poverty

activity in prefrontal cortex during REM sleep

decreased part responsible for logic - why things in our dreams can defy logic and don't seem weird

heritability estimates

define the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in a specific subgroups of individuals

social potency

degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations common in twins reared separately - genetic influence

lesion studies

deliberately making brain lesions/ destroying tissues in order to observe changes on animal's behavior - not done with humans can be done in several ways - tissue removal - radiofrequency lesions - neurochemical lesions - cortical cooling - temporary lesions can be created via neurochemical means

just world hypothesis: irrational techniques

denial of the situation reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause and the character of the victim

components of language: pragmatics

dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge affected by prosody - the rhythm, cadence and inflection of our voices

relapse

depends on environmental triggers and drugs they were addicted to more addictive --> more likely

what does the location of somatosensation rely on?

dermatomes

somatosensations: location

dermatomes - allows brain to register what is being stimulated

labeled-line theory of olfaction

describes a scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli directly linked to the brain

demand characteristics

describes how participants change behaviors to match expectations of the experimenter - conformed because they knew that's what the experimenter wanted them to do

obedience

describes how we follow orders/ obey authority - no cognitive component can be positive or negative

socialization theory

describes the process by which people learn the attitudes, behaviors and values expected by their culture/ community - occurs through observation of/ interaction with people who we are surrounded by developed by charles cooley

smell adaptations

desensitized receptors in nose to molceule sensory information over time

glomerulus

designation point for various sensory olfactory cells that are sensitive to the same molecule (ex: benzene glomerulus)

desires vs temptations

desires - motivations associated with pleasure or release from displeasure - aren't necessarily bad temptation - when desire conflicts with values or long-term goals - ex: wanting to eat a candy bar while having the long-term goal of losing weight

cones

detects color (Cones = Colors) discerns high level of detail in what you are observing cone shaped

feature detection: parallel processing

detects/ focus all information (color, form, motion) at the same time

example of signal transduction theory

determining whether a traffic light has actually turned green on a very foggy day

main criticism of social constructionism

doesn't consider effects of natural phenomenon on society for strong constructionism, it has difficulty explaining those phenomenon because they don't depend on human speech or action

problem with behaviorist theory

doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before or unique sentences

transformationalist perspective

doesn't have specific cause or outcome believe national governments are changing - perhaps becoming less important - difficult to explain change so simply they see the world order is changing - just a new world order is being developed many factors that influence change of world patterns but outcome is unknown

non-material culture (symbolic culture)

doesn't include physical objects inclides ideas, beliefs and values - tends to resist change

dominant groups have [...] minority groups

dominant groups have radicalized minority groups

ecclesia

dominant religious organization that includes most members of society ex: lutheranism in sweden ex: islam in iran

gender queer

don't identify as either male or female

mary ainsworth's strange situation

done to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't - focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregivers) mother and child in room with stranger mom quietly leaves the room (what is the child's response?) mother returns (again, what is the child's response?)

[...] from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention

dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention

sight adaptation

down regulation (light adaptation) - pupils constrict - desensitization of rods and cones (become desensitized to light) up regulation (dark regulation) - pupils dilate - rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules

dramaturgy uses the metaphor of [...] to understand social interactions

dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions

transdermal

drug is absorbed through the skin (ex: nicotine patch) - drug in patch has to be pretty potent - released into bloodstream over several hours occurs slowly, since the drugs have to be absorbed through the skin before the effects can be felt

psychoactive drugs

drugs that can alter our consciousness and perceptions classified by actions and effects they have on our bodies 4 main categories: - depressants - stimulants - hallucinogens - opiates/ opioids

stimulants

drugs that excite CNS effect is similar to stress (increased glucose metabolism in the brain - cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake - amphetamines: block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release - caffeine: inhibits enzyme that breaks down cAMP - nicotine: acts on acetylcholine - THC: works on anandamide; increased dopamine and GABA activity

damaging effects of stress on our metabolism

during stress, body secretes cortisol and glucagon (converts glycogen --> glucose) - we don't always need all of this glucose --> exacerbate metabolic conditions (ex: diabetes) too much blood sugar can also cause heart disease

durkheim imagined a balance between institutions and [...]

durkheim imagined a balance between institutions and social facts

mnemonic devices: acronym

each of the letter of a popular word you know stands for the first letters of a set of words you need to remember

labeled lines model

each taste bud receptor has 5 axons, all which send separate taste information to different parts of the gustatory cortex remain separate to the brain all synapse on different parts of the gustatory cortex ex: glucose hits tongue and binds to GPCR --> activates sweet cell --> conformational change --> (cascade) G-protein dissociates --> opens ion channels --> cell depolarizes --> action potential --> travels down AP to the brain

dual coding hypothesis

easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone (visual / verbal) can use the method of loci - imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place, leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered

what causes the health disparities we see in the US?

economic and environmental conditions race - hispanics and african-americans have higher mobidity and mortality rates (doesn't necessarily have to do with SES) gender differences - men use fewer preventative services - women require reproductive services which may have reduced access LGBT

contributors to globalization

economic interdependence between countries advancements in communication technology technology in general

what is usually the cause of spouse abuse?

economic issues

globalization has 2 major impacts on...

economy and culture

education system can reinforce [...]

education system can reinforce social stratification

lower motor neurons (LMN)

efferent neurons of the PNS synapse control skeletal muscles - controls muscles of limbs and trunk - those that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of head and neck skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit - forms a neuromuscular junction abormalities can cause lower motor neuron signs (LMN signs) - can happen in addition to weakness

transmission

electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron

light

electromagnetic wave ranges from violet (400 nm) to red (700 nm)

elementary mental functions is to higher mental functions as social interactions is to [...]

elementary mental functions is to higher mental functions as social interactions is to cognition

5 kinds of social support

emotional support esteem support informational support tangible/ instrumental support companion support

emotions are contingent on [...]

emotions are contingent on senses

behaviorists

empiricist believe language is just a conditioned behavior

what does pluralism encourage?

encourages racial and ethnic variation

endolymph allows us to detect what [...] our head is moving in

endolymph allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in

why do we get dizzy?

endolymph does not stop spinning the same we do, so it continues moving and indicates to brain we're still moving even when we've stopped

transduction

energy is transformed from one form to other - ex: light energy --> electrical energy by rods and cones

arousal on attention

enhanced arousal can enhance attention - but too high of an arousal state can be detrimental to attention

encoding specificity

enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning

external (situational attribution)

environment

what is autobiographical memory a combination of?

episodic and semantic memory

equal rights and women's suffrage movements were all conflicts that resolved in a new [...]

equal rights and women's suffrage movements were all conflicts that resolved in a new thesis

who created the psychosocial development theory?

erikson

psychosocial theory of development

erikson - proposed personality/ identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan (lifespan perspective) each stage depends on overcoming a conflict - success/ failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory 8 stages

2 examples of drives

eros (life drive) - health, safety, sex - comes with love, cooperation, collaboration - working with others to promote yours and others wellbeing thantos (death drive) - self-destructive/ harmful to others - comes with fear and anger (inward or outward) - hate

2 examples of aversive control

escape avoidance

churches

established religious bodies in a larger society ex: roman catholic church

[...] minorities have greater degree of inequality

ethnic/ racial minorities have greater degree of inequality

secondary appraisal

evaluation of the individual's ability to cope with the situation - what is the individual's material preepareedness to deal with the stressor? appraisal of - harm: what damage has already been caused - threat: how much damage could be caused - challenge: how to overcome it

mere exposure effect with anterograde amnesia

even if patients are incapable of forming new memories, if the patient saw a picture of a face before, they consider them more attractive

iron rule of oligarchy

even the most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by a select few

modified semantic network

every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge all ideas in your head are connected together - when you activate one concept, you pull related concepts with it (spreading activation) some links might be shorter/ longer for different individuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories to exemplars

functionalist

everyone is required to have a responsibility in society

spearman's theory of generalized intelligence

evidence comes from the fact that people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of tests factors underlying these consistent abilities is called the g factor - generalized intelligence - used factor analysis to identify clusters of related abilities

surface traits

evident from a person's behavior

5 approaches to motivation

evolutionary approach drive-reduction theory (drive vs need) optimum arousal theory cognitive maslow's hierarchy of needs in reality, all approaches are related and help us learn motivation a bit better

buss

evolutionary psychologist that theorized that males and females have different mating strategies that influence costs associated with passing on genes - males can have many mates - females are more selective due to the cost of pregnancy

group meetings

ex: AA (alcohol anonymous) or NA (narcotics anonymous) involve 12-step program (3 categories) that help people go through the process of recovery - acceptance - surrender - active involvement steps are sequential but one can experience certain steps repeatedly over time sometimes there are parallel group meetings for families of recovering addicts

vigilance

ex: active search, selective attention, divided attention a type of attention - often described as main functions rather than subfunctions of attention

gestalt principles: law of common fate

ex: if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while half the dots are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units

pressurized sound wave

ex: in between your hands are a bunch of air molecules and when hands move toward each other, there is less space so the molecules compress and there is higher pressure - air molceules are becoming pressurized

tokenism

ex: one minority character is added to a movie as a stand-in for the entire group

visual cues

ex: painting a room pink vs black

past-in-present discrimination

example of unintentional discrimination how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed, can have consequences for people in the present ex: after brown vs. boe verdict, the girl in the integrated school still didn't feel welcomed in her classroom

side-effect discrimination

example of unintentional discrimination talks about how one institution, organization, sector, etc. can influence another negatively

complex societies

exhibit features of stratification - total stock of valued goods is distributed unequally (most privledged enjoy a disproportionate share of income, power and other valued resources)

what part of self-concept comes first?

existential self

parts of development of self-concept

existential self categorical self

2 types of cues that direct our selective attention

exogenous and endogenous

ludwig gumplowicz

expanded on marx by proposing that society is shaped by war/ conquest cultural/ ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others

sick role

expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities - but if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society

coping

expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems adaptive or constructive coping strategies - strategies to reduce stress levels seeking to master, minimize or tolerate stress or conflict - but some can be maladaptive effectiveness of coping efforts depends on - type of stress/ conflict - particular individual - circumstances

lazarus theory

experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled) - if we label the emotion as good --> positive - if we label the emotion as bad --> negative cognitive --> emotion + physiological how we label is based on cultural/ individual differences event is the same and deepending on the label, it produces 2 very different emotions - ex: skydiving is terrifying for some but exhilarating for others, depending on the label

james-lange theory

experience of emotion is due to pereception of physiological responses - physiological --> emotion ex: a man who is allergic to bees encounters a bee - heart rate increases, starts to sweat --> interprets as fear event --> physiological response --> interpretation of response --> emotion

affective

experience of emotions

elaboration likelihood model

explains how attitudes are formed and likely they are to be changed target characteristics are the most important characteristics of this model, but all will play a factor (message and source) we want to evaluate information along 2 possible paths: central and peripheral - after a route is chosen, information is passed through 3 different stages

gender schema theory

explains how individuals should be gendered in society how sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture what constitutes male/ female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in the society - cognitions regarding what constitutes a sex identity

information processing model: explicit output

explicit (declarative) - facts/ events you can clearly describe - focuses on recalling previous experiences and information - divided into episodic (event-related) and semantic (words/ facts)

how can diffusion occur? (6)

exploration military conquest missionary work mass media tourism internet

haptic perception

exploration of objects through touch, most often by the hand or fingers

priming

exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been consciously paying attention to it previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event - refers to the change in the response toward a stimulus due to a subconscious memory effect implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (ex: perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus

content validity

extent that the test measures the construct accurately - estimate of how much a measure represents every element of a construct measure of the comprehensiveness and examines whether or not a test covers every single element of a construct

internal validity

extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warrented confounding factors often impact the internal validity

construct validity

extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research - how the terms are defined

EEG

external can't tell us about activity of individual/ groups of neurons - can only look at sum total can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cognitive tasks, etc not invasive easier set-up than MEG

what does certain types of phobia therapy use?

extinction - exposing patient to their phobia repeatedly until the stimuli no longer elicits the same response (fear) anymore

difference between extinctive burst and extinction

extinctive burst: - short term - will often occur when extinction procedure just begun - temporary increase in the response frequency --> decline --> extinction extinction: - eventually long-term decrease of desired behavior - when implemented consistently over time

stigma

extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person 2 forms - social stigma - self-stigma

social stigma

extreme disapproval/ discrediting of individual by society can be fueled or associated with - stereotypes - prejudices - discrimination

delusions in schizophrenia

extremely common - occurs in more than 90% of those who have the disorder involve illogical or bizzare ideas or fantasies common delusions - delusions of persecution (belief that others are out to get them) - delusions of reference (neutral environmental event is believed to have a special and personal meaning) - delusions of grandeur (belief that one is a famous or important figure; involves the belief that one has unusual powers no one else has) - delusions of control (belief that one's thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside, alien forces

studying brain struture and function together

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) PET (positron emossion tomography) scans

microsociology

face-to-face interactions, families, schools and other social interactions interpretive analysis of society - looks at samples of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society ex: doctor-patient interactions or family dynamics

[...] attraction is more important than body attraction

facial attraction is more important than body attraction

what method does cattell, eysenck and big 5 all use?

factor anaylsis - statistical method that categorizes and determinees major categories of traits allport's theory did not - he used different methods

source traits

facts underlying human personality - fewer and more abstract

3 types of collective behaviors

fad mass hysteria riots

change blindness

fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment - ex: you don't notice when your mom gets a haircut different from in-attentional blindess (subtle difference)

heritability describes the amount of individuals with a specific gene or disorder (true or false?)

false

heritability is a broad estimate of nature vs nurture in a general population (true or false?)

false

delusions

false fixed beliefs not explained by a person's culture firmly-held idea what a person has despite clear and obvious evidence that it isn't true

institutions need individuals but individuals don't need institutions (true or false)

false individuals need institutions but institutions don't need individuals

type II error

false negative - saying something doesn't exist when it does

type I error

false positive - saying something exists when it doesn't

what is exchange theory used to study?

family relationships, work relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc - interpersonal interactions

foraging behavior is driven strongly by [...], but can also be gained through learning

foraging behavior is driven strongly by genetics, but can also be gained through learning

immigration reform and control act (1986)

forbade hiring of illegal immigrants extended amnesty and legal status to illegal immigrants already there

counterconditioning

form of respondent conditioning involves conditioning of an unwanted behavior - or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior - or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus also called stimulus substitution

synciotrophoblasts

form villi --> forms fetal blood vessels (which are in close contact to uterine blood)

what are the 3 cues monocular cues can give?

form, motion and consistency

secondary groups

formal, impersonal, temporary, business-like relationships based on a limited purpose/ goal usually short-term and you only see them sometimes

paul ekman

found 6 main universal emotions that can be identified by everyone around the world - happiness - sadness - fear - disgust - anger - surprise

mirror neurons

found in areas of the brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premotor cortex (frontal lobe) and somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) can be helpful in understanding imitation further

bipolar cells

found in the retina send visual signals from the rods and cones to the ganglion cells on-center: when light hits retina --> rod cell is turned off --> on-center bipolar cells are active --> activates on-center ganglion cells off-center: when dark --> rod cell is turned on --> off-center bipolar cells are active --> activates off-center retinal ganglion cells imagine polar bears standing on top of the rods and cones

who created the psychosexual theory of development?

freud

psychosexual theory of development

freud - believed early childhood (ages 0-5) was the most important age/ period in which personality developed 5 stages - if completed successfully, result is a healthy personality - if issues aren't resolved at a certain age, then fixation occurs

dream theories

freud - dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted - little scientific support evolutionary biology - threat stimulation, to prepare for real world - problem solving - no purpose other - maintain brain flexibility (allows us to learn and be creative when we are awake) - consolidate thoughts to long-term memory and cleaning up thoughts (people who learn + sleep retain more than those who do not sleep) - preserve and developing neural pathways (why babies spend most of their time in REM)

differences between freud and erikson

freud: personality develops in childhood erikson: personality develops throughout the lifespan

cerebral cortex

frontal lobe parietal lobe occipital lobe temporal lobe F-POT

what is the hypothesis of relative deprivation linked to?

frustration aggression hypothesis

frustration-aggression principle

frustration causes anger --> sparks aggression

psychology and how it relates to aggression

frustration-aggression principle - frustration causes anger --> sparks aggression reinforcement-modeling - can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement - parents who give into demands of a child during a temper tantrum leads to more temper tantrums in the future

node link strength

function of exposure - increased exposure --> increases node link strength relative strength of the node links determines amount of activation emitted to a network of a specific node stronger nodal links decreases processing time - learning reduces processing time

functionality and dysfunctionality of immigrants

functional: alleviating labor shortages dysfunctional: can be exploted by countries interested in maximizing their profits while being unconcerned about global, social and economic inequalities that results from profit seeking

mnemonic devices: method of loci

good for remembering things in order - links information to locations ties information you already need to remember to certain stops along a route that you already know ex: bananas raining down on bus stop you get on, next stop there are oranges being thrown at, and the final stop you have a cat eating blueberries also ties imagery

trait theories (4)

gordon allport - everyone has different traits (4500) - categorized into 3 categories (cardinal, central, secondary) raymond cattell - we had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality hans eysenck - we all propose traits which we express in different degrees - we have 3 major dimensions of personality 5 factor model - big 5 personality traits

monarchy

government embodied by a single person - king/ queen is the figurehead

ways to help social inequality

government schemes (ex: food stamps) improve access to education and healthcare figure out social interventions that allow integration to society

population pyramid

graphs the age and sex distribution of a population x axis: males/ females y axis: increasing age

grey and white matter in the spinal chord

grey is on the inside white is on the outside

population transfer

group is forcefully moved from their territory

group polarization

group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want can turbo charge the group's viewpoints

mob

group of individuals who are emotional and violent target specific individuals or categories of individuals

nucleus basalis with alzheimers

group of neurons at the base of the cerebrum that is lost early in the course of alzheimers - important for cognitive fucntion sends long axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum - releases acetylcholine

scapegoats

group of people towards whom the aggression is directed ex: jews during WWII

factors that influence conformity and obedience (7)

group size (more likely for groups of 3-5) unanimity group status group cohesion observed behavior (when we believe our behaviors are observed) public response internal factors (prior commitments and feelings of insecurity)

cluster c

has 3 personality disorders - anxiety and fearful avoidant - inhibited - feel inadequate - try to avoid putting themselves in a situation where they can be criticized dependent - submissive and clingy obsessive-compulsive personality disorder - very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect and for them being in control to an extent where it annoys other people

cluster a

has 3 personality disorders - odd and eccentric traits paranoid - profound distrust + suspicion of other people (paranoid of others) schizoid - emotionally detached in relationships and shows little emotion (what people sometimes incorrectly consider antisocial) schizotypal - odd beliefs/ magicall thinking

cluster b

has 4 personality disorders - dramatic, emotional, erratic traits antisocial - little or no regard for others - commit crimes and show no remorse - inconsiderate of others borderline - unstable relationships - emotions are unstable - variable self-image and compulsive - brink of an emotional/ relationship issue histrionic - very attention seeking - display emotions outwardly - wear bright clothes

problem with deutch and deutch's late selection theory

has to occur quickly given limited resources of attention and knowing that our brains are super-efficient, it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won't ever need

structure of sperm

head - contains DNA material and acrosome tail - flagellum / propeller middle - lot of mitochondria

how do small societies stay together?

held together by similarities - only works for small ones

early developmental trajectory in altruism

heloping behaviors begin early - some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies diress) helping behavior begins around age 2 - children share toys and play act helping/ altruism age 4 is when they begin to actually start helping

why do people believe in the just world hypothesis?

helps individuals rationalize theirs or others good fortune or misfortune allows people to feel like they can influence their world - easier to engage in goal-oriented behavior and plan for the future

emile durkheim

her ideas formed the ideology of functionalism (/ structural functionalism) says society is always heading towards equilibrium

who continued mead's work?

herbert blumer

means-end analysis

heuristic where we analyze the main problem and break it down into smaller problems then we attack the problem that has the most difference between current state and goal state - solving biggest --> smallest problem current state --> goal state ex: planning a trip to a new country - bigger problem would be to get to the new country, so you book a plane ticket

hierarchical semantic network is supported by [...] principle

hierarchical semantic network is supported by cognitive economy principle

expansive population pyramid

high birth rates and high death rates

clinical trial

highly controlled interventional studies

flashbulb memories

highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid - even though they seem as real as life, they are still susceptible to reconstruction as less emotional memories people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing event

types of bias (10)

hindsight bias normalcy bias reconstructive bias attrition bias social desirability bias selection bias subjective bias implicit bias cognitive bias social deesirability bias

what parts of the brain have the most glucocorticoid receptors?

hippocampus and frontal cortex - subject to atrophy with stress

heinz dilemma

his wife was dying from cancer and drug was discovered by local chemist that could save her chemist charged 10x the price it took to make the drug- more than heinz could afford - he asked his family and only had half the money desperate to save his wife, he broke into the chemist's office and stole the drug

options for signal detection theory

hit false alarm correct rejection miss different than type 1/ type 2 errors

neonatal reflexes: stepping

hold an infant upright and their feet touch a flat surface, they will start to step as if they are trying to walk disappears in 2 months

[...] social network is similar to reference group

homophilous social network is similar to reference group

binet's idea of mental age

how a child acts at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years

neonatal reflexes: babinski

how baby will turn/ unturn toes when the bottom of the foot is stimulated disappears before 12 months - fans toes outward

wavelength

how close peaks are wavelength and frequency have inverse relationship - longer wavelength --> lower frequency

auditory processing

how cochlea differentiates between 2 different sounds of varying frequency - distension maintained by the brain with basilar tuning can hear frequencies between 20-20,000 Hz

conflict perspective: role of media

how media portrays and reflects and exacerbates divisions that exist in society - ex: race, ethnicity, gender, social class gatekeeping

growth rate

how much population a country grows or shrinks over a period of time

sanctions

how norms are reinforced rewards/ punishments for behaviors in accord with or against norms positive - reward for conforming negative - punishment for violating formal - officially recognized and enforced (written down) informal - unofficially recognized and doees not result in specific punishment (understood but less precise)

unintentional discrimination

how policies can discriminate unintentionally examples - side-effect discrimination - past-in-present discrimination

intensity of somatosensation

how quickly neurons fire for us to notice - slow = low intensity - fast = high intensity

relearning

how quickly relearning happens can show if someone has learnt something before initially and just can't retrieve it

somatosensations: intensity

how quickly they are fired involves how intense the signal is

how [...] someone is to us is a huge predictor of attraction

how similar someone is to us is a huge predictor of attraction

language

how we communicatee ideas, thoughts, feelings how we respond to thoughts/ feelings of others

attribution theory

how we explain behaviors of others around us - by breaking down our understanding/ explanation of their behaviors to factors about them and factors related to their environment/ surrounding relates the ways in which people attempt to explain various behaviors and events

components of language: syntax

how words are put together in sentences - all language have some form of syntax refers to the way words are placed together to form language - to form grammatically correct sentences p600 response - bigger with bigger violation in ASL, this would mean combining multiple signs, gestures and body movements to communicate effectively

framing effects

how you present the decision can affect decisions as well

galton's idea of hereditary genius

human ability is hereditary

carl rogers

humanistic theorists believed qualities maslow described are nurtured early in life - self-actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting climate (through growth and acceptance)

"which theory answers the question ""who am i?"""

humanistic theory

monocular cues

humans have visual cues they receieve which they do not need 2 eyes for

humans receive visual cues from environment by [...]

humans receive visual cues from environment by binocular cues

defense mechanisms: mature (4)

humor - expressing humor to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable sublimation - channeling negative to positive energy - ex: violent energy --> beecomes a boxer - transforms into socially accetable behaviors suppression - conscious thought gets pushed to unconscious - can access thoughts at a later time altruism - in service of others - we feel fulfilled and gain pleasure/ satisfaction Mature HASS

coping with stress: optimisim

humor and optimism linked to decreased stress - nurture an optimistic outlook

step 2 of categorizing with social identity theory

identification when we adopt identity of the group, we see/ categorize us as belonging - behaving and acting like the category we belong to (ex: acting and behaving like a student, it begins to feel normal) our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging

lexical access

identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory

2 main factors of gender

identity and expression

most important psychosocial stage

identity vs role confusion

if a country's invome rises up, [...] doesn't change but median income level would

if a country's invome rises up, absolute poverty line doesn't change but median income level would

deviance standards: strain theory

if a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, they may become frustrated/ strained and turn to deviance - individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have the means or legitimate ways to achieve sucess society values a certain behavior but the opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone - lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to illegal means to achieve success

what does consistency mean for attribution?

if a person is consistent in all situations, then maybe it is not external/ environment and more internal - their behavior is not dependent on the situation

intra-generational mobility

if change in social class happens in a person's own lifetime

what causes parkinson's disease?

if dopamine cannot be projected to the striatum (part of basal ganglia)

when are traits selected for in darwin's theory of evolution?

if they contribute to the success of the species

normative social influence

if we do something to gain respect/ support of peers, we're complying with social norms - because of this, we might go with the group outwardly, but internally believe something differently ex: friends are all obsessed with a certain singer - you tell the group you like the singer even though you hate it - you continue to say you like it (or even go to their concert)

if we have [...] and consensus, then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external)

if we have distinctiveness and consensus, then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external)

problem with broadbent's early selection theory

if you completely filter out unattended information, you shouldn't be able to identify your own name in unattended ear - but you can, as explained by the cocktail party effect

how do you overcome stereotype threat?

if you make them aware that the threat exists, they will perform better

belief perserverence

ignoring facts or rationalizing disconfirming facts ex: during elections, people tend to ignore facts that they didn't like about a candidate they wanted to vote for

norms

standards for what behaviors, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable and which are not rules that dictate how a person should behave around a certain group of people - defined by that group - usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group vary/ are dependent on context, physical location, culture and by country - can change with time as individual attitudes shift or circumstances change to allow certain types of behaviors to be valued

information processing model: implicit output

implicit (non-declarative) - involves things you may not articulate - previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences - evidence arises in priming (a process whereby subjects are measured by how they have improved their performacne on tasks for which they haev subconsciously prepared, ex: riding a bicycle) - procedural memory is a type of implicit memory for actions or habits (inform unconscious motor skills) - all memories formed by conditioning (formed unconsciously) - stored in the basal ganglia

stable memory in aging

implicit memory - procedural memories - ex: riding a bike recognition memory - being able to pick something out of a list

negative priming

implicit memory effect prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus caused by experiencing the stimulus and then ignoring it lowers the speed to slower than un-primed levels

similarity bias

implies we will not befriend people different form us

world-systems theory

importance of the world as a unit rather than individual countries divides the world into 3 countries: core, periphery and semi-periphery

variable duration

in between primacy/ recency

relative poverty

in developed countries, we use a different marker % level below the median income of the country - ex: in US, insteaed of $1-2 a day, median income is above $80/day not about survival; about exclusion from society

minnesota study

in monozygotic twins reared apart.. religiosity is r = 0.49 personality is r = 0.50 information processing speed is r = 0.56 intelligence is r = 0.69

how did catell define fluid intelligence?

in novel situations, the ability to recognize and reason relationships between objects and ideas independent of previous experiences

brain abnormalities with parkinson's

in the brainstem, the substatia nigra (part of basal ganglia) is less dark or not dark at all - suggests only one type of neuron is involved these cells/ neurons lost are only dopaminergic neurons

where are cones located?

in the fovea

semicircular canals

in the inner ear posterior, lateral and anterior - each orthogonal to each other filled with endolymph (fluid) - shifts when we rotate

where is melatonin produced?

in the pineal gland

are there stronger interactions within the in-group or the out-group?

in-group

anterograde amnesia

inability to code new memories

anomia

inability to name things

anosmia

inability to perceive order smell blindness

retrograde amnesia

inability to recall information previously encoded - problem recalling old memories

source amnesia

inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge

agraphia

inability to write

false information

inaccurate recollection of an event problematic for police officers to ask leading questions

inattention relating to memory formation

inattention impacts memory formation negatively - being bored would do this

[...] can solve problems with evolution that states that animals can be predisposed to act selfishly

inclusive fitness can solve problems with evolution that states that animals can be predisposed to act selfishly

problems with adoption studiese

incomplete information about biological families for adoptive children adoption isn't random - adoptive families sometimes matched to be similar to the biological family (of having the same community or culture) - more difficult to understand if something is genetic or environmentally driven

increase in trade has been created and supported by international regulatory groups like the [...]

increase in trade has been created and supported by international regulatory groups like the world trade organization

increase in trade has been created and supported by transnational agreements like the [...]

increase in trade has been created and supported by transnational agreements like the north american free trade agreement (NAFTA)

damaging effects of stress on our heart

increased BP - blood volume distends --> builds up more muscle and becomes more rigid can lead to hypertension and vascular disease spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels - worst place to experience this is coronary arteries (coronary artery disease)

global brain changes during adolescence

increased myelination - faster communication increase in brain volume in early adolescence and then decrease later in adolescence - synaptic pruning

world-systems theory: semi-periphery

india and brazil huge middle-ground between core and periphery not dominant in international trade but diversified/ developed economy can come either from periphery countries moving up to core countries or core countries declining toward periphery status

stationary/ constrictive pyramid

indicate low birth and death rates in population

test validity

indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results

individual discrimination

individual person acting to discriminate based on something - ex: sex, religion, race, age, etc.

what is another name for counterconditioning?

stimulus substitution

what is another term for counterconditioning?

stimulus substitution?

what happens to the anterior cingulate with depression?

stops responding to serotonin

noise distribution: c

strategy can be expressed as the choice of the threshold (pick an intensity as a threshold and anything above it you say yes and anything below you say no) - what is the threshold needed to surpass in order for them to say yes vs no

variable c

strategy in signal detection theory conservative: always say no unless 100% sure signal is present (c>1) - positive: all correct rejections - negative: might get some misses - no more often than an ideal observer liberal: always say yes (c<1) - positive: all hits - negative: might get some false alarms - no less often than the ideal observer

d'

strength of a signal in signal detection theory strong signal = hit > miss - easier to detect weak signal = miss > hit - harder to detect

bf skinner

strict behaviorist associated with the concept of operant conditioning - uses reward and punishment to increase or decrease behavior, respectively

2 types of self-efficacy

strong and weak

nature vs nurture with intelligence

strongest correlation between IQ scores is in identical twins raised in the same home - raised apart --> not as high correlation (some environmental component) fraternal twins raised together show lower correlation (genetic component)

ventral tegmental area

structure in the midbrain which sends dopaminergic neural projections to both the limbic and cortical areas

albert bandora

studied social cognitive theory did the bobo doll experiment - studied aggression in children - studied learning-performance distinction

epigenetics

study of changes in gene expression resulting from changes other than to the gene/ DNA sequence - can override our behavior ex: addition of methyl groups to the genes - makes it more difficult for transcription factor to come in and activate the gene - methylation inhibits activation of certain genes

ethnography

study of particular people and places more of an approach than a single research method - generally combines several research methods (ex: interviews, observations, physical trace measures)

what were the 3 tenants proposed by blumer to explain symbolic interactionism

we act based on meaning we've given something - ex: tree is placed next to a rest different people assign different meanings to things - we give meaning to things based on social interactions - ex: someone tells us the tree is infested with ants, but we have a different view of the tree and act differently the meaning we give something isn't permanent - ex: something bites my back, so i might not sit under the next tree i find (tree is now defined as a source of shade with a potential of getting bit)

lesion studies: tissue removal

surgical removal - surgical aspiration (sucking out brain tissue) - severing the nerve with a scalpel (allows for a destroying of the brain tissue in place, less invasive)

ciliary body

suspensory ligaments + ciliary muscle - secretes aqueous humor

symbolic interactionism addresses the [...] people believe to be true

symbolic interactionism addresses the subject meanings people believe to be true

symbolic interactionism is a [...] perspective

symbolic interactionism is a micro perspective

what component of language has a p600 response?

syntax

what process did joseph wolpe develop?

systematic desensitization

most widely used type of counterconditioning

systemic desensitization

methods of problem solving: trial + error

taking random guesses until something works not efficient

negative reinforcement

taking something away to increase tendency behavior will occur again ex: taking loud buzzing noise away once you put in your seatbelt

what is the most important characteristic of the elaboration likelihood model?

target characteristics

traditionalism

tedency to follow authority

central executive

tells the visuo-spatial sketchpad + phonological loop to coordinate supervises the cognitive process of memory creates an integrated representation that stores it in the episodic buffer - acts as a connecter for information to be stored in long-term memory

evolutionary game theory

tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass onto offspring and those genes will become common in successive generations strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players

thermoreceptors

temperature

types of somatosensation (4)

temperature (thermoception) pressure (mechanoception) pain (nociception) position (proprioception)

touch adaptations

temperature receptors are desensitized over time

sects

tend to be smaller and established in protest of the established church - tend to break away from churches ex: mormons/ amish

homophily

tendency for people to choose relationships with other people who have similar attributes people often prefer mixing with those who are similar to themselves

components that make up prejudice: discrimination

tendency for prejudice to lead to behavior capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice

halo effect

tendency people have inherently good/ bad nature, rather than looking at individual characteristics if we have overall positive first impressions, we start to analyze their skills based on our overall first impression rather than just skill

actor-obserever bias

tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes

social loafing

tendency to put forth less effort in group tasks if the individual contributions aren't evaluated - individuals put less effort when part of a group group produced reduction of individual effort - groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort and perform poorly

cognitive bias

tendency to think in certain ways often causes deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgement

generalization

tendency/ ability of a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response the more similar the stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus, the greater the conditioned response - has an adaptive value allows us to make appropriate response to similar stimuli

reliability checks (3)

test-retest inter-rater internal

sexual drive/ activity is related to

testosterone - for men and women

discriminant (divergent) validity

tests that constructs that have no relationships do, in fact, not have any relationships

convergent validity

tests that the constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact, related

self-control

the ability to control our impulses and delay gratification influences how we behave

how did catell define crystallized intelligence?

the ability too retrieve and acquire knowledge

memory reconstruction

the brain does not save memories exactly or perfectly - every time we retrieve a memory, we change it in small ways, according to our goals, moods, or environment sometimes these alterations are due to our own desires and moods - if there is a gap in our memory, our brain might fill it with something logical or desireable ex: someone tells a story about a fish they caught - every time they tell the story, the fish gets bigger

sexual dimorphism

the degree of difference between male and female anatomical traits

cultural imperalism

the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture

source characteristics

the environment around the message and the speaker's background what is their level of expertise of speakers around us - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy and is the information credible or not where does the information come from? - ex: internet poll, street poll, or psyc fournal physical environment, venue of event (campus or bar?)

context retrieval

the environment you encode and take the test (retrieve the information) is helpful not always the case, so if you can't take the test in the same place, studying in different places gives you different cues for retrieval - multiple cues that will help you remember the material ex: scuba divers learnt information in water or on land, then later tested in water or land - those people who learned and were tested in the same place scored better than learning in one location than getting tested in another

locus of control (and types)

the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives internal - when a person believes he/ she can influence events/ outcomes - feel like they control their own destiny external - attribute events to environmental events/ causes

the [...] is a part of the visual system in the brain, and plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition

the fusiform gyrus is a part of the visual system in the brain, and plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition

"which stage led to the development of ""i"" and ""me""?"

the game stage of social behaviorism

how do large societies stay together?

individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles - forced mutual independence

bystander effect

individuals feel less inclined to take action because of the presence of others in the group group process in which individuals observe an injustice or crime being perpetuated and do not intervene small group = small bystander effect large group = more bystander effect can be due to many factors, including diffusion of responsibility theory

unrelated physiological arousal and how it relates to attraction

individuals who just walked across a narrow bridge (sympathetic arousal) leads to increased rating of women - because during attraction, sympathetic arousal occurs as well (ex: fast heartbeat) our brain recognizes the sympathetic arousal from high height and being attracted together

indulgent parenting is the same as [...] parenting

indulgent parenting is the same as permissive parenting

what does conflict theory focus on?

inequalities of different groups in society

"what is considered ""enough sleep""?"

infant: 12 hours preschooler: 10 hours school age: 9 hours older adults: at least 7 hours

neonatal reflexes: swimming

infants in water move their legs/ arms in a swimming motion - involuntarily holds breath allows small infants to swim/ float for a short period of time disappears at 6 months

somatosensations

information about sensation - types - intensities - timing - where in the body the sense is originating (location)

information processing model assumes [...] processing

information processing model assumes serial processing

2 reasons why you would agree/ conform with the group

informative influence - look to a group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct normative influence - even if you know what's right, you follow the group's negative actions to avoid social rejection

unconditioned

innate - not learned

reference groups

the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves - evaluating their own qualities, circumstances, atittudes, values and behaviors these groups influence our social decisions (our beliefs, attitudes and behaviors) any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior

primary reinforcers

innately satisfying/ desireable ex: food, water, sexual activity

trait theory: hans eysenck

we all pose all traits which we express to different degrees we have 3 major dimensions of personality, which encompass all traits we possess, but the degree to which we individually express them are different psychoticism - degree to which reality is distorted - we don't all necessarily have psychoticism extroversion vs introversion - degree of sociability neuroticism - emotional stability Eysenck's PEN

what happens when the just world hypothesis is threatened?

we use rational techniques or irrational techniques

secularization

weakening of social and political power of religious organizations - ex: religious involvement declines

how does weber and marx differ?

weber: does not see class as the supreme factor in stratification; corporate executives control firms they typically do not own marx: would've placed these people in the proletariat despite their high incomes by virtue of the fact that they sell their labor instead of owning capital

gestation in weeks

week 0: last menstrual period week 2: fertilization week 10: fetal development - embryogenesis - divided cells and organ system form week 24: 50% chance of survival if birth occurs week 40: full term (37-42 weeks)

what influenced asch's conformity study?

the holocaust - was interested in studying how group behavior can influence behavior of an individual

self-serving bias

the idea that you could never see yourself doing it

the immediacy of [...] is an important factor in influencing behavior

the immediacy of feedback is an important factor in influencing behavior

what did the zimbardo prison study show us?

the influence the situation can have on our behavior - situational attribution becomes easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization - lost of self bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate - tried to overly justify internalization - participants internalized their prison roles

the [...] and basal ganglia are most often associated with disgust

the insula and basal ganglia are most often associated with disgust

the recognition of facial expressions associated with sadness have been linked to the [...]

the recognition of facial expressions associated with sadness have been linked to the subcallosal cingulate

the reverse halo effect is also called the [...] effect

the reverse halo effect is also called the devil effect

foraging

the search for food in animal's environment can't survive or reproduce with out

disadvantages of stereotyping

it's inaccurate

cohort study

following a subset of a population over a lifetime

prospective cohort design

follows a group of individuals over a period of time

is language in the left or right hemisphere?

for 90% of people, it is in the left

reflexes

pre-programmed motor skills involuntary motor movement (automatic)

how do neurons communicate?

though electrochemical signals through synapse

in-attentional blindness

"AKA perceptual blindness - we aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field ""miss something right in front of you"" inability to recognize an unexpected object, event, or stimulus that is in 'plain sight' - due to a psychological lapse in attention, rather than a defect or deficit in sensory perception ex: you can't say where the nearest fire extinguisher is because you fail to notice it because your attention is typically directed elsewhere - even though fire extinguishers are brightly colored and essential to survive (which should bring them to your attention)"

non-REM stage 3

"N3 (Stage 3) - slow wave sleep - very difficult to awaken - delta waves - where sleep walking/ talking happens - declarative memory consolidation - ""regular breathing and regular slow brain waves"""

K-complexes

"associated with N2 sleep stage supress cortical arousal and keep you asleep help sleep-based memory consolidation - some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep (particularly declarative/ explicit memories) even though they occur naturally, you can also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping - ""that touch was not threatning, stay asleep brain"""

coping styles in schema therapy: overcompensation

"attempting to fight against the schema and prove it is not true aggression, hostility - counterattacks through defying, abusing, blaming, attacking or criticizing others dominance, excessive self-assertion - controls others through direct means to accomplish goals recognition-seeking, status-seeking - impressing, high achievement, status, attention-seeking, etc manipulation, exploitation - meets own needs through covert manipulation, seduction, dishonesty or conning passive-aggressiveness, rebellion - appears overtly compliant while punishing others or rebelling covertly through procrastination, pouting, ""backstabbing"", lateness, complaining, rebellion, non-performance, etc excessive orderliness, obsessionality - maintains strict order, tight self-control or high level of predictability through order and planning, excessive aherence to routine or ritual or undue caution - devotes inordinate time to finding the best way to acommplish tasks or avoid negative outcomes"

piaget's view on language

"believed once children were able to think a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts - influences build it language is influenced by cognitive development - ex: when children develop object permanance, they start to develop words like ""gone"" and ""missing"" use of language begins in the sensorimotor stage - but piaget believed that the world of a child in this stage is understood through sensation of action - a child in the concrete operational stage will use categories, logic and concrete reasoning to understand the world"

gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

"believed that sternburg's and thurnston's theories was not very inclusive - only considered ""book smart"" to be intelligence divided intelligence into originally 7, and then 9 independent intelligences that don't rely or depend on eeach other - linguistic - musical - spatial - body-kinesthetic - intrapersonal - interpersonal - naturalist - existential not a lot of evidence to support this theory - partially comes with the fact that there is no real way to test it"

internal locus of control

"can control fate of our own destiny ""i should have studied harder"""

overdose

"can occur when your body is not prepared for the drugs - ex: if you're in a new location but take the same level of drugs, you might overdose because your body does not have its normal cues that it would use to get a ""head start"" (lowering heart rate) to maintain homeostasis"

humanistic tendency

"carl rogers focuses on healthy personality development - believes humans are inherently good most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency (self-actualization) - innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential - people will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles focuses on the conscious says people have free will answers the question ""who am i?"""

emotional effects of stress: anxiety

"centers on amygdala - perceives more things as fearful - accompanies the ""flight"" aspect of the sympathetic response"

learning (behaviorist) theory

"children aren't born with anything - they only acquire language through operant conditioning ex: child learns to say ""mama"" because every time they say that, the mom reinforcese the child associated with BF skinner"

3 categories of symptoms of schizophrenia

"cognitive - abnormalities of attention, organization, planning abilities negative - lack of emotional expression (affective flattening) - lack of interest or enthusiasm (avolition) - seeming lack of interest in the world - speech difficulties and abnormalities (alogia) positive - psychosis - hallucinations, delusions - ""perceptual abnormalities"""

psychological coping mechanisms

"commonly termed ""coping strategies"" or ""coping skills"" subconscious or non-conscious strategies (defense mechanisms) are usually excluded"

role conflict

"conflict/ tension between 2+ different statuses - different statuses compete for someone's time ex: husband has an anniversary and a friend is calling him for a monthly get-together ""stress that people feel when they are confronted with incompatible role expectations across different social statuses they occupy"""

hierarchical semantic network

"first semantic network theory suggested that we stored information in a hierarchical way - higher order categories to lower order categories (we store information at the highest category possible) - broad categories/ characteristics are stored at higher level nodes - the longer it takes us to verify connections between nodes, the longer it takes for us to make that link supported by cognitive economy principle ex: animal --> bird --> ostrich - more specific characteristics like ""sings"", ""long legs"", etc. are stored at lower nodes - ""can breathe"" is more general so it's at a higher node"

innate learning

"fixed action patterns that are ""hard wired"""

receptive aphasia

"fluent aphasia (similar to wernicke's aphasia) can read or hear - unable to understand the meaning of the communication - words will come out as ""word salad"""

old brain: reticular formation

"forms brainstep to other brain areas filters information and sends important information to the thalamus big role in autonomic functions and controlling things like respiration, digestion, lower/ higher functions, etc involved in motivation and alertness if you were ""tickled"", your reticular formation would wake you up"

ganglion cells

"found in the retina bipolar cells send signals to the ganglion cells - takes electrical impulses from the bipolar cells - the impulse travels down their axes and make up the optic nerve imagine a ""gang of lions"" standing on top of polar bears"

cued recall (recall cues)

"having extra cues to remember the words - still have to produce an answer but still get more cues to help you get more retrieval cues --> better than free recall ex: giving you the cue ""pl____"" and asking for what word was on the list, you can remember the word ""planet"" easier"

schema: assimilation

"how we describe new information/ experiences in terms of our current understanding/ schemas ""ss"" = same schema"

accomodations

"how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences - to remember ""cc"" = change or create"

problem with twin studies

"identical twins are treated more similarly than fraternal twins are - monozygotic twins share even ""more"" of the same environments than fraternal twins"

id

"innate - unconscious - develops after birth reservoir of all psychic energy seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation - ""pleasure principle"" - immediate gratification made up of all instincts and wants to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings - drive reduction theory"

growth mindset

"intelligence is changeable if you learn more praises effort, perseverence, improvement, and strategies rather than the end result - ex: ""you worked really hard on your assignment"""

superego

"internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions develops around age 4 subsections (conscious and unsconscious) - the conscious - the ego ideal ""morals"" - tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection interjection/ internalization inhibits sexual and aggressive impulses classic angel (superego) and devil (id) on your shoulder - you need to decide (ego) but if your ego is week, the superego or id will take over, leading to an imbalance"

weak linguistic determinism (relativism)

"language influences thought - but does not determine the context of everyday encounters it makes it easier/ more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured there are differences in language between cultures - ex: ""girl pushes the boy"" - if you read that statement with the girl on the left, your native language probably reads from left to right (like English)"

biological regulation of hunger

"lateral hypothalamus (LH) - lacking LH --> ""lacks hunger"" - normally sends positive signal to start eating ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) - missing --> ""very much hungry"" - normally sends signals to stop eating - lectin present in high amounts in blood when full (appetite suppressing hormone) insulin - too much = lots of sugar/ fat store metabolism rate - in dieting, we get a slowdown in metabolism - makes it easier for people to gain weight when resuming normal eating genetic predisposition - set point influenced by parents"

incubate

"letting problems ""sit"" for some time - insight comes after some time"

somatosensory homunculus

"map of your body in your brain - topological map of the entire body in the cortex - ex: information that comes from your hand to the brain will end up in one part of the sensory strip information comes to ""sensory strip"" - part of the cortex that receives all the sensory information via spinal cord - different areas of the body have signals that go to different parts of the strip"

amnesia

"meaning ""without"" in greek AKA amnesic syndrome deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease or psychological trauma (loss of memory) - can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs - medial temporal lobe injury memory lost can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of the damage that was caused memories stored in the long-term memory are completely or partially forgotten"

face validity

"measure of how representative a research project is at ""face value"" - whether it appears to be a good project to the degree to which a layperson who takes a cursory look at an experiment agreees that an experimenter is measuring what they say they are measuring"

heuristic

"mental shortcut to make a decision - a quick decision rule (""rule of thumb"") there is a - availability heuristic (actual memories in mind) - representativeness heuristic (not thinking of exact memories; thinking of a prototype of idea) - anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic"

behavior effects of stress: anger

"meyer friendman and ray rosenman were testing the notion that stress is associated with increased vulnerability to heart disease - categorized patients as either type A or type B type A - easily angered, aggreessive, competitive - more likely to have heart attacks type B - easy going accompanies the ""fight"" aspect of the sympathetic response"

DSM-5

1. neurodevelopmental 2. neurocognitive 3. sleep-wake 4. anxiety 5. depressive 6. bipolar and related 7. schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders 8. trauma/ stressor-related 9. substance-related and addictive 10. personality 11. disruptive, impulse-control and conduct 12. obsessive-compulsive and related 13. somatic symptom and related 14. feeding and eating 15. elimination 16. dissociative 17. sexual dysfunctions 18. gender dysphoria 19. paraphilic 20. other

development of higher mental functions (cognition) from elementary mental functions (social interactions)

1. requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other) 2. zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/ guidance should be given - link between the zone of can't do and can do 3. language - main means by which adults transmit information to children - powerful tool of intellectual adaptation

three theories of cities

1. site of culture, but also host to more crimes 2. source of inequality (conflict theory perspective) 3. places where people can get different perspective of looking at life (symbolic interactionism)

formal operational stage

12+ years old reason abstract consequences and reason consequences - moral reasoning - hypothetical reasoning

beta brainwaves

12-30Hz associated with awake/concentration if you are alert for too long, beta levels get high and you experience increased stress, anxiety, restlessness (constant awakened alertness)

rod

120 million of them sensitive to light - good for night vision (sensitive to little light) found all around the periphery - allows you to see on the sides and at night

gi (greatest) generation

1901-1924 oldest people alive today

silent generation

1925-1945 born during the great depression

baby boomers

1946-1964 born post-world war II

generation x

1965-1980

generation z

1995-2003

studying brain structure

CAT (computerized axial tomography) scans MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

non-REM stage 1

N1 (Stage 1) - dominated by theta waves - can experience strage sensations (hypnagonic hallucinations, hearing/ seeing things, etc) - or the tetris effect (if you play tetris right before bed, you might see visual images of blocks during sleep) - hypnic jerks (muscle twitches that makes you feel like you're falling)

non-REM stage 2

N2 (Stage 2) - deeper stage of sleep - harder to awaken - more theta waves as well as sleep spindles and K-complexes

molecular genetics

a new field of science that looks at the molecular structure and function of genes - as we study genes and environmental interactions, we are getting to understand specific genes that regulates our behavior - we are looking at specific parts of DNA

overt orienting

a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event

a person who acquires a stigmatized illness is likely to [...] the stigmatization directed against him or her

a person who acquires a stigmatized illness is likely to internalize the stigmatization directed against him or her

optimism bias

belief bad things happen to others but not to us

self-efficacy

belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation/ to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation - plays a role in how individual goals and challenges are approached more specific than self-esteem - can have an impact on everything from psychological states, to behavior and motivation types of self-efficacy - strong - weak

physical attractiveness stereotype

believe attractive people have more positive personality traits

george herbert mead

believed development of individuals was a social process as were the meeanings individuals assigned to things people change based on interactions with objects, events, ideas, others, etc., and assign meaning to things to decide how to act

phrenologists

believed each brain area is devoted to a certain personality characteristic, thought and emotion - they were wrong, but there are brain areas associated with specific tasks

carl rogers and self-concept

believed self-concept has 3 components self-image - what we believe we are - the view we have of ourselves self-esteem/ self-worth - how much value we place on ourselves ideal-self - what we wish/ aspire to be

thurnston's 7 factors of intelligence

believed there was more to intelligence than just one factor - word fluency - verbal comprehension - spatial reasoning - perceptual speed - numerical ability - inductive reasoning - memory focused on primary mental abilities

lens

bends the light so it goes to back of eyeball - focuses light specifically on the fovea of the retina - adjust how much it bends the light by changing its shape, using the suspensory ligaments (gets thicker or thinner)

recognition

best out of the 3 tests - easiest to recall present 2 words and say which one you heard - retrieval of correct words is highly likely

exurbs

beyond suburbs prosperous areas outside the city where people live and communte to the city to work - similar to suburbs

kluver-bucy syndrome

bilateral destruction of amygdala can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality and disinhibited behavior - these are all drunken behaviors

capsaicin

binds the TrypV1 receptor in your tongue in response to pain

binocular cues give humans a sense of [...]

binocular cues give humans a sense of depth

monoamine neurotransmitters

biogenetic amines - amino group and aromatic group connected by 2C chain cognition, thinking, emotion, attention, etc - associated with drugs - serotonin, histamine, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine subgroup: catecholamines (benzenes with 2 OH groups) - dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine

olfactory bulb

bundle of nerves that sends little projections through cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off - at end of each connection are receptors (sensitive to 1 type of molecule) - molecule travels into nose and binds one of receptors on nerve endings

exceptions to the mere-exposure effect

burn out - ex: hating the song that always plays on the radio

how is motivational state defined?

by depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus for a period of time

drug classification

by legal status or how likely they are to be abused ex: cannabis - active substance: THC - cannibis metabolites can be present in the blood of users for up to 3 months - can build up tolerance (metabolites accumulate in fat cells for 3+ months)

how can source monitoring be improved?

by using more retrieval cues, discovering and noting relations and extended reasoning - ex: angry with someone but forgot it happened in a dream

neonatal reflexes: rooting

check stroking = baby turns head allows for orientation to mother's nipple or bottle disappears in few weeks of life - then baby turns head voluntarily

pheromone

chemical signal released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response important in animals (particularly insects) - linked to mating, fighting and communication

strange situation: insecure attachment

child clings to mother and stayed with the mother - did not explore when mother left, they became upset/ distressed distress did not go away when she came back

result of secure attachment

child feels secure and trusting of partner

strange situation: secure attachment

child was secure with parent and explored room when parent left, child became really distressed/ upset when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy

how do children evaluate their existential self?

children as young as 2-3 realize they exist as distinct entities due to the relationship the child has with the world when someone smiles, someone smiles back - they have a relationship with objects and they are separate/ distinct from that

neonatal reflexes: palmer grasp

children closes their hand on anything that comes into their palm disappears at 3-4 months - child then grabs voluntarily

critics of piaget's cognitive development

children do not necessarily develop these abilities in certain age brackets, but they do tend to progress in a predictable fasion

strange situation: avoidant attachment

children were not upset when the parent left the room and were indifferent when they returned

marshmallow test

children's experiment of self control some children ate the marshmallow right away and others waited - those who waited tended to have better life outcomes when followed 10 years later

what is within the front 2/3 of the tongue?

chorda tympani

chorda tympani carries signals via the [...] cranial nerve

chorda tympani carries signals via the 7th cranial nerve

urban areas

cities and towns with >1000 people per square mile

phobic responses are acquired through

classical conditioning

classical conditioning does not involve change in [...] like operant conditioning

classical conditioning does not involve change in behavior like operant conditioning

communism

classless moneyless community where all property is owned by community

maladaptive coping techniques: escape

closely related to avoidance often demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias - want to flee the situation at the first sight of anxiety

primary groups

closest members of the group to you - close, intimate long-term relationships

low-effort syndrome (low-effort coping)

coping responses of minority groups in attempt to fit into the dominant culture ex: minority students at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe they are being discriminated against by the dominant culture

neurulation

core in the mesoderm differentiates into notochord - notochord induces change on cells above in the ectoderm (cells become thicker) called the neural plate neural plate begins to divide into mesoderm - ring structure/ tube forms --> neural tube - neural crest cells are on the side

what covers the anterior 1/6th of the eye?

cornea

where is the worst place to have fat clog and narrow blood vessels?

coronary arteries

homunculus

cortical body map of how different areas of the skin are represented in the primary somatosensory cortex

categories of individuals based on what connections they are looking for in a city and what communities they form (4)

cosmopolites - drawn to the city due to cultural benefits and convenience singles - looking for jobs, partners and entertainment deprived/ trapped - can't afford to leave the city ethnic villages - native culture brought here when the people who life here immigrate

cost-benefit analysis associated with foraging

cost: going out to get food can take up time and energy benefit: animal survives

counterculture results when laws of [...] is violated

counterculture results when laws of dominant society is violated

anti-malthusian theorem

couples only want to have one child or have children later in life (low birth rate)

mnemonic devices: imagery

crazier the better

richard lazarus

created the appraisal theory of streses stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/ interpretation of those stresse events

overview of validity

criterion validity - concurrent - predictive contruct validity - convergent - divergent content validity face validity

skeptical perspective

critical of globalization - considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized 3rd world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits as 1st world countries - current economy is not leading towards global capitalism transnational corpoorations still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important

study types (11)

cross sectional study cohort study longtitudinal study case-control study clinical trial randomized controlled trial experimental study quasi-experimental study 3x2 factorial design observational study self report study

cons of moving to urban areas

crowding can occur in cities - less sense of belonging in a city compared to a town

lesion studies: cortical cooling

cryogenic blockadee involves cooling down neurons until they stop firing cryoloop - surgically implanted between skull and brain - most important part is it's temporary/ reversible, unlike other techniques

retinal disparity (stereopsis)

cues that humans use in order to perceive depth our brain effectively triangulates the distance to an object, using the two different images that are eyes present to us. merges these two images into the picture that we see that contains the 3D information that is crucial to us larger the difference (disparity) in the 2 images, the closer an object is to you

social-cognitive theory

developed by bandura views behaviors as being influenced by people's traits/ cognitions and their social context - talks about interaction between individual and situation they're in cognition --> environment --> behavior - order can change

social behaviorism

developed by george herbert mead the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others - beginning of symbolic interactionism

systematic desensitization

developed by joseph wolpe process that involves teaching the patient to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation - works great with phobias

defining poverty in developing and developed nations

developing nations: use absolute poverty - about survival developed nations: use relative poverty - about social exclusion

moral reasoning

develops through level of cognitive development

max webber

did not believe the collapse of capitalism was inevitable argued that several factors moderate people's reaction to inequality - class - status/ prestige - power

noise distribution: d'

difference between the peak of signal distribution curve and noise distribution curve big d' = large difference = more obvious signal

potential

difference in charge between outside and inside

transformationlist grammar

different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information

which temperament sparked the most interest in thomas and chess's model?

difficult - placed children at higher risk for adjustment problems

anomic aphasia

difficulties in naming objects or in retrieving words

cannon-bard theory

disagreed with james-lange believed that you can experience physiological response without emotion - believed physiological response and emotion occured simultaneously (physiological + emotion) ex: your heart can race if you had a long run - if only physiological response was required to produce an emotion, you should feel afraid once your heart starts to race noticed many different emotions had same physiological responses - ex: heart racing shows feeelings of anger and excitement

neonatal reflexes (9)

disappear as the baby ages - some are survival reflexes while others might be evolutioanry holdovers or precursors - helps doctor assess if something is not developing correctly rooting babinski monro tonic neck galant plamer grasp sucking stepping swimming

cognitive dissonance

discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, emotional reactions, etc) - can be alleviated by alterations in our beliefs/ behaviors - we want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/ inconsistencies/ contradictions

coping styles in schema therapy: avoidance

disconnecting emotionally or physically from the people who mistreat you and/ or by disconnecting from your own emotions social withdrawal, excessive automony - copes through self-isolation, disconnection and withdrawal - may demonstrate an exaggerated focus on independence and self-reliance, rather than involvement with others - sometimes retreats through private activities (ex: excessive tv watching, reading, recreational computing or solitary work) compulsive stimulation-seeking - seeks excitement or distraction through compulsive shopping, sex, gambling, risk-taking, physical activity, novelty, etc addictive self-soothing - avoids through additions involving the body (ex: alcohol, drugs, overeating, etc.) psychological withdrawal - copes through dissociation, numbness, denial, fantasy, or other internal psychological escapes

relative depreciation

discrepancy of what people are entitled to and what they get

women face... (4)

discrimination objectification oppression stereotyping

visual agnosia

disorder of the ventral pathway inability to recognize an image

mass media

dissemination of information how information is transmitted within a culture includes print media and digital media

theories with hypnotism

dissociation theory: hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness social influence theory: people do and report what's expected of them - like actors being caught up in their roles

proximal vs distal stimuli

distal stimuli: object which provides information for the proximal stimulus proximal stimulus: registers (via sensory receptors) the information given by distal stimulus

hallucinogens (psychedelics)

distorted perceptions/ hallucinations ex: mescaline, peyote, PCP, LSD, psilocybin (active ingredient in mushrooms) heightened sensations - based on reality but is different from what's going on in the world around them can give energy or calm them down emotional response - feeling of connectedness and mood swings (changing moods) exact effect can be different depending on the individual's personality or who they are with dilation of pupils (mydriasis)

defense mechanisms: pathological

distorts reality denial - most important

behaviors of mania

distractibility insomnia grandiose fleeting thoughts agitation speech (pressured) thoughtlessness (risky behavior)

2 ways of thinking about poverty

does it threaten the survival of a person? does it exclude them from society?

damaging effects of stress on our immune function

divided into innate vs adaptive causes inflammation - acute stress can lead to overuse of immune system - can attack our own body - ex: arthritis chronic stress - you stop activating immune system response and it suppresses you - doesn't make you sick but makes you more susceptible to illness

max weber's 5 characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

division of labor hierarchy of organization written rules and regulations impersonality employment based on technical qualifications

division of labor in government and economy is [...]

division of labor in government and economy is functionalist

what happens when the vestibular system goes wrong?

dizziness and vertigo (when you or objects around you are moving when they are not)

filiform papillae

do not contain taste buds exist all over the tongue - center of the tongue contains ONLY filiform papillae (why stimulation of the center of the tongue does not cause a taste sensation, while the back and perimeter produce a broud range of taste sensations)

ecological validity

do the conditions of the study mimc those of the real world? - if they don't we can only make limited conclusions

daydreaming

feel more relaxed not as focused as alertness can also be light meditation (self-induced)

culture shock

feelings of disorientation, uncertainty or even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices

result of insecure attachment

feels anxious about their relationship with parters as adults might avoid being too attached to any one person

what happens as a result of social inequality?

feels socially excluded lives in segregated neighborhoods feel politically disempowered

gender-pay gap

females experience differences in pay

neonatal reflexes: tonic neck

fencing posture when a baby's head is turned, the arm on that side straightens while the arm on the side that is the opposite bends disappears at 6 months

3 factors contribute to total growth rate

fertility migration mortality

karl marx's stages of evolution in society

feudalism --> capitalism --> socialism

constrictive period

fewer young people than old people (in developed countries) mortality rate does not compare well to a country where people are dying young from disease

vitreous chamber

filled with virteous humor (water, salt, protein = albumin) - a jelly-like substance to provide pressure to eyeball and give nutrients to the inside of the eyeball - helps suspend the eye in place and provide structure so the eye doesn't collapse in on itself - transparent so light can go right through - vitreous humor does not replenish

target behavior

final behavior you wish to train

stigma can be studied by 4 concentric circles

first circle: self second circle: family (close social groups) third circle: wider society fourth circle: media (important external society)

primacy bias

first impression is more important than later data

alfred-binet

first to develop an intelligence test, but wasn't intending to developed a test in order to establish a child's mental age and measure a child's intellectual development - to predict how they will do in school later on - designed for french children

fixation in psychosexual development is due to [...]

fixation in psychosexual development is due to libido

what are some complex innate behaviors (3)

fixed action patterns - mating dance migration - birds flying south in the winter circadian rhythm - biological clock

what are the intermitten schedules of reinforcement

fixed-interval fixed-ratio variable-interval variable-ratio

classification of norms (4)

folkways mores laws taboos

wenicke's aphasia

fluent/ receptive aphasia different pattern of behavior - words don't make any sense (can still produce many words and often speak using grammatically correect sentences) - can't understand what others say temporal lobe is damaged characterized by difficulty understanding spoken words and sentences, as well as difficulty producing sentences that make sense

endolymph

fluid in semicircular canal of inner ear allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in because we can detect how quickly it is moving, we can determine strength of rotation

physical abnormalities with schizophrenia

fluid-filled regions have been enlarged - leses tissue of brain cerebral cortex decreases - in frontal and temporal lobes increase in dopamine mesocorticolimbic pathway is affected - dysfunction in parts of frontal cortex that causes cognitive symptoms - limbic structure causes negative symptoms - abnormal activity in temporal cortex causes positive symptoms

weak self-efficacy

focus on personal failures/ negative outcomes avoid challenging tasks quickly lose confidence in personal abilities believe they lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations FAIL - Failures - Avoid challenging tasks - Lose confidence - Lack ability to take on complex tasks

attention

focus/ concentrating on something at the exclusion of the other stimuli in the environment

problems with functionalism

focuses entirely on institutions without regard for individuals (only acknowledged) - largely unable to explain social change and conflict - so focused on equilibrium between social facts and institutions that little change and conflict is modeled (no conflict can occur) there is more to society than just stable state of its part

biomedical models

focuses on biological, physical abnormalities ex: abnormalities of the cells of thee brain that might cause disorders or having abormal patterns of connections between cells of the brain

social epidemiology

focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations (the social determinants of a disease) - emphasizes how social factors (ex: class or race/ ethnicity) affect the distribution of disease and health

ethology

focuses on the observation of animal behaviors - overt behaviors (observable) innate behaviors learned behaviors complex behaviors

fundamental attribution error

focuses only on actions of others tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/ flaws attributing character too strongly to explain another group's actions

joint attention

focusing of attention on an object by 2 separate individuals

social theory overview (define: functionalism, conflict theory, social constructionism, symbolic interactionism)

functionalism - how society can exist over time (always trying to come to equilibrium) conflict theory - how societies change and adapt over time through conflict - two opposing positions would merge to create a new society where both are content social constructionism - what society is rather than how it exists/ changes - everything only has value beceause everyone agrees it has value; we construct the world around is symbolic interactionism - puts a lot of focus on the individual and how they behave (based on meanings we give to things; ex: tree = shade) - we interact with the world and give it meaning

components that make up prejudice: cognition (stereotype)

fundamental underlying thought overgeneralized belief

does fundamentalism or secularization come first?

fundamentalism is in response to secularization - secularization --> fundamentalism

difference between evolutionary game theory and general game theory

game theory: involves intention, where participants reason about behavior of others evolutionary game theory: helps us predict traits we would expect to see in a population - predicts the appearance of evolutionary stable strategies (behaviors that persist in population once present) - ex: altruism

critique of resource mobilization theory

gathering together people of shared ideas is not allowed everywhere for a social movement to occur, you need money, materials, political influence, media, and a strong organizational base to recruit members

different types of feminist theory (4)

gender differences gender inequality gender oppression structural oppression

collective behavior

generally violates widely held societal norms - can be very destructive often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividualization - certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in normal circumstances, which also occurs in a collective

what is another term for millennials?

generation y

millennials

generation y 1980s-2000s

biology and how it relates to aggression

genes brain structure - amygdala triggers aggressive behavior - frontal lobe is responsible for planning, decision making and impulse control testosterone - released in both men and women

what are current studies saying about genes and behavior?

genes don't play as large of a role - ex: steroids (environmental factors) and hormones affect our behavior - ex: pheromones do the same thing that cause a response that results in a function slightly reverses the central dogma - some of the environment is now affecting our proteins

biological regulation of drugs

genetic predisposition withdrawal and cravings biochemical factors - imbalance in our brain - ex: marijuana and heroin mimic neurotransmitters in our brain - ex: cocaine causes abornal release of natural neurotransmitters like dopamine

innate behavioral traits

genetically programmed behavior - present at birth and requires no experience with the environment has the following characteristics - inherited (encoded by DNA) - intrinsic (present even if raised in isolation) - stereotypic (performed the same way each time) - inflexible (not modified by experience) - consummate (fully developed right away, at first performance) (subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection, etc.) 3 main types - reflexes - orientation behaviors - fixed action pattern (FAP)

what negative thing can urban renewal lead to

gentrification - when urban renewal is over, they target a wealthier community which increases property value - people there before are pushed out because they can't afford property anymore and it leads to great inequality in cities

what is the most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships?

geographical proximity

who developed the idea of social behaviorism?

george herbert mead

ebbinghaus

german philosopher/ psychologist first person to look at decay in human memory found his rate of forgetting very fast, but if he remembered it after initial stage, it leveled out - most forgetting happens in the first few days, but after that point, forgetting will level out - the more integrated the initial memory, still follows the same pattern but takes longer time to forget

fixation

getting stick on a wrong approach to a problem - if we can start solving the problem, it typically occurs through insight

iris

gives the eye color muscle that constricts/ relaxes to change the size of the pupil - dark: relax --> more light - light: constrict --> less light

what does economic globalization result from?

global market competition for cheap labor and locating factories in cheapest locations

what is within the posterior 1/3rd of the tongue?

glossopharyngeal and vagus

glossopharyngeal and vagus carries signals via the [...] cranial nerves (2)

glossopharyngeal and vagus carries signals via the 9th and 10th cranial nerves (2)

what does the adrenal cortex release as a stress response?

glucocorticoid (cortisol) - steroid hormone - redistributes glucose energy in the body and suppressees immune system - developed by ectoderm - plays a role in development of muscles/ bones CORTisol is released by CORTex

working backwords

goal state --> current state start with the goal and use it to suggeset connections back to the current state used in mathematical proofs and in mazes

minority

group that makes up less than half the total population and is treated differently due to some characteristic can be absorbed into the majority after 1-2 generations

counterculture

group with expectations and values that strongly disagree with the main values from the larger society subculture that rejects some of the larger culture's norms and values - usually develops their own set of norms to live by

negative control

group with no response expected

residential segregation

groups of people separated into different neighborhoods - can be by race or income

zimbardo prison study - stanford prison expeeriment

guards grew to see the prisoner participants as dangerous people they needed to control none of the prisoners just stopped and left the experiment, even though they were told at beginning that they could

what are some learned behaviors? (5)

habituation classical conditioning operant conditioning insight learning latent learning

LSD

hallucinogen modifies serotonin neurotransmission, especially the 5-HT2 receptor family - interferes with serotonin --> hallucinations

estasy/ MDMA/ molly

hallucinogens synthetic drug between a stimulant and hallucinogen - like stimulant: increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria (can damage neurons that produce serotonin). also stimulates body's CNS - like hallucinogen: causes hallucinations and heightened sensations (ex: artificial feeling of social connectedness and intimacy)

biological theoriests (4)

hans eysenck - extroversion and introversion - personality is based on reticular formation jeffrey alan gray - biopsychological theory of personality - personality is based on punishment and reward c. robert cloninger - personality is due to brain systems

who developed the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

hans selye

muscle stretch reflex

happens on the same side (afferent and efferent) causes a muscle to contract after it's stretched as a protective response - ex: knee jerk response somatosensory neurons (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synpase in spinal cord with another neuron in the spinal cord --> sends axon out back to the same muscle that it was stretched --> excite skeletal muscle cells to contract (lower motor neurons - efferent)

hardy-weinberg equilibrium assumes [...] mating

hardy-weinberg equilibrium assumes random mating

upper motor signs (4)

hyperreflexia - increase in the muscle stretch reflexes - when muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get a bigger reflex clonus - rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscles - ex: foot goes involuntarily up and down - cause is hyperreflexia hypertonia - increased tone of skeletal muscles - increased muscle tension - reduce muscle stretch extensor plantar response - if you take a hard object and scrape along the bottom of the foot, normal response is flexor (toes will come down on the object) - with extensor, the toes extend up

induced states of consciousness

hypnosis + medication does NOT occur naturally

cyclorthymic disorder

hypomania + dysthymia

histamine

hypothalamus --> cerebral cortex

structures of the limbic system

hypothalamus amygdala thalamus hippocampus HIPPO wearing a HAT

effort justification

idea and paradigm in social psychology stemming from festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance people's tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieveing - ex: going to medical school after working so hard

looking glass self

idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others notion that we construct our identity out of our interpersonal interactions and perception of others developed by charles cooley

social selection

idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individuals in a population

ego depletion

idea that self-control is a limited resource - if you use a lot of it, it can get used up and less of it can be used in the future - can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control

just world phenomenon

idea that the universe is fair so people must get what they deserve - belief that good things happen to good people and vice versa

self-referencing: preparing to teach

idea that you are learning this material in order to teach it to someone else - you learn a lot better because you put more effort into organizing it and understanding the information the best you can (involves a great deal of proccessing)

internalization

idea/ belief/ behavior that has been integrated into our own values - we conform to the belief privately stronger than other types of conformity refers to the normal process where children learn and absorb (internalize) knowledge and rules about the world from social context, rather than through being specifically told - this is how children learn to alter their behavior in response to the situation that they are in ex: start going to the gym to comply with friends, but then might internalizee that exercise is good for you and continue that behavior

defense mechanisms: neurotic (5)

intellectualization - taing intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation - separating emotion from ideas rationalization - making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself - can have false logic or false reasoning regression - acting like a baby in some situations - ex: throwing temper tantrums, whining displacement - displaces anger to someone else (a safer target) - ex: mother who is mad at her husband gets mad at her child reaction formation - unsconsious feelings that makes a person react completely opposite - ex: a mother who bears an unwanted child may react to her feelings of guilt by becoming extremely overprotective to convince herself and the child that she is a good mother 3RID

fixed mindset

intelligence is biologically set and unchanging praise describes characteristics and actions as innate and unchangeable

noise distribution: c (d')

intensity is d'

theory of planned behavior

intentions + implications - we consider our implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave - the best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these intentions and implications intensions are based on 3 things - attitudes towards a certain behavior - subjective norms (what we think others think about the behavior) - perceived behavioral control (how easy/ hard we think it is to control our behavior)

reciprocal determinism

interaction between a person's behaviors, personal factors (motivation/ cognition) and environment - all determined by one another

similarities between vygotsky and kohlberg

interested in how cognition develops

similarities between freud and erikson

interested in how personality develops

overview of types of reliability

internal - split half method external - test-retest - inter-rater

multiple approach avoidance

internal conflict that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements

[...] is a large factor in urbanization

internal migration is a large factor in urbanization

intrinsic motivation

internal motivations

what does the modernization theory look at? (2)

internal social dynamics as the country adapts to new technologies political and social changes

cultural assimilation

interpenetration and fusion of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture

what is the most scientifically accurate way of dividing gestation?

into weeks

orienting attention

involves the capacity to change the focus of attention from one stimulus to another stimulus this network is predominantly modulated by acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain

motivational interviewing

invovles working with patients to find intrinsic motivation to change very focus, goal-directed therapy few sessions and can be doorway for patient to engage in another treatment (like CBT or group meetings)

is smell (and taste) ipsilateral or contralateral?

ipsilateral (occurring on the same side of the body) - doesnt synapse on to thalamus

choroid

is pigmented black in humans - some animals don't have it pigmented so the choroid is shiny (--> better night vision) network of blood vessels that helps nourish the retina if light wasn't absorbed by the retina, it would be absorbed by the choroid because black absorbs light - if choroid wasn't black (like in cats), the light would reflect off the choroid and hit the retina again and be absorbed by the retina (has 2 chances to absorb the light ray --> better night vision)

what can happen if a cell is overexcited?

it can die - ex: too much pain signal in pain receptor (capsaicin) --> cell can die

3 main characteristics that impacts on how we are persuaded for/ against a message

message characteristics source characteristics target characteristics

message characteristics

message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought it was, etc also includes how well written it was, does speaker have a good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc.

hormone concentration is regulated by

metabolism and kidneys secretion --> negative feeedback loop

persuasion

method for attitude/ behavior changes

content analysis

method for summarizing any form of content by counting various aspects of the content

counterbalancing

method to control for any effect that the order of presenting stimuli might have on the dependent variable ex: recognizing that if you're doing an experiment comparing left and right handed students, there is going to be significantly less left-handed people so you have to counterbalance

methods of problem solving: algorithm

methodical approach logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions until you hit the right one not efficient, but guaranteed to find the correct solution eventually

symbolic interactionism theory

micro-perspective focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives

[...] does not affect population growth of the world, but affects that of a country

migration does not affect population growth of the world, but affects that of a country

classification of norms: folkways

mildest type of norm common rules/ manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day basis - traditions individuals have followed for a long time ex: opening the door, helping someone who dropped an item, saying thank you, etc not engaging results in consequences that is not severe/ consistent - no actual punishment

noise distribution: c (ideal oberver)

minimizes miss and false alarm - when c=1 [intensity (B)-d']/2

absolute threshold of sensation

minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

assimilation

minority group is absorbed into the majority

inter-colonialism

minority group is segregated and exploited

[...] can be helpful in understanding imitation further

mirror neurons can be helpful in understanding imitation further

cannabis (marijuana)

mix of all 4 types of psychoactive drugs

demographic transition

model that changes in a country's population refers to a theory of economic development and population change - suggests that economic changes, specifically industrialization, affects the relationship between the fertility and mortality rates in a society population will eventually stop growing when country transitions from high birth/ death rate to low birth/ death rate --> stabilizes the population

how does a molecule bind to a olfactory receptor and cause an action potential?

molecule binds to the GPCR receptor on odor molecule --> GPCR on olfactory epithelia --> G-protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell --> G-protein binds to ion channel which allow cells outside of the cell to come inside --> opens and triggers action potential --> goes to cribriform plate --> glomerulus --> activate mitral/ tufted cell --> synapse to brain

elaboration likelihood model for persuation (ELM)

more cognitive approach - focuses on why/ how of persuasion 2 ways in which information is processed - central route of persuasion: - peripheral route of persuasion:

what does a higher dependency ratio mean?

more dependent people there are

public declarations

more likely to follow through if you've told everyone

cults

more radical - reject values of outside society rises when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems usually short-lived because they depend on an inspirational leader who will only live so long

rods vs cones

more rods than codes cones are in fovea rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones - better at detecting light/ telling us whether light is present (ex: black and white vision) cones detect color primarily - 60% red, 30% green, 10% blue rods have slow recovery time vs cones have fast recovery time - takes a while to adjust to dark (rods need to be reactivated) - cones adapt to change quickly (can fire action potential more frequently)

are there more rods or cones?

more rods than cones

glutamate

most common excitatory neurotransmitter associated with increased cortical arousal GLU is exciting

alzheimer's disease (AD)

most common form of dementia exact cause is unknown - build up of amyloid plaques in the brain neurons die off over time and as neurons die off, cerebral cortex shrinks in size progressive brain disorder that affects different aspects of memory over time

GABA

most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

glycine

most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord

depressants: benzodiazephines (benzos)

most commonly perscribed (perscribed for same things as barbiturates) enhance brain's response to GABA (open GABA-activated chloride channels in neurons and make them more negatively charged) bind to a site on GABA(A) receptor cmoplex that regulates sensitivity to receptor complex 3 types: - short - intermediate - long-acting (short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety

memory of retrieval

most difficult to easiest: - free recall - cued recall - recognition

coping styles in schema therapy

overcompensation (attempting to fight against the schema and prove it is not true) - aggression, hostility - dominance, excessive self-assertion - recognition-seeking, status-seeking - manipulation, exploitation - passive-aggressiveness, rebellion - exessive orderliness, obseessionality surrender (accomodating to the way you are treated and acting as if, and believing, it is the way things should be) - compliance, dependence avoidance (disconnecting emotionally or physically from the people who mistreat you and/ or by disconnecting from your own emotions) - social withdrawal, excessive autonomy - compulsive stimulation-seeking - addictive self-soothing - psychological withdrawal

what is important for the tend and befriend response?

oxytocin

nociceptors

pain

what causes some children to have secure attachment while others have insecure attachment?

parenting style

partial reinforcement schedules is more resistant to [...] than continuous reinforcements

partial reinforcement schedules is more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcements

good-subject tendency

participant bias (subject bias) refers to the tendency of participants to act accordingly to what they think the experimenter wants

internal reliability

participant gives consistent pattern of answers, no matter how the researcher phrased the question only applies to self-report scales with multiple items

one theory for why decay occurs

pathway between cue and memory become weaker over time or periods of disuse that makes it harder to stimulate those neurons - if you learn something once and never revisit, it is likely to decay over time

factitious disorders

patient wants to be sick - the patient will falsify or disease their signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis/ treatment

what does macrosociology look for?

patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups

high culture

patterns of experience and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of society tends to be associated with wealth and formality

proximal stimuli

patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.) - light that is actually falling on the retina

popular culture

patters of experiences and atittudes that exist within mainstream normative society - ex: attending a game or watching a parade

what's another term for classical conditioning? (2)

pavlovian conditioning respondent conditioning

types of social network (3)

peer network family network community network

neutral transmission

pre-synaptic neurons release neurotransmitters on post-synaptic neurons, allowing Na+ and Ca2+ to flow in neural transmission will flow from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic neuron

mcdonaldization

policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society, primarily - efficiency - calculability - predictability - uniformity - control ex: all movie theaters look and work similiarly

why is residential segregation important? (4)

political isolation - communities segregated are politically weak because political interests don't overlap with over communities linguistic isolation - communities that are isolated may develop their own langauge, even in the same city (may limit jobs) lower access to quality education/ health spatial mismatch - opportunities for low-income people may be present, but farther away and harder to access

meso-level

population size falls between micro and macro levels medium sized groups - ex: communities, organizations, cities, states, clans and tribes

mechanoreceptors

position + vibration + touch

5 main somatosensations

position sense vibration touch pain temperature

fast somatosensation

position vibration mechanoreceptors (touch) have large diameter axons - have thick myelin sheath --> fast

proactive coping

positive coping strategy anticipating a problem - anticipation is when one reducees the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it would be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it

positive priming was thought to be caused by [...]

positive priming was thought to be caused by spreading activation

is incentive positive or negative reinforcement?

positive reinforcement

eustress

positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating usually enjoyable

2-tailed t test

possibility of relationship in both directions

problems with self-report study

potential for poor reliability vulnerable to subjective interpretation have a multitude of validity problems - patients may exaggerate symptoms in order to make their situation seem worse - may under-report severity or frequency of symptoms in order to minimize their problems - can misremember

fecundity

potential reproductive capacity of a female

alongia

poverty of speeech lessening of speech fluency and productivity thought to reflect slowing or blocked thoughts - often manifested as short, empty replies to questions

what matters does macrosociology deal with?

poverty, war, health care, world economy, etc

cultural relativism

practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture - judge and understand another culture from within their culture refers to an awareness of differences across cultures in norms, values and other elements of culture

endogamy

practice of marrying within a specific ethnic group, class or social group - rejecting others on such a basis as being unsuitable for marriage or for other close personal relationships

what component of language is affected by prosody?

pragmatics

cross's migrescence model (5)

pre-encounter encounter immersion/ emersion internalization internalization-commitment

stage 1 of elaboration likelihood model

pre-processing stage due to target characteristics - before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by interest, motivation, importance, etc. of us (the listener) central processing: if interests, etc. are high (interested in topic) peripheral processing: if interests, etc. are low (doesn't care about the topic)

stratification system

refers to the complex social relationships that generate inequalities

what are some simple innate behaviors? (3)

reflexes - natural behaviors - ex: squinting or blinking taxis - purposeful movement - ex: bugs fly towards light kinesis - no purpose of movement - rats randomly scurrying in different directions

hypothalamus

regulates the autonomic nervous system - sympathetic (fight-or-flight) - parasympathetic (rest-or-digest) controls endocrine system by triggering hormones like epinephrine/ norepinephrine responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex, etc.

innate behavior: orientation behaviors

regulating specially in our environments ex: kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis) - change in rate in turning (klinokinesis) - can be in response to a stimulus (ex: tripping on a sidewalk) ex: positive taxis and negative taxis - movement towards/ away from stimulus respectively - ex: insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis)

consequences of behavior in operant conditioning

reinforcement (increase a behavior) - positive - negative punishment (decrease a behavior) - positive - negative

variable-ratio

reinforcement is delivered after average # of right responses has occured - average # of correct responses is the same ex: bonus is paid after selling 3 cars for his first bonus, 3 for the second, 7 for the third, 6, then 4, etc - average is 5 a lot of uncertainty - can't predict when they will get a bonus most effective - very-rapid

fixed-ratio

reinforcement only occurs after a fixed number of responses ex: car salesman only gets a bonus every 5 cars he sell

agender

rejecting gender categories

selection bias

related to how people are chosen to participate in a study

social desirability bias

related to how people respond to research questions

reconstructive bias

related to memory suggests our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think - especially when we are remembering times of high stress

is self-efficacy or self-esteem more specific?

self-efficacy

what is self-concept derived from?

self-esteem and self-efficacy

self-concept

self-identity how someone thinks about/ perceives/ evaluates themselves (self-awareness) derived from self-esteem and self-efficacy development has 2 parts - existential self - categorical self

what does socialization shape?

self-image and self-concept

subjective bias

self-reported information is always vulnerable

improving memory in aging

semantic memories improve until around age 60 - older adults have better verbal skills (why they are great at crossword puzzles) crystallized IQ is improved - typically tested by analofy tests and reading comprehension better at emotional reasoning

what component of language has a n400 response?

semantics

accessory olfactory epithelium

sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb which sends signals to the brain contains the vomeronasal system

olfaction

sense of smell

audition

sense of sound

proprioception adaptation

sense of the position of the body in space (sense of balance) - if you wore goggles that made everything upside down, you would eventually adapt and have to readapt if you took them off

piaget's stages of development

sensorimotor (0-2) preoperational (2-7) concrete operational (7-11) formal operational (12+)

innate behavior: reflexes

sensory and motor nerve loop without thinking ex: knee-jerk response

hallucinations

sensory perceptions without stimuli like hearing or seeing what's not there sounds or other sensations experienced as real when they exist only in the person's mind

thalamus

sensory relay station - everything you hear, taste, etc senses come through your nerves and end up in the thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex and other areas of the brain smell is the only one that bypasses the thalamus - goes to areas closer to the amygdala

neutral stimuli

stimuli you can sense by sight, taste or hearing that typically doesn't produce the reflex that is being tested

bottom up processing

start with no preconceived idea of what you're looking at - allows stimulus to influence perception - perception directs your cognitive awareness of the object - using stimulus itself to drive our perception data driven inductive reasoning - always correct

neonatal reflexes: monro

startle reaction - fan out arms and then retracts disappears in 4-6 months

strong social constructionism

states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits - all knowledge is social constrict and there are no brute facts

achieved status

status you earn after working for it - status a person takes on voluntarily that reflects both personal ability and merit ex: olympic athlete ex: teacher

ascribed status

statuses you can't change - given from birth ex: prince of a royal family ex: caste system

steps of fertilization: sperm binding

step 1 when sperm comes into contact with zona pellucida and binds

overview of steps to social identity theory (one word)

step 1: categorize step 2: identification step 3: comparison

steps of fertilization: acrosome reaction

step 2 enzymes leak into the zona pellucida and digest it - sperm gets closer to plasma membrane of egg

steps of fertilization: cortical reaction

step 3 in the egg, there are enzymes (contained within cortical granules) that gets ejected to zona pellucida and that digest it - prevents other sperm from binding (block to polyspermy) - if this doesn't happen, the zygote falls

steps of fertilization: genetic transfer

step 4 when sperm binds to the plasma membrane and acrosome is gone, cortical granules are released, the plasma membrane fuse and all the genetic material gets released into the egg - fusion of genetic material is fertilization nuclear DNA comes in but also mitochondrial DNA - mitochondrial DNA >>> nuclear DNA in egg (sperm doesn't have much effect)

self-fulfilling prophecy

stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes

3 factors that fuel social stigma

stereotypes prejudice discrimination

stigma may be detrimental to personal/ intimate relationship and interventions like [...] are important

stigma may be detrimental to personal/ intimate relationship and interventions like education and therapy are important

nicotine

stimulant (CNS stimulant) - works as acetylcholine receptor agonist increases heart rate and BP disrupts sleep suppress appetite at high levels, can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters (to counter hyper alertness)

caffeine

stimulant inhibits adenosine receptors - can disrupt sleep - increases energy

cocaine

stimulant stronger stimulant than caffeine and nicotine - causes brain to release so much dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine that it depletes your brain's supply - intense crash and very depressed when it wears off

amphetamines and methamphetamines

stimulant triggers release of dopamine (similar to cocaine) - feeling of euphoria for up to 8 hours long-term meth addicts may lose ability to maintain normal levels of dopamine because brain tries to adjust to intense highs blocks the reuptake of dopamine, which stimulates an increase in the release of dopamine from the presynaptic membrane

subliminal stimuli

stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation

subculture vs microculture

subculture is large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan - affects your life on a longer period than a micro-culture

subcultures can cause tension with [...]

subcultures can cause tension with dominant group

what is another name for good-subject bias?

subject bias = participant bias

tastant

substance that stimulates the sense of taste

catatonic schizophrenia

subtype of schizophrenia that includes extremes of behavior - at one end of the extreme, the patient cannot speak, move or respond (there is a dramatic reduction in activity where virtually all movement stops)

age stratification theory

suggests age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation

biologic theory

suggests important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes

malthusian theorem

suggests population will run out of resources --> global food shortage - won't be able to maintain natural resources for everyone on the planet currently 1b suffer from malnutrition already in a world of 7b

empathy-altruism hypothesis

suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy high empathy = high altruistic behaviors

what does the looking-glass self suggest about self-concept?

suggests that self-concept is influenced by how we perceive that others are viewing us a person who acquires a stigmatized illness is likely to internalize the stigmatization directed against him or her

meltzoff's conclusion

suggests we have mirror neurons - when one fires, another fires when we observe the same action performed by another person

master status

supesedes other identifying traits ex: if a women feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a daughter, woman, etc., she is more likely to identify herself as mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such

thomas theorem

the interpretation of a situation causes the action

gestalt principles: symmetry

the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point

the more similar the stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus, the greater the [...] response

the more similar the stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus, the greater the conditioned response

pupil

the opening in the middle of the iris size can get bigger/ smaller based on the iris relaxing/ contracting, respectively moderates the amount of light able to enter the eyeball

thesis + antithesis of 19th century capitalist europe

thesis: desire of working class to change antithesis: push-back from those unhappy with the status quo

why is avoidance behavior persistent?

they are self reinforcing - animal never experiences the aversive stimulus, but it receives negative reinforcement in the form of relief

treatments for korsakoff's syndrome

thiamine injections, staying on a healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins and relearn things effectiveness depends on how well patients follow the treatment guidelines and how early it is diagnosed

corpus callosum

thick band of nerve fibers which connects the two hemispheres - allows for communication between the hemispheres damage can lead to problems naming objects - creates a split-brain patient

conjunctiva

thin layer of epithelial cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye protects and moisturizes cornea - ex: why you don't scratch your cornea when you rub your eyes

self-referencing

think about new information and how it relates to you personally ex: imagine learning something about history, you then learn the information by talking to the general

deindividualization

those in a group are more likely to act inappropriately beeacuse the crowd conceals their identity - ex: how people behave on black friday - ex: cyberbullying

secondary reinforcers

those learned to be reinforcers - previously neutral stimuli requires a pairing or association with primary reinforcers for it to have value ex: money

those societies having the highest level of [...] mobility are considered to be the most open and malleable system of stratification

those societies having the highest level of intra-generational mobility are considered to be the most open and malleable system of stratification

closed stratification system

those systems in which there is little to no mobility, even on an intergenerational basis - ex: caste systems

which jobs are valued higher?

those that require a lot of specialization, rather than jobs essential in our society - creates inequalities because not everyone has access to those valued professions, due to limited education/ resources

problem with thurnston's 7 factors of intelligence

those who do well on one of these factors also tend to do well on the others, which suggests an underlying single intelligence factor strength for spearman's generalized intelligence theory

adaptive associations

those who have a biological advantage learned faster than those with no biological value

biological influence of phobias

we are more likely to develop phobias to something that impacted our ancestors rather than things that might be dangerous to us in the real world ex: heights, snakes, spiders used to have an evolutionary advantage to have the adaptive value to avoid food that made you sick, spiders, snakes, heights, etc. in the past, to they were passed on

situational approach to behavior

we are placed in new situations every day - these situations affect our behavior under the branch of social psychology

false consensus

we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they don't

projection bias

we assume others share the same beliefs as we do

out-group derogation

we discriminate those in the out-group

socio-cultural regulation of hunger

we eat for different occasions, times, desire, appeal, availability

in-group favoritism

we favor/ are friendly to people in our own group, but neutral to those in out-groups

chunking

we group information we're getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization

3x2 factorial design

we have 3 levels of the first variable crossed with 2 levels of the second variable such a design gives us 3x2=6 treatment conditions in the expereiment two independent variables - 3 of the first - 2 of the second

foot in the door phenomenon

we have a tendency to agree to small actions first - eventually over time, we comply with much larger actions basic concept of how people are brainwashed - door is eventually pushed completely open over time society behaviors strongly feed into your attitude

hidden curriculum in education

we learn to stand in line, wait our turn, and how to treat our peers we internalize social inequalities, when boys are girls are treated differently by their teachers

decision making

we make a judgement of the desirability/ probability of a certain outcome impacted by - heuristics - bias - framing shows our decisions are not as black and white or consistent as we think they are

embryogenesis

zygote after fertilization has occured splitting occurs in zona pellucida cleavage happens - splitting without growth

how far apart are eyes?

~2.5 inches

weber's law of jnd

ΔI/I = k JND / initial intensity = constant ex: if you have a 2lb vs 2.2lb weight 0.2/2 = 0.1 so the change must be 0.1 of initial intensity to be noticable