McCance Huether Pathophysiology Test 1
Oxidative phosphorylation
Process by which adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is converted into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and inorganic phosphate through reoxidation and phosphorylation of ADP
Hypocretins (orexins)
Produced in the hypothalamus and play a role in regulating wakefulness and food intake, energy consumption, pleasure or reward
Prevalence rate
Proportion of the population affected by a disease at a specific point in time
Lymphedema
Protein and fluid accumulation in the interstitial space from blockage (infection or tumor) or surgical removal
Receptors
Proteins that bind to hormones, neurotransmitters, antigens etc.
Osmotic pressure
Pulling- the amount of pressure or force that is exerted by solute molecules of a given compartment
30kHz-300GHz
RF-EMR frequency range
Ribosomes
RNA-protein complex involved in translation of RNA into protein
Bruxism
The habit of unconsciously gritting or grinding the teeth especially in situations of stress or during sleep
Translocations
The interchanging of material between non-homologous chromosomes
Capillary hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure)
The major force behind filtration
angiogenic factors
chemical signal that induces the development and growth of blood vessels *VEGF, PDFG, bFGF*
automatic regulation of breathing
chemoreceptors lung and chest wall receptors
CCL2
chemotactic factor commonly expressed by tumors
mutation of caretaker gene leads to
chromosome instability & increased rates of mutation
cerebral injuries ketoacidosis uremia drug overdose
chronic increased vasodilation and decreased thermoregulatory control
Atmospheric pressure
combined pressure of all gases in the air we breathe 14. 7 psi 760 mmhg
bones
common site for breast CA metastasis
spleen
common site for lymphoma metastasis
metencephalon
composed of cerebellum and pons
midbrain
composed of corpora quadrigemina (tectum), tegmentum, and basis pedunculi
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
composed of cranial nerves and spinal nerves also can be divided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems
hypopituitary decreased liver function malnutrition parkinson disease rheumatoid arthritis
conditions that diminish the ability to generate heat
spinal cord
conducts somatic and autonomic reflexes, provides motor pattern control centers, and serves as a sensory and motor modulation center
Nissl substances
consist of ER and ribosomes and are involved in protein synthesis
somatic nervous system
consist of motor and sensory pathways regulating voluntary motor control of skeletal muscle
Papez circuit
consists of amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, fornix, mamillary body of the hypothalamus, thalamus, and cingulate gyrus
central nervous system (CNS)
consists of brain and spinal cord, enclosed within the cranial vault and vertebrae
autonomic nervous system
consists of motor and sensory components and is involved with regulation of the body's internal environment through involuntary control of organ systems -can be further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
diencephalon
consists of the epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and subthalamus
corpus striatum
consists of the lentiform nucleus, putamen,mglobus pallidus, and caudate nucleus
medulla oblongata
controls reflex activities such as HR, RR, BP, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomiting. Nuclei of CN IX- XII located here
dorsal neurons
deal with inspiration
ventral neurons
deal with inspiration and expiration
fissures
deeper grooves of the cerebrum
M1 (TNM staging)
demonstrable metastases
nuclei
dense, packed cell bodies in the CNS
efferent
descending pathways carrying sensory impulses from the CNS to effector organs
microvascular disease in DM
destruction of capillaries
heterogenous
different ca cells from same tumor can mets to different location because tumors are _______ in their cellular composition
reyes syndrome (stomach bleeding)
dont use aspirin in children because it can cause
hyperinsulinemia
increased free-floating fatty acids give rise to the amount of insulin in the blood
genomic instability
increased tendency of an organism's DNA to acquire mutations
anesthesia
induces hypothermia, reduces platelet function, impairs coagulation cascade
thermoreceptors
provide the hypothalamus with information about skin and core temperature
temporal
lobe which contains the primary auditory cortex. also involved in long-term memory and secondary functions such as balance, taste, and smell
therapeutic hyperthermia
local, regional, or whole-body induced hyperthermia used to destroy pathologic microorganisms or tumor cells by facilitating the host's natural immune process or tumor blood flow
phase II detoxification enzymes
located in the liver, protect against reactive intermediates & non-activated xenobiotics
axons
long, conductive projections from the cell body that carry nerve impulses away from the cell body
hypoglycemia unawareness
longstandind DM may not develop hypoglycemia w/o usual SNS manifestios
anaplasia
loss of cellular differentiation, irregularities of size & shape, loss of normal tissue structure
characteristics of ca cells
loss of contact inhibition, resistance to apoptosis & anchorage independence, anaplasia
BRCA1
loss of this tumor suppressor gene causes Breast Cancer
APC
loss of this tumor suppressor gene causes Familial Adenomatous Polyps
p16 (CDKN2A)
loss of this tumor suppressor gene causes Familial Melanoma
p53 (TP53)
loss of this tumor suppressor gene causes Li-Fraumeni syndrome
neurofibromin (NF1)
loss of this tumor suppressor gene causes Neurofibromatosis
RB1
loss of this tumor suppressor gene causes Retinoblastoma (childhood CA of eye)
Wt1
loss of this tumor suppressor gene causes Wilms tumor (childhood CA of kidney)
type IA, autoimmune DM
pancreatic beta cells are destroyed by autoreactive cytotoxic T lymphocytes
saltatory conduction
process by which ions can flow between segments rather than along the entire length of the membrane, resulting in increased velocity of neuronal conduction
transformation
process by which normal cell becomes ca cell
multiple mutations
progression from benign to malignant tumor requires _______ ________
cranial nerves
project from the brain and pass through foramina in the skull
spinal nerves
project from the spinal cord and pass through intervertebral foramina of the vertebrae
sleep promoting neurotransmitters
prostaglandin D2, l-tryptophan, serotonin, adenosine, meatonin, GABA, growth hormones
Prostate Specific Antigen
prostate tumors
ras protein
protein involved in growth signaling
oncogene
proto-oncogene that mutated in such way that proteins are inappropriately active accelerating cell proliferation
radon
radioactive gas found in basements & mines, can lead to lung cancer
circadian rhythm disorder
rapid time-zone changes; alternation in sleep schedule
function of telomerase
rebuilds & maintains telomeres for unlimited replication
tumor markers
substances like hormones, enzymes, genes, antigens, antibodies) found in ca cells & in blood, spinal fluid or urine
total lung capacity
sum of all volumes
M2 (TNM staging)
suspected metastases
fever tachycardia hypertension
symptoms of heat cramps
dehydration decreased plasma volume hypotension decreased cardiac output tachycardia nausea weakness dizziness faint
symptoms of heat exhaustion
vasoconstriction shivering coagulation ischemic tissue damage ice crystals on inside of cell
symptoms of hypothermia
acidosis tachycardia cardiac dysrhythmias hypotension decreased cardiac output cardiac arrest unconsciouness absent reflexes fixed pupils apnea
symptoms of malignant hyperthermia
increased resistance to airflow loud snoring gasping intervals lasting 10 to 30 seconds fragmented sleep daytime sleepiness
symptoms of obstructive sleep apnea
substantia nigra
synthesizes dopamine
limbic
system composed of Papez circuit, septal area, habenula, nucleus accumbens, other portions of the hypothalamus, and related autonomic nuclei.
Coup
Brain injury that occurs on the same side of a blunt force to the head; it results from the rapid acceleration and then deceleration of the brain as it hits the inside of the skull. Injury directly below the point of impact.
Transient ischemic attack
Brief episode of neurologic dysfunction, symptoms typically last less than 1 hour, no evidence of infarction
Contusion
Bruise produced by bleeding into the skin or underlying tissues from an insult that did not break the skin but did rupture blood vessels.
Multiple sclerosis
Chronic, *autoimmune*, *demyelinating* disease of the *CNS* that causes inflammation, axonal degeneration and scarring of myelin sheaths.
Subdural hematoma
Collection of blood between the *inner surface of the dura mater and the surface of the brain* caused by rupture of *veins*
Oncotic pressure
Colloid pressure keeps water inside the compartment, attracts water from interstitial space back into the capillary- losses or diminished albumin
Chromatin
Combination of DNA and proteins that make up the contents of the nucleus of a cell: packages DNA into a smaller volume
Adipose
Composed of animal fat.
Genotype
Composition of genes at a given locus
Osmolarity
Concentration of molecules per volume of solution
Osmolality
Concentration of molecules per weight of water
Peroxisomes
Contains the enzyme catalase and one or more oxidases.
Polysomnography
Continuous record during sleep of multiple physiological variables ( brain waves, the oxygen level in your blood, heart rate and breathing, as well as eye and leg movements during the study)
Heat cramps
Contraction of voluntary muscle usually as a result of vigorous exercise resulting from salt and water loss from sweating
Interstitial oncotic pressure
Created by large molecules such as plasma proteins that cannot penetrate the membrane
p16 gene
Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2a Associated tumor(s): Melanoma
common cause of kidney disease
DM
Transcription
DNA is used as a template to make messenger, transport, and ribosomal RNA
epigenetic silencing
DNA methylation & covalent histone modification can mimic mutation by heritably inactivating tumor suppressor genes
Genome
DNA representing all of the genes for a given species
ipsilateral
Damage to the cerebellum is characterized by ___________ loss of equilibrium, balance, and motor coordination.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
Death of an apparently healthy infant usually before one year of age that is of unknown cause and occurs especially during sleep
Metabolic acidosis
Decrease in pH caused by an increase in noncarbonic acids or a decrease in bicarbonate from lactic acidosis, renal failure or diabetic ketoacidosis
Lactic acidosis
Decrease in pH from muscle contraction during anaerobic glucose metabolism
Atrophy
Decrease or shrinkage in cell size
Hypovolemia
Decreased blood volume capable of causing hypotension, tachycardia, and decreased urine output.
Hypocalcemia
Decreased calcium from inadequate intestinal absoprtion, deposition into bone or soft tissue, decreases in parathyroid hormone or vitamin D
Hypochloremia
Decreased chlorine from hyponatremia, vomiting and loss of hydrochloric acid, cystic fibrosis, and sodium deficit related to diuretics or restricted intake
Hypomagnesemia
Decreased magnesium from malnutrition, malabsorption syndromes, alcoholism, renal tubular dysfunction, metabolic acidosis, diabetes mellitus, loop and thiazide diuretics
Respiratory acidosis
Decreased pH caused by elevated carbon dioxide (increased hydrogen and carbonic acid concentrations) secondary to alveolar hypoventilation.
Hypophosphatemia
Decreased phosphate from intestinal malabsorption, increased renal excretion, vitamin D deficiency, magnesium and aluminum caontaining anatacids (bind phosphate), long-term alcohol abuse, respiratory alkalosis and hyperparathyroidism
Tension headache
Headache caused by *emotional strain* or overwork that tends to be focused in the *occipital region* and can be continuous for months.
Cluster headache
Headache characterized by *unilateral* severe pain over the eye and forehead that lasts *30 minutes to 2 hours*, several attacks per day can occur over a period of days followed by long periods of remission
Migraine
Headache that usually begins in the *temporal* region *unilaterally* after vascular changes of cranial arteries and may cause irritability, nausea, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea, and photophobia.
Radiation
Heat loss through electromagnetic waves
Extradural Hematoma
Hemorrhaging usually from an *artery* most commonly associated with a skull fracture after a head injury
Desmosomes
Hold cells together with continuous bands, belts or button like points of contact
Hypernatremia
Increased sodium from acute gain in sodium (hypertonic saline solutions, hyperaldosteronism, Cushing syndrome) or a loss in water
Vitamin D
Increases absorption of calcium in the small intestine
Klinefelter syndrome
Individuals with at least two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome
Radiculitis
Inflammation of a spinal nerve root
Meningitis
Inflammation of the *membranes covering the brain* and *spinal cord* associated with an infection from bacteria, viruses, parasites or toxins
Encephalitis
Inflammation of the brain usually caused by a virus.
Fusiform aneurysm (giant aneurysm)
Large aneurysm that stretches to affect the entire circumference of the arterial wall.
Fibronectin
Large glycoprotein- promotes cell adhesion and anchorage
Heat stroke
Life-threatening condition associated with high temperatures and humidity (rectal temperature above 106 degrees fahrenheit, peripheral vasodilation, thermoregulatory failure, hypovolemia)
limbic
system whose effects are believe to be involved with primitive behavioral response, visceral reaction to emotion, feeding, biologic rhythms, and sense of smell. A major function is consolidation of memory through a reverberating circuit
bronchial circulation
systemic circulation, delivers blood to and from the bronchi and bronchioles
Euvolemic Hypernatremia
total body water loss, usually from DI C.M. severe polyuria and mild hypernatremia, weight loss, weak pulses, tachycardia, postural hypotension, fever, restless
xenobiotics
toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic chemicals in food
interneurons
transmit impulses from neuron to neuron and are also involved in cognitive function
pons
transmits info from the cerebellum to the brainstem nuclei and relays motor info from the cerebral cortex to the contralateral cerebellar hemisphere
cannabinoid
transmitters that are released from postsynaptic neurons that modulate neurotransmitter release from presynaptic neurons
dilute salt solutions
treatment for heat cramps
sodium bicarobonate
treats acidosis
T2 (TNM staging)
tumor 2-5cm
T1 (TNM staging)
tumor <2cm
carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)
tumor marker associated with GI, pancreas, lung, & breast tumors
alpha fetoprotein (AFP)
tumor marker associated with Liver & germ cell tumors
catecholamines
tumor marker associated with adrenal gland tumor
B-Human chorionic gonadotropin (B-hCG)
tumor marker associated with germ cell tumors
urinary bence jones protein
tumor marker associated with multiple myeloma
HVA/VMA (homovanillic acid/vanillylmandelic acid)
tumor marker associated with neuroblastoma
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
tumor marker associated with pituitary adenoma
prostate specific antigen (PSA)
tumor marker associated with prostate tumors
dawn phenomenon
type I DM has higher blood glucose in early am than in middle of night
pluripotent cells (precursor cell or adults stem cell)
undifferentiated cells not committed to specific function
cretinism
untreated hypothyroidism
Procainamide
Used to treat cardiac dysrhythmias
-oma
benign tumor- lipoma
Expressivity
Variation in a phenotype associated with a particular genotype
germ cells & stem cells
besides CA cells, which cells have telomerase?
physical activity
best way to reduce risk for breast, colon, & endometrial CA
parietal
lobe of the brain which contains the major area for somatic sensory input
Cerebellar astrocytoma
*Brain tumor* of the right or left *cerebellar* hemisphere and cause symptoms on the same side as the tumor including head tilt, limb ataxia, and nystagmus.
Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania
*Cluster*-type headache that occurs with more *daily frequency* (4 to 12/day) but with shorter duration (20-120 minutes)
Classic cerebral concussion
*Diffuse* brain injury with cerebral disconnection from the brainstem reticular activating system and is a phenomenon of physiologic, neurologic dysfunction without substantial anatomic disruption. Immediate loss of consciousness for less than 6 hours with retrograde and anterograde amnesia.
Hemorrhagic stroke (intracranial hemorrhage)
*Hypertension* or *ruptured aneurysms* that result in bleeding in the brain, typically increases intracranial pressure and may lead to death.
Ependymoma
*Intracranial tumor* that is most commonly found in children and typically arises from the inner lining of the *4th ventricle* and the *spinal canal*.
Myasthenia gravis
*Neuromuscular disorder* caused by an *autoimmune* response in which antibodies to *acetylcholine receptors* impair neuromuscular transmission.
Neurogenic shock
*Sudden* loss of the *sympathetic* nervous system signals to the *smooth muscle* in vessel walls, causing vasodilation, hypotension, bradycardia and hypothermia
Mild concussion
*Temporary* axonal disturbances *without the loss of consciousness* in response to a violent blow, jarring, shaking, or other closed head injury.
anterior pituitary synthesize what hormone
- FSH - LSH - ACTH - TSH - Prolactin - GH
3 types of hyperthyroidism
- Grave's - Nodular thyroid - thyroid storm - oversecretion of T3 & T4 - decreased TSH, increased T3 & T4
primary hyperaldosteronism
- HTN - hypokalemia - increased pH - increased K urine - Na & H2O retention
pheochromocytoma
- HTN - tachycardia - palpitations - severe ha - diaphoresis - heat intolerance - wt loss - constipation - tumors of chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla - flushing - caused by tumor of adrenal glad - excess secretion of catecholamines - dx test: urine for catecholamines & CT scan
tx DKA
- IVF - insulin gtt - replace electrolytes
mineralocorticoid
- aldosterone - RAAS regulates secretion of aldosterone
hypothyroidism
- at birth, high birth wt, jaundice & hypothermia - lethargy - cold intolerance - hoarseness - nonpitting boggy edema around eyes - coarse hair - decreased body temp - underproduction & underseretion of thyroid - primary: loss of functional thyroid tissue & cells (radiation, tumor removal, etc) - secondary: dysfunction w/in pituitary or hypothalamus (lack of TSH) - increase TSH, decrease T3 & T4 - bradycardia - wt gain - tired - syncope - memory loss - depression - anemia - hypoventilation -hyperlipidemia - peripheral edema - puffy eyes & face
adrenal medulla hormones
- catecholamines - epi 10x more potent than norepi - both increase bp & HR, vasoconstrict - increase RR, increase cell metabolism - increase glucose
chronic complications of DM
- macroangiopathy: - PVD - CAD/MI - CV disease, TIA, stroke - microangiopathy: - retinopathy - nephropathy - neuropathies both peripheral & autonomic
panhypopituitarism
- necrosis or another problem in anterior pituitary - causing deficiency of all of its hormones with lack of GH, FSH, TSH & ACTH
Cushing disease
- caused by hypersecretion of ACTH from anterior pituitary - cortisol excess causes lipolysis & altered fat distribution - ACTH excess causes hyperpigmentation because excess MSH is formed as an alternative cleave product of same hormone precursor which stimulates production of melanin, a skin pigment - facial flush - moon face - supraclavicular fat pad - purple striae - pendulous abd - trunk obesity - thin extremities - easy bruising - excess cortisol - exogenous steroid, use prednisone - adrenal adenoma - increase glucose lead to type II - abnormal lipolysis - increase risk of clotting & infection - steroids inhibit arachinodinc pathway leading to water retention, edema & peptic ulcer - more common in men
anterior pituitary adenoma
- causes hypersecretion of hormone from adenoma itself - hyposecretion of hormones from surrounding pituitary cells
thyroid gland function
- cellular process - maintenance of cells & tissues
SIADH
- characterized by high levels of ADH in the absence of normal control mechanism - lethargy - decreased Na - sz - decreased plasma osmolality - concentrated urine - lung ca - fluid volume overload - increase urine Na - caused by pain
parathyroid gland hormone (PTH)
- controls Ca & Phos - stimulates osteoclasts (breakdown of bone to increase serum Ca & assist in production active form of Vit D - increase renal absorption of Ca
3 types of glucocorticoids
- cortisol - cortisone - corticosterone
thyroid storm
- crisis & severe - leads to death if not treated - triggered by surgery/trauma - agitation/restlessness/AMS/delirium - increase HR - HF - febrile - n/v/d
myedema coma indicates
- decrease LOC - emergent - hypotensive - hypoventilation leading to being intubated
deficiency of ACTH cause
- decrease aldosterone production - loss of functional maintenance of adrenals (lack of cortisol & lack of androgen production)
lack of FSH
- decrease estrogen in women - decrease production of sperm
RAAS system
- decrease perfusion to kidneys releasing renin converts to angiotensin I to angiotensin II which vasoconstrict & increase aldosterone - keep K and H2O
deficiency of LH cause
- decrease progesterone in women - decrease ovulation - decrease testosterone & testicular growth
hypoparathyroidism
- decreased PTH secretion - cause decrease Ca & increase Phos - phosphate prevents conversion of vit D to active form
type I DM
- deficit of insulin & amylin - severe insulin deficiency & excessive fat breakdown & make ketoacids faster than body can remove them - excess of glucagon - polydipsia (thirsty, s/sx of dehydration) - nocturia - polyuria - increased appetite - wt loss - hyperglycemia - glycosuria - increase urine osmolality - diuresis - gluconeogenesis (body needs energy making glucose from fat & protein to make ATP instead of going to Citric Cycle - keonuria - nutritional deficiency - hungry - go into dkA - dx before 30yo - common in whites - B cells destroyed by autoimmune - sugar spills into urine - lack of insulin production
type II DM
- dx mid age - family hx - more common in Hispanics, blacks, indian - insulin resistance dt receptors or unable to utilize correctly - not enough insulin
hypopituitarism
- dysfunction of anterior pituitary gland which deficiency of one or more anterior pituitary hormone - pituitary infarction - shock - Sheehan's syndrome - CNS infection - pituitary tumor removal - head trauma
goiter
- enlargement of thyroid gland - increased stimulation by TSH
dx of DM, one of 3 test positive
- fasting glucose =>126 - random glucose >200 in persons w/ sx - HgbA1C +>6.5, treatment aim <7
gastroparesis
- full filling after dinner - autonomic neuropathy which is a microvascular problem
hormones from adrenal cortex
- glucocorticoids - mineralocorticoids - gonadocorticoids (sex hormones)
HHNK
- glucose >600 - no acid or ketones - nlm serum CO2 - serum osmolality >320 - occur w/ type II DM - brought on by CV or renal disease - increased osmotic pressure - decreased blood volume
acromegaly
- hypersecretion of GH in adults - long bones already stopped growing - adults will develop enlarged jaw, forehead, tongue and large feet and hands - HTN - hyperglycemia - HF - edema - excessing sweating - enlarged tongue
gigantism
- hypersecretion of GH in kids & adolescents whose epiphyseal plates haven't closed yet so thin long bones are able to grow - kids
acute complications of DM
- hypoglycemia - DKA - HHNK
prolactin controlled by
- hypothalamus by secreting dopa thus meds that block dopa will have increase prolactin secretion - breast develop during pregnancy - milk production
neurogenic DI
- hypothalamus of posterior pituitary that decrease ADH release - centrally located lesion in hypothalamus & pituitary gland
fx of glucocorticoids
- immune system - promote vasoconstriction - cellular metabolism - gluconeogenesis in liver
thyroid nodules
- increase secretions of thyroid hormones dt hypertrophy of follicular cells
hyperthyroidism s&sx
- increase temp - loose stools - excessive sweating - increase HR - hair loss - anorexia - exopthalmus (bulging eyes)
2 basic components of patho of type 2 DM
- insulin resistance - pancreatic beta cell dysfunction
nephrogenic DI
- kidney causes insensitivity to ADH - renal tubules don't respond to ADH - polycystic kidneys - ongoing & can cause pyelonephritis which is reversible
lack of GH
- lack growth in kids - dwarfism - impaired tissue healing - osteoporosis - decrease muscle mass
DI
- polydipsia - nocturia - polyuria - hypernatremia - increased plasma osmolality - large volume of dilute urine - thirsty - decreased urine osmolality - increase plasma osmolality - increase Na - too much H2O intake - causing suppression of ADH - prone to dehydration
DKA
- polyuria - decreased LOC - Kussmaul breathing - acetone breath - hyperglycemia - decreased pH - ketonuria - glycosuria - more common in type I DM - insulin deficiency with liver producing more glucose - peripheral glucose utilization decreased - gluconeogenesis started - ketones in blood or urine causing metabolic acidosis - glucose >250 - HCO3 <18 - pH 7.3 - increased anion gap
malignant tumors
- poorly differentiated cell appearance - rapid growth rate - high mitotic index - no capsule - neovascularization through angiogenesis - invasive growth - can metastasize
primary hyperparathyroid
- predisposed to kidney stones - osteoporosis d/t PTH trying to fix low serum Ca breaking down bone - metabolic bone disease & kyphosis - increased Ca, decreased Phos - cause by adenoma - compensatory response to decrease Ca associated with decrease renal activitation of Vit D mainly in CKD
exophthalmus
- protruding eyes in Grave's disease - fibroblasts located behind eye have TSH receptors which is stimulated by TSI autoantibodies causing enlargement of ocular muscles and accumulation of fat and edema push eyeballs forward
hyperparathyroidism
- secondary: increase PTH & decrease Ca - most likely tumor, primary: decrease PTH & increased Ca
aldosterone causes kidneys
- secrete K - maintain Na
hypoglycemia
- tachycardia - diaphoresis - tremor - pallor - LOC/confusion - sz/coma - palpitations - anxiety - ha - dizzy - fatigue - visual changes - < 45 - 60 in adults/kids - < 35 for 1st 48 hrs in infants
decrease Ca levels s&sx
- tetany - confusion - hyperreflexia - bone deformities
tumor suppressor genes
- that act as inhibitors of growth factor stimulation - block specific phases of cell cycle - induce end stage (terminal) differentiation - stimulate cell senescence or death
tx SIADH
- treat underlying cause - free H2O restriction - hypertonic soln - can have Gatorade & juices
uses for tumor markers
- used to screen & identify individuals at high risk for ca - help diagnose specific types of tumors - follow clinical course of ca
adrenal adenoma causing hypersecretion of androgens in woman
- virilization - lack of breast development - hirsutism - increased muscle bulk
Addison disease
- weakness - fatigue - hypotension - hyperkalemia - hypoglycemia - elevated ACTH - decrease aldosterone & cortisol - disease of adrenal cortex & medulla - autoimmune disease that attacks the adrenal glands
benign tumors
- well differentiated cell appearance - slow rate of growth - low mitotic index - has a capsule - slight vascularization - expansile growth - cant metastasize
Graves disease
- wt loss with increase appetite - body temp elevated with increased HR - excessive thyroid hormones increase metabolic rate which increase heat production - involves autoantibodies against TSH receptors called thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs) which stimulate TSH recepors on thyrocytes causing thyroid gland to secrete T3 & T4 - autoimmune hypothyroid - antibodies attach to thyroid & acts like TSH stimulating release of T3 & T4
asbestos
-a fibrous mineral that may be found in homes build prior to 1978 -can cause mesothelioma & lung CA
cachexia
-loss apetite, early satiety, weakness, inability to maintain wt, taste alterations, -leads to protein calorie malnutrition & progressive wasting
epithelial transition (EMT)
-responsible for permitting tumor cells to be transported to a distant site -driven by cytokines & chemokines
radiation therapy
-used to kill cancer cells while minimizing damage to normal structures -requires good local delivery of oxygen -produces slow changes in most cancers and irreversible changes in normal tissues as well.
gene silencing
-whole regions of chromosomes are shut off while the same regions in other cells remain active -Genes can be turned off by point mutations, deacetylation of histones or methylation of DNA
3 key genetic mechanisms of carcinogenesis
1) activation of proto-oncogenes resulting in hyperactivity of growth-related gene products called oncogenes 2) mutation of genes resulting in loss or inactivity of gene products that normally would inhibit growth (called tumor suppressor genes) 3) mutation of genes resulting in overexpression of products that prevent nml cell death, or apoptosis thus allowing continued growth of tumors
top 4 infections related to CA
1. HPV 2. helicobactor pylori 3. hep B 4. hep C
cancer causing HPV viruses (5)
1. HPV 16 2. HPV 18 3. HPV 31 4. HPV 33 5. HPV 45
TAMs (tumor-associated macrophage)
1. diminished cytotoxic response 2. block cytotoxic T-cell & NK cell functions 3. secrete cellular growth factors
routes of metastasis
1. direct invasion (lymphatics, veins) 2. epithelial-mesenchymal transition in carcinomas 3. local vs. distant metastasis
damage from IR occurs (3)
1. directly from biologic macromolecules 2. indirectly in the medium (organelles suspended in water) 3. irreversibly from ionization (attack by water based free radicals)
environmental factors related to melanoma
1. hx of 3 or more sunburns 2. periodic excessive sunlight exposure 3. long-term continous sunlight exposure 4. UV exposure @ tanning salons
factors that contribute to CA (7)
1. lifestyle choices (nutrition, smoking, etoh use) 2. environmental conditions (UV, radiation) 3. lack of physical exercise/obesity 4. sexual practices 5. prescribed & illicit medications 6. socioecomonic factors 7. carcinogenic substances
risk factors for melanoma
1. sunburn history 2. family history (genetic/phenotypic traits) 3. light hair, eyes, & skin 4. increasing age 5. presence of over 20 nevi;freckling
erv value
1200 ml
residual volume value
1200 ml
detoxification enzymes & antioxidant system
2 primary defense mechanisms that protect against xenobiotics that cause cell damage
sex-linked chromosomes
23rd pair of chromosomes
length to see hypothyroidism d/t stored thyroid hormone
3 months
IRV normal value
3000 ml
inspiratory capacity value
3600
Adhesion molecules
Also known as CAM (Cell Adhesion Molecule). Proteins that allow cells to hook together and form attachments to the cytoskeleton for maintaining cellular shape.
MATCHING Match the structure with its function. Answers may be used more than once. ______ A. Endoplasmic reticulum ______ B. Ribosome ______ C. Secretory vesicle ______ D. Lysosomes 44. Packages and transports proteins. 45. Fuses with the plasma membrane to release contents from the cell. 46. Synthesizes and transports lipids. 47. Provides energy to digest proteins into amino acids.
44. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Pages 5-6 MSC: The endoplasmic reticulum (endo = within; plasma = cytoplasm; reticulum = network) is a membrane factory that specializes in the synthesis and transport of the protein and lipid components of most of the cell's organelles. 45. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Pages 6-7 MSC: Proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum are processed and packaged into small membrane-bound sacs or vesicles called secretory vesicles that collect at the end of the membranous folds of the Golgi bodies. The secretory vesicles then break off from the Golgi complex and migrate to a variety of intracellular and extracellular destinations, including the plasma membrane. The vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, and their contents are released from the cell. 46. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Pages 5-6 MSC: The endoplasmic reticulum (endo = within; plasma = cytoplasm; reticulum = network) is a membrane factory that specializes in the synthesis and transport of the protein and lipid components of most of the cell's organelles. 47. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Page 7 MSC: Lysosomes function as the intracellular digestive system (see Figure 1-6). Lysosomal enzymes are capable of digesting most cellular constituents down to their basic forms, such as amino acids, fatty acids, and sugars.
Match the structure with its function. Answers may be used more than once. ______ A. Passive-mediated transport ______ B. Active-mediated transport ______ C. Osmosis 48. Movement of water 49. Protein carrier 50. Facilitated diffusion
48. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Page 30 MSC: Osmosis is the movement of water down a concentration gradient; that is, across a semipermeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a lower water concentration. 49. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Page 32 MSC: In active-mediated transport, also called active transport, the protein transporter moves molecules against, or up, the concentration gradient. Unlike passive-mediated transport, active-mediated transport requires the expenditure of energy. 50. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Pages 31-32 MSC: In passive-mediated transport, also called facilitated diffusion, the protein transporter moves solute molecules through cellular membranes without expending metabolic energy.
vital capacity value
4800 ml
tidal volume normal value
500 ml
pH normal HCO3 normal PaCO2 normal
7.35-7.45 22-26 38-44
Spinal shock
A *complete loss* of *reflex function* in skeletal muscles, bladder, bowel, sexual function and automic control *below the level of the lesion*
Allele
Alternate version of a gene
neurotransmitter
A ________ is normally stored on one side of a synaptic cleft, and its receptors are on the other side
Fracture
A break, rupture, or crack, especially in bone or cartilage.
Autocrine
A cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger that act on the same cell
Tetraploidy
A cell that has four copies of each chromosome
Polyploid
A cell that has more than the diploid number of chromosomes
Triploidy
A cell that has three copies of each chromosome
Trisomy
A cell with three copies of one chromosome
Anabolism
A cellular process that uses energy to synthesize complex molecules from simpler molecules.
Lead
A chemical agent that causes permanent effects on neurobehavior and intellectual performance.
Hematoma
A collection of blood in soft tissues or an enclosed space
Adenosine Triphosphate
A compound consisting of an adenosine molecule bonded to three phosphate groups, present in all living tissue. The breakage of one phosphate linkage (to form adenosine diphosphate, ADP) provides energy for physiological processes such as muscular contraction
Heat exhaustion
A condition characterized by faintness or fainting, palpitations, nausea, vomiting, headache, and profuse sweating and resulting from physical exertion in a hot environment
Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
A condition in which the release of ADH is elevated relative to serum sodium levels, resulting in increased water reabsorption by the kidneys.
Heat cramps
A condition that is marked by sudden development of cramps in skeletal muscles and that results from prolonged work or exercise in high temperatures accompanied by profuse perspiration with loss of sodium chloride from the body
Monosomy
A diploid cell with only one copy of a chromosome
Osteomalacia
A disease in which vitamin D or calcium deficiency or excessive renal phosphate loss causes a softening of the bones with accompanying pain and weakness.
Aquaporins
A family of water channel proteins
Turner syndrome
A female with only one X chromosome (45 chromosomes total)
Trisomy X
A female with three X chromosomes
Cartilage
A flexible connective tissue composed of collagen fibers, ground substance rich in proteoglycan, and elastin fibers.
Microcephaly
A head with a small braincase
Heat stroke
A life-threatening condition marked especially by cessation of sweating, extremely high body temperature (greater than 40.5C and 104.9F), and collapse that results from prolonged exposure to high temperature; cerebral edema, renal tubular necrosis, organ failure, degeneration of CNS
Genotype
A map of ones specific genes
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
A mechanism by which sodium and water levels are regulated in the body especially the actions on the kidney that increase water and sodium reabsorption.
Amphipathic
A molecule (especially a protein) having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts.
Urodilatin
A natriuretic peptide hormone that is synthesized in and released from the kidney and functions in the regulation of water and sodium.
Compensation
Adjustment of acid or base content in response to changes in pH; for example, a decrease in pH is accompanied by an increase in carbon dioxide removal by the lungs, causing pH to increase.
Citric acid cycle
Aerobic metabolism that includes a series of reactions in which acetyl CoA is oxidized into carbon dioxide, NADH and FADH.
Restless leg syndrome
A neurological disorder of uncertain pathophysiology that is characterized by aching, burning, crawling, or creeping sensations of the legs that occur especially at night usually when lying down (as before sleep) and cause a compelling urge to move the legs and that is often accompanied by difficulty in falling or staying asleep and by involuntary twitching of the legs during sleep; more common in women and people with iron deficiency
Calcitonin
A protein hormone produced in the thyroid gland that inhibits osteoclastic activity in bone.
Atrial and brain natriuretic peptide
A protein hormone synthesized and released from myocardial tissue in response to high sodium concentration, high extracellular fluid volume, or high blood volume and functions to promote sodium excretion and to cause vasodilation in the circulatory system.
Parathyroid hormone
A protein hormone that regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the body by promoting the absorption of calcium by the intestine, mobilizing calcium and phosphate from bones, and increasing the tendency of the kidney to reabsorb calcium and excrete phosphate.
Malignant hyperthermia
A rare inherited condition characterized by a rapid, extreme, and often fatal rise in body temperature following the administration of general anesthesia; increased myoplasmic calcium release and decreased calcium uptake with muscle contraction-intracellular calcium levels rise
Duplication
A repeated gene or gene sequence
Dantrolene sodium
A skeletal relaxant that inhibits calcium release during muscle contraction
Meningioma
A slow-growing, often encapsulated mass of cells derived from *arachnoid tissue* in the dural membrane that is usually *benign* but increases intracranial pressure.
Saccular aneurysm (berry aneurysm)
A slowly progressing aneurysm that affects *only a portion* of the circumference of the arterial wall and may be the result of congenital anomalies or degeneration.
Hypertonic
A solution of higher osmotic pressure
Hypotonic
A solution of lower osmotic pressure
Aneuploidy
A somatic cell that does not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes
Cataplexy
A sudden loss of muscle control with retention of clear consciousness that follows a strong emotional stimulus (as elation, surprise, or anger) and is a characteristic symptom of narcolepsy
Autonomic hyperreflexia (dysreflexia)
A syndrome resulting from afferent stimuli which causes intense sympathetic discharge originating with spinal cord injury above the major splanchnic outflow characterized by hypertension, bradycardia, sweating of the forehead, severe headache, and piloerection on distention of the bladder and rectum.
Continuous positive airway pressure
A technique for relieving breathing problems (such as those associated with sleep apnea or congestive heart failure) by pumping a steady flow of air through the nose to prevent the narrowing or collapse of air passages or to help the lungs to expand
posterior pituitary doesn't synthesize hormones it only releases what hormones that are synthesized by hypothalamus
ADH oxytocin
Natriuretic hormones
ANP and BNP- released by heart- works opposite RAAS to decrease blood volume, promotes urinary excretion of Na and water
36. A muscle cell possesses which specialized function? a. Movement b. Conductivity c. Secretion d. Respiration
ANS: A A cell has the potential to differentiation and to gain the ability to perform one of eight specialized functions. Muscle cells can generate forces that produce motion. Nerves cells are capable of conductivity. Cells of the adrenal gland, testis, and ovary can secrete. Respiration is a function that all cells possess. PTS: 1 REF: Page 2
38. All cells are capable of what process? a. Excretion b. Movement c. Metabolic absorption d. Continuous division
ANS: A All cells have the capacity to excrete, thus allowing them to rid themselves of waste products resulting from the metabolic breakdown of nutrients. The remaining options are not functions possessed by all cells. PTS: 1 REF: Page 2
11. Which form of cell communication is used to communicate within the cell itself and with other cells in direct physical contact? a. Protein channel (gap junction) b. Plasma membrane-bound signaling molecules (involving receptors) c. Hormone secretion such as neurotransmitters d. Extracellular chemical messengers such as ligands
ANS: A Cells communicate by using hundreds of kinds of signal molecules, for example, insulin. Cells communicate in three main ways; they display plasma membrane-bound signaling molecules (receptors) that affect the cell itself and other cells in direct physical contact. The other options do not correctly describe this process. PTS: 1 REF: Page 20
32. The role of cytokines in cell reproduction is that they: a. Provide growth factor for tissue growth and development. b. Block progress of cell reproduction through the cell cycle. c. Restrain cell growth and development. d. Provide nutrients for cell growth and development.
ANS: A Growth factors, also called cytokines, are peptides that transmit signals within and among cells. They have a major role in the regulation of tissue growth and development (see Table 1-6). The remaining options do not correctly describe the role of cytokines in cell reproduction. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 38-39
22. The movement of fluid across the arterial end of capillary membranes into the interstitial fluid surrounding the capillary is an example of which fluid movement process? a. Hydrostatic pressure b. Osmosis c. Diffusion d. Active transport
ANS: A Hydrostatic pressure is the mechanical force of water pushing against cellular membranes. In the vascular system, hydrostatic pressure is the blood pressure generated in vessels by the contraction of the heart. Blood reaching the capillary bed has a hydrostatic pressure of 25 to 30 mm Hg, which is sufficient force to push water across the thin capillary membranes into the interstitial space. The remaining options do not correctly identify the process described. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 29-30
27. What occurs during exocytosis? a. Macromolecules can be secreted across eukaryotic cell membranes. b. All substances are secreted into the cellular matrix. c. No repairs in the plasma membrane can take place. d. Solute molecules flow freely into and out of the cell.
ANS: A In eukaryotic cells, secretion of macromolecules almost always occurs by exocytosis. The remaining options do not correctly describe exocytosis. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 35-36
10. The fluid mosaic model explains: a. How a cell membrane functions b. Why our bodies appear to be solid c. How tissue is differentiated d. How fluid moves between the intracellular and extracellular compartments
ANS: A The fluid mosaic model accounts for the flexibility of cellular membranes, their self-sealing properties, and their impermeability to many substances. The remaining options do not explain the mosaic model. PTS: 1 REF: Page 12 | What's New box
19. Passive transport is best described with which statement? a. Being driven by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion b. Involving receptors that can bind with substances being transported c. Being capable of transporting macromolecules d. Requiring energy generated by the cell
ANS: A Water and small electrically uncharged molecules move easily through pores in the plasma membrane's lipid bilayer. This process, called passive transport, naturally occurs through any semipermeable barrier. It is driven by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion, all of which depend on the laws of physics and do not require life. The other options do not correctly describe passive transport. PTS: 1 REF: Page 28
41. Which statements are true concerning the process of facilitated diffusion? (Select all that apply). a. Facilitated diffusion is also referred to as passive mediated transport. b. This process expends no metabolic energy. c. Moving solute molecules through cellular membranes are involved in this process. d. Movement up a concentration gradient is necessary. e. Facilitated diffusion is the primary means for water transport.
ANS: A, B, C In passive mediated transport, also called facilitated diffusion, the protein transporter moves solute molecules through cellular membranes without expending metabolic energy. Downward movement along a concentration gradient is necessary. Osmosis is the movement of water down a concentration gradient. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 31-32
42. Passive transport is dependent on: (Select all that apply.) a. Semipermeable barrier membrane b. The process of osmosis c. Diffusion as a driving force d. A living host e. Hydrostatic pressure
ANS: A, B, C, E Passive transport naturally occurs through any semipermeable barrier. It is driven by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion, all of which depend on the laws of physics and do not require life. PTS: 1 REF: Page 28
43. What is the primary function of proteins? (Select all that apply.) a. Proteins are binding units. b. Proteins are transport channels. c. Proteins are ribonucleoproteins. d. Proteins provide cell surface markers. e. Proteins are chemical reaction catalysts.
ANS: A, B, D, E Protein functions include (a) recognition and binding units (receptors) for substances moving in and out of the cell; (b) pores or transport channels; (c) enzymes that drive active pumps; (d) cell surface markers, such as glycoproteins; (e) cell adhesion molecules; and (f) catalysts of chemical reactions. PTS: 1 REF: Page 15
39. What are the major chemical components of the cell membranes? (Select all that apply.) a. Lipids b. Sodium ions c. Carbohydrates d. DNA e. Proteins
ANS: A, E The major chemical components of all cell membranes are lipids and proteins, but the percentage of each varies among different membranes. PTS: 1 REF: Page 12
17. Under anaerobic conditions, what process provides energy for the cell? a. Oxidative phosphorylation b. Glycolysis c. Lactolysis d. Passive transport
ANS: B Glycolysis produces a net of two molecules of ATP per glucose molecule through the process of oxidation or the removal and transfer of a pair of electrons. The other options do not correctly identify an anaerobic process that provides energy to the cell. PTS: 1 REF: Page 28
21. Which method of transport uses transmembrane proteins with receptors with a high degree of specificity for the substance being transported? a. Active b. Mediated c. Transmembranous d. Passive
ANS: B Mediated transport (passive and active) involves integral or transmembrane proteins with receptors having a high degree of specificity for the substance being transported. Inorganic anions and cations (e.g., Na+, K+, Ca++, chloride [Cl-], bicarbonate [HCO3-]) and charged and uncharged organic compounds (e.g., amino acids, sugars) require specific transport systems to facilitate movement through different cellular membranes. The remaining options do not correctly identify the process described. PTS: 1 REF: Page 31
3. Which component of the cell produces hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by using oxygen to remove hydrogen atoms from specific substrates in an oxidative reaction? a. Lysosomes b. Peroxisomes c. Ribosomes d. Oxyhydrosomes
ANS: B Peroxisomes are so named because they usually contain enzymes that use oxygen to remove hydrogen atoms from specific substrates in an oxidative reaction that produces H2O2, which is a powerful oxidant and potentially destructive if it accumulates or escapes from peroxisomes. Ribosomes are RNA-protein complexes (nucleoproteins) that are synthesized in the nucleolus and secreted into the cytoplasm through pores in the nuclear envelope called nuclear pore complexes. Lysosomes are saclike structures that originate from the Golgi complex and contain more than 40 digestive enzymes called hydrolases, which catalyze bonds in proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. Oxyhydrosomes are involved in enzyme production. PTS: 1 REF: Page 8
16. When a second message is necessary for extracellular communication to be activated, it is provided by which one? a. Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) b. Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) c. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) d. Guanosine diphosphate (GDP)
ANS: B The two major second messenger pathways are cyclic AMP (cAMP) and calcium (Ca++).
8. Understanding the various steps of proteolytic cascades, such as caspase-mediated apoptosis and complement cascades, may be useful in designing drug therapy for which human diseases? a. Cardiac and vascular disorders b. Autoimmune and malignant disorders c. Gastrointestinal and renal disorders d. Endocrine and gastrointestinal disorders
ANS: B Understanding the various steps involved in this process is crucial for designing drug interventions. Dysregulation of proteases features prominently in many human diseases, including cancer, autoimmunity, and neurodegenerative disorders. The other options do not correctly describe this process. PTS: 1 REF: Page 15
30. What causes the rapid change in the resting membrane potential to initiate an action potential? a. Potassium gates open, and potassium rushes into the cell, changing the membrane potential from negative to positive. b. Sodium gates open, and sodium rushes into the cell, changing the membrane potential from negative to positive. c. Sodium gates close, allowing potassium into the cell to change the membrane potential from positive to negative. d. Potassium gates close, allowing sodium into the cell to change the membrane potential from positive to negative.
ANS: B When a resting cell is stimulated through voltage-regulated channels, the cell membranes become more permeable to Na+. A net Na+ moves into the cell, and the membrane potential decreases, or moves forward, from a negative value (in millivolts) to zero. The Na+ gates open, and Na+ rushes into the cell, causing the membrane potential to reduce to zero and then become positive (depolarization). The remaining options do not correctly describe the change that initiates an action potential. PTS: 1 REF: Page 36
40. Which cells lose their ability to replicate and divide? (Select all that apply.) a. Intestines b. Nerves c. Skin d. Lens of the eye e. Skeletal muscle
ANS: B, D, E All types of cells undergo mitosis during the formation of the embryo, but many adult cells, such as nerve cells, lens cells of the eye, and muscle cells, lose their ability to replicate and divide. Intestines and skin cells retain their ability to replicate and divide. PTS: 1 REF: Page 37
24. A patient who has diarrhea receives a 3% saline solution intravenously to replace the sodium and chloride lost in the stool. What effect will this fluid replacement have on cells? a. Become hydrated b. Swell or burst c. Shrink d. Divide
ANS: C A hypertonic solution has a concentration of greater than 285 to 294 mOsm/kg. An example of a hypertonic solution is 3% saline solution. Water can be pulled out of the cells by a hypertonic solution; therefore the cells shrink. The remaining options do not correctly describe the effect identified in the stem. PTS: 1 REF: Page 31
28. Why is it possible for potassium to diffuse easily into and out of cells? a. Potassium has a greater concentration in the intracellular fluid (ICF). b. Sodium has a greater concentration in the extracellular fluid (ECF). c. The resting plasma membrane is more permeable to potassium. d. An excess of anions are inside the cell.
ANS: C Because the resting plasma membrane is more permeable to K+ than to Na+, K+ can easily diffuse from its area of higher concentration in the ICF to its area of lower concentration in the ECF. Because Na+ and K+ are both cations, the net result is an excess of anions inside the cell, resulting in the resting membrane potential. The remaining options do not correctly identify the process that most easily diffuses K+. PTS: 1 REF: Page 36
33. What is the process of cellular reproduction? a. The process often takes months or years to complete. b. Cellular reproduction typically has a short interphase. c. Two diploid cells, called daughter cells, have been formed. d. The process involves the interaction of male and female cells.
ANS: C During telophase, the final stage, a new nuclear membrane is formed around each group of 46 chromosomes, the spindle fibers disappear, and the chromosomes begin to uncoil. Cytokinesis causes the cytoplasm to divide into roughly equal parts during this phase. At the end of telophase, two identical diploid cells, called daughter cells, have been formed from the original cell. PTS: 1 REF: Page 37
Chapter 1: Cellular Biology MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Which statement best describes the cellular function of metabolic absorption? a. Cells can produce proteins. b. Cells can secrete digestive enzymes. c. Cells can take in and use nutrients. d. Cells can synthesize fats.
ANS: C In metabolic absorption, all cells take in and use nutrients and other substances from their surroundings. The remaining options are not inclusive in their descriptions of cellular metabolic absorption. PTS: 1 REF: Page 2
35. Which statement is true about phagocytosis? a. Phagocytosis is an example of exocytosis. b. Phagocytosis is dependent on small vesicles. c. Phagocytosis involves the ingestion of bacteria. d. Phagocytosis focuses on solute molecules.
ANS: C In phagocytosis, the large molecular substances are engulfed by the plasma membrane and enter the cell so that they can be isolated and destroyed by lysosomal enzymes. Two types of endocytosis are designated, based on the size of the vesicle formed. Pinocytosis (cell drinking) involves the ingestion of fluids and solute molecules through the formation of small vesicles, and phagocytosis (cell eating) involves the ingestion of large particles, such as bacteria, through formation of large vesicles (also called vacuoles). Phagocytosis in an example of endocytosis, not exocytosis. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 33-34
action potential
An ______ _______ in the presynaptic neuron causes the synaptic vesicles to release their neurotransmitters through the plasma membrane into the synaptic cleft
23. Why is osmolality preferred over osmolarity as the measurement of osmotic activity in the clinical assessment of individuals? a. Plasma contains sodium and chloride, which influence the volume of solution. b. Volume affects perfusion more than the weight of solutes. c. More of the weight of plasma is influenced by solutes, such as protein and glucose, rather than by water. d. Osmotic activity depends on the concentration of solutes present in plasma, such as proteins and glucose.
ANS: C In plasma, less of the plasma weight is water; therefore the overall concentration of particles is greater. The osmolality will be greater than the osmolarity because of the smaller proportion of water. Osmolality is thus the preferred measure of osmotic activity in clinical assessment of individuals. PTS: 1 REF: Page 30
18. What is the mechanism by which the energy produced from carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids is transferred to adenosine triphosphate (ATP)? a. Anaerobic glycolysis b. Oxidative cellular metabolism c. Oxidative phosphorylation d. Tricarboxylic acid phosphorylation
ANS: C Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria and is the mechanism by which the energy produced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP. The other options do not correctly identify the mechanism described in the question. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 27-28
7. What organic compound facilitates transportation across cell membranes by acting as receptors, transport channels for electrolytes, and enzymes to drive active pumps? a. Lipids b. Proteases c. Proteins d. Carbohydrates
ANS: C Proteins act as (1) recognition and binding units (receptors) for substances moving in and out of the cell; (2) pores or transport channels for various electrically charged particles called ions or electrolytes and specific carriers for amino acids and monosaccharides; and (3) specific enzymes that drive active pumps that promote the concentration of certain ions, particularly potassium (K+), within the cell while keeping concentrations of other ions, for example, sodium (Na+), below the concentrations found in the extracellular environment. The other options do not correctly describe this process. PTS: 1 REF: Page 13 | Page 15
20. Active transport occurs across which type of membranes? a. Membranes that have a higher concentration of the solute on the outside of the cell b. Membranes that are semipermeable to water and small electrically uncharged molecules c. Membranes that have receptors that are capable of binding with the substances to be transported d. Membranes that have a cell membrane that is hydrophobic rather than hydrophilic
ANS: C Some molecules are moved into the cell by mechanisms of active transport, which require receptors that are capable of recognizing and binding with the substance to be transported. Diffusion is the movement of a solute molecule from an area of greater solute concentration to an area of lesser solute concentration. Hydrostatic pressure is the mechanical force of water pushing against cellular membranes. Osmosis is the movement of water down a concentration gradient; that is, across a semipermeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a lower water concentration PTS: 1 REF: Page 28
29. The cellular uptake of the nutrient cholesterol depends on which process? a. Receptor-mediated exocytosis b. Antiport system c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis d. Passive transport
ANS: C The cellular uptake of nutrients, such as cholesterol, for example, depends on receptor-mediated endocytosis. Nutrients are not transported via the other options.
26. Potassium and sodium are transported across plasma membranes by: a. Passive electrolyte channels b. Coupled channels c. Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) enzyme d. Diffusion
ANS: C The exact mechanism for the transport of Na+ and K+ across the membrane is uncertain. One proposal is that ATPase enzyme induces the transporter protein to undergo several conformational changes, causing Na+ and K+ to move short distances (see Figure 1-29). The remaining options do not correctly describe the means by which K+ and Na+ are transported. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 32-33
2. Most of a cell's genetic information, including RNA and DNA, is contained in the: a. Mitochondria b. Ribosome c. Nucleolus d. Lysosome
ANS: C The nucleus contains the nucleolus, a small dense structure composed largely of RNA, most of the cellular DNA, and the DNA-binding proteins, such as the histones, which regulate its activity. The other options do not contain most of a cell's genetic information. PTS: 1 REF: Page 2
15. How do cells receive communication from the extracellular fluid surrounding them? a. Protein channel (gap junction) b. Plasma membrane-bound signaling molecules (involving receptors) c. Hormone secretion such as neurotransmitters d. Chemical messengers such as ligands
ANS: D Cellular communication can occur by the binding of a chemical massager (a ligand) to a specific membrane receptor that is closely associated with the channel (e.g., G proteins). The other options do not correctly describe how cells communicate. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 21-22
37. When a mucous gland cell creates a new substance from previously absorbed material, this process is known as which specialized cellular function? a. Excretion b. Metabolic absorption c. Reproduction d. Secretion
ANS: D Certain cells, such as mucous gland cells, can synthesize new substances from substances they absorb and then secrete the new substances to serve elsewhere as needed. The other options are not used to describe the function described in the stem. PTS: 1 REF: Page 2
25. The transport of glucose from the blood to the cell is accomplished by which process? a. Active-mediated transport (active transport) b. Active diffusion c. Passive osmosis d. Passive-mediated transport (facilitated diffusion)
ANS: D Facilitated diffusion is the means by which glucose is transported from the blood to the cells. The remaining options do not correctly identify this process. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 31-32
14. Neurotransmitters affect the postsynaptic membrane by binding to: a. Lipids b. Ribosomes c. Amphipathic lipids d. Receptors
ANS: D In each type of chemical signaling, the target cell receives the signal by first attaching to its receptors. The other options do not correctly describe this process. PTS: 1 REF: Page 17
9. Which structure prevents water-soluble molecules from entering cells across the plasma membrane? a. Carbohydrate chains b. Glycoprotein channels c. Membrane channel proteins d. Lipid Bilayer
ANS: D The bilayer's structure accounts for one of the essential functions of the plasma membrane. It is impermeable to most water-soluble molecules (molecules that dissolve in water) because the water-soluble molecules are insoluble in the oily core region. The bilayer serves as a barrier to the diffusion of water and hydrophilic substances while allowing lipid-soluble molecules, such as oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), to diffuse through it readily. The other options do not correctly describe this process. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 12-13
4. Which cell component is capable of cellular autodigestion when it is released during cell injury? a. Ribosome b. Golgi complex c. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum d. Lysosomes
ANS: D The lysosomal membrane acts as a protective shield between the powerful digestive enzymes within the lysosome and the cytoplasm, preventing their leakage into the cytoplasmic matrix. Disruption of the membrane by various treatments or cellular injury leads to a release of the lysosomal enzymes, which can then react with their specific substrates, causing cellular self-digestion. The other options do not correctly describe this process. PTS: 1 REF: Pages 7-8
Dysplasia
Abnormal changes in the size, shape and organization of mature cells
Pyrexia
Abnormal elevation of body temperature
Edema
Accumulation of fluid within the interstitial space- venous obstruction, Na and water retention C.M. can be localized or dependent, tightness of skin, facial swelling, rales, decreased wound healing, increased risk of pressure sores, weight gain
Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System
Activated by low blood volume, triggers release of renin which converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin 1. ACE converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin which causes arterial vasoconstriction and stimulates release of aldosterone. Aldosterone stimulates renal Na reabsorption and K+ excretion. Water is retained, less urine is produced, blood volume increases.
Guillain-Barre syndrome
Acute, inflammatory, *autoimmune* disease triggered by a preceding bacterial or viral infection that causes *demyelination* of *PNS* neurons resulting in denervation and atrophy of muscle with numbness, pain, parasthesis or weakness
Free radicals
An electrically uncharged atom or group of atoms having an unpaired electron capable of injurious chemical bond formation with proteins, lipids or carbohydrates
Partial trisomy
An extra portion of a chromosme is present in each cell
adiponectin, increasing
An increase in adipose tissue causes lower level of ________, that normally induces apoptosis, thus _______ cell proliferation
Hyperpolarization
An increase in the difference in electric potential across a cell membrane. Cell becomes more negative.
Enuresis
An involuntary discharge of urine: incontinence of urine
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
An organelle with ribosomes in the cytoplasm that synthesizes, processes, and transports proteins.
Mycotic aneurysm
Aneurysm that is caused by *bacterial* or *fungal* growth in the vessel wall or infection of an *arteriosclerotic aneurysm*.
Pseudostratified
Appears to consist of several layers but is actually a single layer
Cerebral infarction
Area of the brain loses blood supply because of vascular occlusion
Fragile sites
Areas on chromosomes that develop distinctive breaks or gaps when cells are cultured in a folate-deficient medium
Thrombotic stroke (cerebral thrombosis)
Arterial occlusions in vessels supplying the brain or intracranial vessels caused by *atherosclerosis* or *inflammation*.
Arteriovenous malformation
Arteries feed directly into veins through a vascular tangle of vessels
Antipyrogenic medications
Aspirin, acetaminophen, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents; use only if the fever is high enough to produce serious side effects
Dense connective tissue
Attaches structures to one another (tendons and ligaments)
post-transplant lymphoproliferation (PTLD)
B-cell lymphomas in persons with organ transplants
Phagocytosis
Bacteria and cell particulate are incorporated into large vesicles or vacuoles and digested.
h pylori
Bacteria most commonly responsible for stomach CA
Borrelia burgdorferi
Bacterial *spirochete* that causes *Lyme disease* transmitted by ticks
Oligodendroglioma
Benign nerve sheath tumor in the central nervous system
Neurofibroma or schwannoma
Benign nerve sheath tumor in the peripheral nervous system
Histone proteins
Bind DNA causing it to fold into chromosomes
Contusion
Bleeding into the skin or underlying tissues from a blow that squeezes or crushes soft tissues and rupyures blood vessels
Hydrostatic pressure
Blood pressure- pushes fluid outside of the vessels, the force of fluid against the walls of a compartment- venous obstruction, Na and water retention
Prostate ca metastasis
Bones (especially lumbar spine), liver
Codominance
Both alleles exhibit (blood type AB)
loss of heterozygosity
Both chromosome copies (alleles) of a gene are inactivated
Contrecoup
Brain injury resulting from the brain hitting the inside of the skull on the side *opposite* the site of blunt force trauma.
telomerase
CA cells reactivate this enzyme for unlimited replication
Glycolipids
Carbohydrate attached to a fat- basic component of the plasma membrane.
Carboxyhemoglobin
Carbon monoxide bound with hemoglobin
Facilitated diffusion
Carrier-mediated transport of solutes across the membrane down a concentration gradient and in the absence of energy expenditure.
Glycolysis
Catabolism of glucose or other monosaccharides to pyruvate and 2 molecules of ATP in the absence of oxygen or 34 molecules of ATP in the presence of oxygen.
Hydrolases
Catalyze bonds in lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids
Angiotensin II
Causes vasoconstriction and secretion of aldosterone
Respiration
Cells absorb oxygen and use it to transform nutrients (lipids and carbohydrates) into energy in the form of ATP
Paracrine
Cells secrete local chemical mediators that act on nearby cells
Cuboidal epithelium
Cells that are square in shape involved in absoprtion and secretion
Columnar epithelium
Cells that are taller than they are wide. Important in absorption and movement of mucus.
Euploid
Cells that have a multiple of the normal number of chromosomes (1 or 2 copies)
Catabolism
Cellular process that provides energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler molecules.
Potocytosis
Cellular uptake of small molecules through caveolae
Reduction
Chemical reaction in which electrons are gained.
Oxidation
Chemical reaction in which electrons are lost.
Metaphase
Chromosomes are condensed and aligned along the equatorial plate for nuclear and cellular division.
Prophase
Chromosomes are condensed and visible.
Diploid
Chromosomes occur in pairs in somatic cells
Multifactorial trait
Variation in traits caused by genetic and environmental or lifestyle factors
Hypokalemia
Decreased potassium from potassium shifting from the extracellualr fluid to the intracellular fluid in respiratory or metabolic alkalosis or after administration of insulin, reduced intake, increased loss of potassium from laxatives abuse, diarrhea, vomiting and diuretics
Hyponatremia
Decreased sodium from diuretics, vomiting, diarrhea, gastrointestinal suctioning, burns, inadequate dietary intake, excess of total body water, IV 5% dextrose, renal failure, severe congestive heart failure or cirrhosis
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
Degeneration of *UMNs* and *LMNs* in the cerebral cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord characterized by progressive muscle weakness leading to respiratory failure and death (*2 to 5 years *from symptom onset). Person has normal intellectual and sensory function until death
Neuropathy
Degeneration of the nervous system
Myelopathy
Degeneration of the spinal cord
Spondylolysis
Degenerative process of the vertebral column and associated soft tissue
Fluid volume deficit
Dehydration- intake is not enough for body's needs C.M. Poor skin turgor, dry mucous membranes, sunken eyes, sunken fontanelles, decreased urine output, fatigue
Lipid peroxidation
Destruction of unsaturated fatty acids
Capillary telangiectasis
Dilated capillaries with interspersed brain tissue deep in the brain
Cryogens or antipyretics
Diminish and control the febrile response by a negative feedback loop, arginine vasopressin, alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone, corticotropin-releasing factor
Chemotaxis
Directional movement and attraction of microorganisms or phagocytes to substances released in the environment or tissues.
Cor pulmonale
Disease of the heart characterized by hypertrophy and dilatation of the right ventricle and secondary to disease of the lungs or their blood vessels
Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome
Disorder of breathing during sleep related to upper airway obstruction
Dyssomnias
Disorders of getting to sleep or staying asleep or of excessive sleepiness
Gangrenous Necrosis
Dry- dark shriveled skin Wet- internal organs- can lead to death Gas- from clostridium- antitoxins and hyperbaric therapy
substantia nigra
Dysfunction of the ______ ______ is associated with Parkinson disease
Dysplasia
E. Cells change in size, shape, organization P. AKA atypical hyperplasia, a disorderly proliferation Physiologic: N/A Pathologic: squamous dysplasia of cervix from HPV
Atrophy
E. Cells decrease in size P. Still functional Physiologic: thymus gland in early childhood Pathological: disuse (muscle atrophy)
metabolic alkalosis
E. GI loss, diuretic use C.M. slow, shallow respirations, irritability, twitching, s/s of hypokalemia pH >7.4 HCO3 >26
Hyperplasia
E. Increase in cell number P. Increased cellular division Physiologic: liver regeneration Pathologic: endometrial- usually r/t hormones
Hypertrophy
E. Increase in cell size P. Increased workload Physiologic: weightlifting Pathologic: cardiomegaly from HTN
Rhabdomyolysis
E. cell hypoxia caused by severe muscle trauma, hyperthermia, crush injuries, or severe dehydration P. hypoxia leads to cell death, cellular contents are released in bloodstream. C.M. CK is 5x upper normal limit, muscle pain, weakness, dark, reddish-brown urine, hypercalcemia, renal failure
respiratory acidosis
E. cns depression, airway abnormalities C.M. restless, confused, seizures, tachycardia pH <7.4 PaCO2 >44
Gout
E. disturbances in serum urate levels. uncommon for < 30 years old. P. uric acid is deposited in the tissues of kidney, heart, earlobes, and joints. C.M. inflammation, painful joints. result of diuretic use or diet high in cream sauces, red wine, or red meat
Hypoxia injury
E. inadequate oxygenation of tissues P. decrease in mitochondrial function, decreased production of ATP increases anaerobic metabolism. eventual cell death. C.M. hypoxia, cyanosis, cognitive impairment, lethargy
metabolic acidosis
E. increased acid production, loss of bicarb, diminished renal excretion of hydrogen C.M hyperventilation (compensatory), h/a, n/v/d, dehydration, hypotension pH <7.4 HCO3 <22
Ethanol
E. mood altering drug, long term effects on liver and nutritional status P. metabolized by liver, generates free radicals C.M. CNS depression, nutrient deficiencies-Mag, Vit B6, thiamine, PO4, inflammation and fatty infiltration of liver, hepatomegaly, leads to liver failure irreversible
Free radical and ROS
E. normal byproduct of ATP production, will overwhelm the mitochondria- exhaust intracellular antioxidants P. lipid peroxidation, damage proteins, fragment DNA C.M. development in Alzheimer's, heart disease, Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Metaplasia
E. one cell type replaced with another P. reprogramming of stem cells, reversible Physiologic: N/A Pathologic: stratified squamous cells in bronchial lining r/t cigarette smoke
respiratory alkalosis
E. usually anxiety, PE, chf, salicylate OD, illegal drugs C.M. light-headed, confused, tetany pH >7.4 PaCO2 <38
DNA polymerase
Enzyme that replicates DNA using one DNA strand as the template
RNA polymerase
Enzyme that transcribes DNA into RNA
Discordance
Expression of the disease in one family member but not a second
Concordance
Expression of the disease in two related family members
Transmembrane protein
Extends across the bilayer and is exposed to an aqueous environment on both sides of it.
Cilia
Hair like projections that propel mucus, pus, and dust particles out of the body: lining of the respiratory passages.
Nondisjunction
Failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis or mitosis
Endogenous pyrogens
Fever-producing substance produced by phagocytic cells as they destroy microorganisms within the host, prostaglandin E, Interleukin 1 and 6, tumor necrosis factor, interferon-gamma; act on preoptic nucleus of hypothalamus
Elastin
Fibrous mucoprotein, similar to collagen capable of stretching and recoiling
Squamous epithelium
Flat, thin cells involved in absorption, exchange of materials, filtration and secretion
Golgi complex
Flattened, smooth vesicles stacked near the nucleus of a cell that process and package secretory proteins into vesicles and enzymes into lysosomes and modify proteins targeted to become part of cellular membranes.
Fluid volume excess
Fluid intake exceeds body's needs C.M. Edema, rales, HTN, weight gain, bounding pulses, intake> output, JVD, restlessness or anxiety
Interstitial fluid
Fluid present in the extracellular spaces of a tissue.
Dizygotic
Fraternal twins who developed from two fertilized ova
Carcinoembryonic Antigen
GI, pancreas, lung, breast tumors
Thyroid-stimulating hormone-releasing hormone
Hypothalamus responds to low body temperature by releasing
Homozygous
Identical alleles of a given gene
Monozygotic
Identical twins who developed from a single fertilized ovum
7x
In 2009, national council on radiation reported Americans were exposed to more than ___ as much IR from medical procedures compared to the 1980s
Melanoma metastasis
In transit lymphatics, lung, liver, brain, GI tract
Intravascular fluid compartment
In venous system- 20%
Insomnia
Inability to fall or stay asleep
Ischemia
Inadequate blood supply in the circulation and can cause a decrease in blood flow to local vessels that may result in hypoxia and subsequent cell injury or death.
Relative risk
Incidence rate of a disease among individuals exposed to a risk factor divided by the incidence rate of a disease among individuals not exposed to a risk factor
Respiratory alkalosis
Increase in pH caused by alveolar hyperventilation and decresaed plasma carbon dioxide (hypocapnia).
Metabolic alkalosis
Increase in pH caused by an increase in bicarbonate ions secondary to an increase in metabolic acid loss from prolonged vomiting, gastrointestinal suctioning, excessive bicarbonate intake, hyperladosteronism (with hypokalemia) and diuretics
Hyperplasia
Increase in the number of cells as a consequence of an increase in cell division.
Hypertrophy
Increase in the size of cells and the affected organ
Hypervolemia
Increased blood volume capable of causing hypertension and edema
Hypercalcemia
Increased calcium from hyperparathyroidism, bone metastases with calcium resorption from breast, prostate, cervical cancer or hematologic malignancy, sarcoidosis, and excess vitamin D
Hyperchloremia
Increased chlorine from hypernatremia or a bicarbonate deficit (metabolic acidosis)
Hypermagnesemia
Increased magnesium from intake of magnesium containing antacids
Hyperphosphatemia
Increased phosphate from long-term use of phosphate containing enemas or laxatives, hypoparathyroidism,
Hypertonic hyponatremia
Increased plasma lipids, proteins, or glucose displace water balance and thus decrease sodium concentration.
Hyperkalemia
Increased potassium from increased intake, shift from cells to extracellualr fluid or decreased renal excretion
Preoptic area
Inhibitory modulation (GABA) of multiple arousal systems that promotes sleep in the hypothalamus
Diffuse brain injury (diffuse axonal injury)
Injury to neuronal axons in many areas of the brain caused by stretching and shearing forces received during brain injury.
Frameshift mutation
Insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides that changes the amino acid sequence of a protein
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate
Intracellular molecule that acts as a second messenger and mediates the effects of extracellular substances on cell activity.
Fasciculation(s)
Involuntary muscular *twitching*
insulin effect on K+
K+ enters cell with glucose transport. Monitor Type II DM for hypokalemia
Atony
Lack of normal muscle tone or tension; flaccidity.
Anoxia
Lack of oxygen caused by sudden vascular obstruction.
Cytoplasm
Liquid material of a cell enclosed within the plasma membrane.
Alpha Fetoprotein Origin
Liver and germ cell tumors
Head and neck ca metastasis
Liver, bones, lymphatics
Colorectal ca metastasis
Liver, lungs
Testicular ca metastasis
Liver, lungs, brain
Breast ca metastasis
Liver, lungs, brain, bones
Mechanisms of ca metastasis
Local invasion, followed by invasion of surrounding tissues. Cells then may invade blood and lymphatic vessels. They must survive in circulation, then enter and survive in a new location. Then the cells can multiply and form a new tumor.
Intraocular fluids
Located or occurring within the eye
Deletions
Loss of a sequence of DNA from a chromosome
Anorexia
Loss of appetite especially when prolonged
Sarcoma metastasis
Lungs
Nuclear envelope
Made of two membranes transports materials in and out of the nucleus
Collagen
Main protein component of connective tissue produced by mainly by fibroblasts.
Consanguinity
Mating of two related individuals that dramatically increases the recurrence risk of recessive disorders
Gametes
Mature reproductive cells (sperm and egg) that unite to form a new organism
Integral protein
Membrane protein that facilitates the attachment of a cell to the extracellular matrix and signal transduction from the extracellular matrix to the cell
Centrioles
Microtubules involved in the formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division.
Aldosterone
Mineralocorticoid that is synthesized and secreted by the adrenal cortex and acts to regulate sodium and potassium balance by altering reabsorption in the kidney.
Cytokines
Molecule produced by the immune system that mediates interactions between cells to kill bacteria during the inflammatory response.
Active transport
Movement of a substance across a membrane by a carrier protein that requires expenditure of energy
Filtration
Movement of water and solutes through a membrane because of a greate force applied to one side of the membrane
Lung ca metastasis
Multiple organs including brain
moderate hyponatremia
Na 120-125 C.M. agitation, disorientation, headache
mild hyponatremia
Na 125-135 C.M. anorexia, apathy, restless, nausea, lethargy, muscle cramps
severe hyponatremia
Na <120 C.M. seizures, coma, areflexia, incontinence, death
Oncosis
Na and H2O enter cell and cause swelling. Organ increases in weight, becomes distended and pale. Associated with high fever, hypocalcemia, certain infections
Stenosis
Narrowing or stricture of a passage or vessel
Action potential
Nerve or muscle cell receives a stimulus that exceeds the theshold potential.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Neuron clusters in the hypothalamus that receive photic input from the retina via the optic nerve and regulate the body's circadian rhythms
Telophase
New nuclear membrane is formed around the chromosomes, spindle fibers disappear, and the chromosomes begin to uncoil
Disjunction
Normal separation of chromosomes during cell division
Peripheral protein
Not embedded in the lipid bilayer (plasma membrane)
Mitosis
Nuclear division- two identical nuclei are produced after chromosomal replication.
Interphase
Nucleus is not undergoing division
Incidence rate
Number of new cases of a disease reported during a specific period (typically 1 year) divided by the number of individuals in the population
Hypopnea
Number of partial airway closure episodes per night (episodes/hour)
Apnea Hypopnea Index
Number of total airway closure episodes per night (episodes/hour)
Chromatids
One of two identical chromosomal strands that splits longitudinally before cell division
Haploid
Only one member of each chromosome pair occurs in gamete cells
Phenotype
Outward appearance of an individual
Allele
Paired genes on autosomal chromosomes
Osmosis
Passive- the movement of water from an area of low concentration of solute to one of higher concentration
Penetrance
Percentage of individuals with a specific genotype who also express the expected phenotype
Ovarian ca metastasis
Peritoneal surfaces, diaphragm, omentum, liver
Carrier
Person who has a diseased gene but is phenotypically normal
Absolute refractory period
Plasma membrane cannot respond to an additional stimulus.
Endocytosis
Plasma membrane invaginates forming vesicles
Intravascular fluid
Plasma present in the blood.
Pontine reticular formation
Plays a critcal role in the generation of REM sleep located in the pons and brainstem
Cholesterol
Polar lipid molecule that is part of plasma membrane (lipid bilayer)
Locus
Position in which a gene occupies on a chromosome
Locus
Position of a gene on a chromosome
Founder cells
Precursor cells that adhere to like cells and undergo mitosis to form tissues.
Venous angioma(s)
Primitive embryologic veins in a radial pattern feeding a central vein
Epinephrine
Released by the adrenal medulla in response to thyroxine (T4), causes vasoconstriction (improves thermal insulation), stimulates glycolysis, and increases metabolic rates, thus increasing heat production
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Released by the pituatary gland in response to TSH-RH
Thyroxine
Released by the thyroid gland in response to TSH
Abrasion
Removal of superficial layers of skin
Excretion
Removal of waste products resulting from the metabolic breakdown of nutrients.
what determines the degree to which the lungs inflate/deflate
Respiratory pressures inflating the lungs compliance of the lungs airway resistance
Reperfusion injury
Restoration of oxygen and subsequent damage from superoxide and hydrogen peroxide in transplantation and myocardial, hepatic, intestinal, cerebral and renal ischemia
Metaplasia
Reversible replacement of one mature cell by another (sometimes less differentiated)
Chromosome
Rod or threadlike organelle of a cell that carries the DNA and genes
Lysosomes
Saclike structures containing hydrolases cleave bonds in proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates.
Heat exhaustion
Salt and water loss produce hemoconcentration and hypovolemia (hypovolemia, weakness, nausea)
Antidiuretic hormone
Secreted by pituitary gland in response to water deficit, Na excess, or hypotension. Causes kidneys to reabsorb water, increasing plasma volume
Introns
Sequences of RNA (non-coding regions) that are removed by nuclear enzymes in eukaryoyes
Extrons
Sequences of RNA that are translated into proteins
Tight junctions
Serve as a barrier to diffusion, prevent the movement of substances through transport proteins and prevent the leakage of small molecules between the plasma membrane of adjacent cells.
Tetany
Severe, intermittent tonic contractions and muscular pain, due to abnormal calcium metabolism
Reticular connective tissue
Short branching fibers that form an inelastic network
Chromosome
Single piece of coiled DNA and protein containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences.
Cavernous angioma(s)
Sinusoidal collections of blood vessels without interspersed brain tissue
Mitochondria
Site of oxidative phosphorylation that generates ATP
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Site of phospholipid synthesis, breakdown of toxins and carcinogens in the liver, the conversion of cholesterol into steroids in the gonads and adrenal glands, and the release of calcium ions in the muscles, causing muscle contraction.
Fragile X syndrome
Site on the long arm of the X chromosome that develops distinctive breaks or gaps resulting in mental retardation
microRNAs
Small single-strand RNA molecules that bind to mRNA molecules to block certain parts' expression
Microvilli
Small, fingerlike projections of the surface of an epithelial cell involved in aborption of water and nutrients.
Microtubules
Small, hollow, cylindrical, unbranched protein structures
Resting membrane potential
The difference in electrical charge across the membrane of an unstimulated cell that is accomplished by the unequal distribution of charged ions.
Isotonic
Solutions with equal osmotic pressures
Centromere
Spindle fiber attachment site where the two chromatids are held together
Metastasis
Spread of cancer to other parts of the body
Spondylolisthesis
Stress factor allowing the vertebra to slide forward I relation to the vertebra below
Baroreceptors
Stretch-sensitive mechanoreceptors located in the heart, aortic arch, and carotid sinuses that respond to changes in blood pressure and volume.
Embolic stroke
Stroke caused by blockage of cerebral vessels.
Lacunar stroke
Strokes caused by the *occlusion* (microinfarct) of a *small branch* of a larger blood vessel associated with *smoking, diabetes and hypertension*
Relative refractory period
Stronger than normal stimuli can produce an additional action potential while the cell is repolarizing
Hypothermia
Subnormal temperature of the body; temperature less than 35C an 95F
Silent mutation
Substitution of one nucleotide for another that does not result in a change in an amino acid
Missense mutation
Substitution of one nucleotide for another that results in a change of a single amino acid
Nonsense mutation
Substitution of one nucleotide for another that results in the addition or deletion of a stop codon
Interstitial fluid compartment
Surrounds the cells and bathes them in nutrients- 20%
TNM staging system
T= tumor size >/= correlates with metastatic ability N= whether lymph nodes are involved M= extra nodal involvement (liver, lungs)
hormone secrete prolactin
TRH
lab value for decomp HF
TSH
Laceration
Tear or rip resulting when the tensile strength of the skin or tissue is exceeded. Edges are jagged and irregular.
broca speech area
The ___ ___ ___ is responsible for the MOTOR aspects of speech, causing inability to form words (expressive aphasia or dysphasia) when damaged
wernicke area
The ____ ____ is responsible for reception and interpretation of speech. Damage results in receptive aphasia or dysphagia.
Effective arterial blood volume
The amount of blood within the arterial space- ECF changes will cause changes in the EABV in the same direction
Phospholipids
The basic component of the plasma membrane.
Diabetic ketoacidosis
The buildup of byproducts of fat metabolism that occurs when glucose is not available as a fuel source for the body because of insulin deficiency.
Repolarization
The closing of sodium channels and the opening of potassium channels (efflux of potassium).
Cytokinesis
The cytoplasm of a parent cell is divided into two identical cells after mitosis.
Anion gap
The difference between unmeasured plasma cations and anions that is used to distinguish different causes of metabolic acidosis.
Osmolality
The measure of solute concentration in a fluid. 280-295 mOsm
Threshold potential
The membrane potential that must be reached in order for an action potential to be generated and the impulse to be propagated to another cell.
Simple diffusion
The movement of a solute moecule form an area of greater solute concentration to an area of lesser solute concentration. Does not require energy.
Phenotype
The observable, detectable, or outward appearance of the genetics of an organism
Depolarization
The opening of sodium channels (sodium influx)
Hypercapnia
The presence of an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood
Hydroxyapatite
The principal storage form of calcium and phosphorus in bone that provides compressional strength
Recurrence risk
The probability that parents of a child with a genetic disease will have yet another child with the same disease
Secretion
The process involved in producing and releasing a substance from the cell
Meiosis
The process of gamete formation with two cell divisions resulting in a haploid number of chromosomes
Somnolence
The quality or state of being drowsy
Hematocrit
The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to a given volume of blood (percentage)
Anaphase
Third phase of mitosis during which centromeres are separated and sister chromatids are moved to opposite poles.
Down syndrome
Three copies (trisomy) of chromosome 21
Polygenic
Variation in traits caused by the effects of multiple genes
Telomere
The segment of DNA that occurs at the ends of chromosomes
Ring chromosome
The telomere of each chromosome arm is deleted and the broken arms are joined
vital capacity
The total volume of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation.
Conduction
The transfer of heat through matter by communication of kinetic energy from particle to particle with no net displacement of the particles
Convection
The transfer of heat thru gases or liquids (wind and fans)
8 12 5 5 1
There are __ cervical, __thoracic, __lumbar, __ sacral and __ coccygeal levels of the spinal cord.
Lyme disease
Tick-borne *spirochete* bacterial (*Borrelia burgdorferi*) infection that is characterized by a rash in the area of the bite, headache, neck stiffness, chills, fever, myalgia, arthralgia, malaise, fatigue, and possible development of arthritis in large joints.
Recessive
Trait not seen in phenotype
Dominant
Trait seen in phenotype
Quantitative traits
Traits that are measured on a continuous numeric scale
Pinocytosis
Transport of fluid into a cell by means of local infoldings by the cell membrane so that a tiny vesicle
Chromosome mosaics
Trisomy in only some cells of an organism
TNM
Tumor (size & extent of tumor) Nodes (lymph node involvement) Metastases (extent of distant metastases)
Extramedullary tumor(s)
Tumor originating from tissues outside the spinal cord including the meninges, epidura tissue or vertebral structures
Intramedullary tumors
Tumor originating within neural tissue
TNM staging
Tumor size, lymph Node involvement, extent of Metastases
Gap junctions
Tunnel or connexon that joins two adjacent cells and allows for the passage of molecules and electrical signals between the cells.
Autosomes
Twenty-two chromosome pairs that are homologous in males and females
Inversions
Two breaks on a chromosome with a reversal in order during reattachment
Heterozygous
Two different alleles of a given gene
Homozygous
Two dominant or recessive alleles
Polymorphism
Two or more alleles of a gene that occur with appreciable frequency in a population
Polymorphic
Two or more alleles which occur with an appreciable frequency in a population
Stratified epithelium
Two or more layers that are involved in protection
Osmosis
Water passes through a semipermeable membrane into a solution where the solvent concentration is higher
calcium and albumin
When blood levels of albumin are low, serum calcium levels will also be low as there is less protein available for binding
Heterozygous
When both a dominant and a recessive allele are present
HPV -6, -11, -16, -18,
Which HPV viruses have existing vaccines?
point mutation of ras
changes ras from proto-oncogene to oncogene *pancreatic & colorectal cancer*
Intracellular fluid compartment
Within the cells- 40% uk
1/3
___ of all cancers have an activating mutation of RAS
larger
_________axons transmit impulses at a faster rate
endoneurium
a delicate connective tissue around each axon in the PNS
Schwann cell
a glial cell that wraps around and covers axons in the PNS. Forms and maintains the myelin sheath
reticular formation
a large network of connective tissue nuclei within the brainstem that regulate vital reflexes. Essential for maintaining wakefulness
thalamus
a major integrating center for afferent impulses to the cerebral cortex; serves as a relay center for sensory aspects of motor information from the basal ganglia and cerebellum to appropriate cortical motor areas
red nucleus
a major motor output center influenced by the cerebellum
corpus callosum
a massive white matter pathway that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and is essential in coordination of activities between hemispheres
vermis
a midline structure connecting the anterior and posterior lobes of the two cerebellar hemispheres
cauda equina
a nerve bundle consisting of spinal nerves after the end of the spinal cord
astrocyte
a neuroglial cell that fills spaces between neurons and surrounds blood vessels in the CNS
oligodendrocyte
a neuroglial cell that functions to deposit myelin within the CNS; the CNS counterpart of the Schwann cells
plasticity
a principle of the CNS meaning that it is capable of change. the ability of the CNS to do this decreases with age
internal capsule
a thick white-matter region in which afferent and efferent pathways to and from the cerebral cortex pass through the center of the cerebral hemispheres
t(9;22)
a.k.a Philadelphia chromosome results in BCR-ABL protein *chronic myeloid leukemia*
divergence
ability of branching axons to influence many different neurons
tumor
abnormal growth results from uncontrolled proliferation
macrovascular disease in DM
accelerated atherosclerosis
dystrophic calcification
accumulation of Ca in dead or dying tissues calcium salt clump and harden- interfere with cellular structure and function r/t pulmonary TB, atherosclerosis, injured heart valves, chronic pancreatitis
metastatic calcification
accumulation of Ca in normal tissue result of hypercalcemia r/t hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, toxic levels of Vit D. Can also r/t hyperphosphatemia in renal failure
calcium and ionized calcium
acidosis increases ionized Ca+ alkalosis decreases ionized Ca+ and may cause symptoms of hypocalcemia
highly proliferative cells
acute IR especially damages organ systems with ____ _______ ____, such as the hematopoietic system, the skin, & GI system
methylation
addition of a methyl group, a biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression
acetylation
addition of acetyl group, of DNA and histones causes nucleosomes to loosen and spread apart
hypervolemic hypernatremia
administration of hypertonic saline C.M. volume overload, edema, chf, htn, pulmonary edema
Parasymp. stimulation on the lungs
airway constriction blood vessel dilation and increased secretions
symp. stimulation on the lungs
airway dilation blood vessel constriction decrease secretions
Adrenergic agents effect on K+
albuterol, beta blockers, and alpha adrenergic antagonists cause K+ movement into the cell. Alpha adrenergic receptors shift K+ out of the cell
hormone of Na regulation
aldosterone
point mutation
alteration of one or a few nucleotide base pairs
functional residual capacity
amount of air that remains in the lungs following normal expiration rv + erv
B cell hormone decrease in Type I & Type II DM
amylin
myelin
an insulating substance made of a segmented layer of lipid material
plasticity
an organisms development is contingent on its environment
50mSv
annual allowable occupation exposure of radiation in the US
hypersecretion of GH caused by
anterior pituitary adenoma
Cushing syndrome
any condition involving chronic exposure to excessive cortisol
premotor
area involved in programming of motor movements
prefrontal
area responsible for goal-oriented behavior, short-term memory, and elaboration of though and inhibition of emotion
anemia
associated w/ ca usually occurs because of malnutrition, resultant iron deficiency, chemotherapy, radiation & malignancies in blood forming organs
pain
associated w/ late stage ca caused by pressure, obstruction, invasion of structure sensitive to pain, stretching, tissue destruction & inflammation
lipoma
benign tumor of fat cells
rhabdomyoma
benign tumor of skeletal muscle
leimyoma
benign tumor of smooth muscle
oncogene activation
biologic response of radiation-induced cancer
antimetabolite chemo
blocks normal growth pathways in cells
convergence
branches of numerous neurons converging on and influencing one or a few nuerons
Fat Necrosis
breast, pancreas, abdominal structures- creates soaps
fascicles
bundles of axons in large nerves
autocrine stimulation
ca cell that secretes growth factor that stimulate its own growth engages in _________ _________
leukemia
ca of blood forming cells
stage 1
cancer confined to organ of origin
stage 4
cancer has spread to distant sites; bone, liver, lungs, brain
stage 3
cancer has spread to regional structures; lymph nodes
stage 2
cancer is locally invasive
somatic, germline
cancer predisposing genetic events that occur in _______ cells are not inherited but those that occur in ________ cell are inherited
cancer stem cell model
cancer stem cells in tumor survive cytotoxic chemo, tumor is likely to regrow
warburg effect
cancers consume large quantities of glucose via aerobic glycolysis to make cellular building blocks
cerebral aqueduct
carries CSF. obstruction of this causes hydrocephalus
spinothalamic tract
carries nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the thalamus in the diencephalon
hpv-18
cause of 80% of all anal CA
secondary insomnia
caused by drug or alcohol abuse, chronic pain disorders, chronic depression, obesity, aging
Kaposi sarcoma
caused by infection w/ HHV 8 or member of Herpesviridea family
primary endocrine disorder
caused by problem in gland that secretes hormone whose action is directed toward other tissues rather than another gland
secondary endocrine disorder
caused by problem with gland that secretes hormone whose target tissues are another gland that it stimulates or suppresses
UV radiation
causes basal-cell carcinoma, squamous cell & melanoma
t (8;14)
causes burkitt lymphoma alters control of myc protein->excessive proliferation of B lymphocytes
gray matter
cell bodies and dendrites of neurons. Organized into columns perpendicular to the surface that receive, integrate, store, and transmit info
stem cell & cancer cells
cells that are able to divide indefinitely because they make enzyme telomerase
Exercise effect on K+
cellular ATP is diminished, opening K+ channels and allowing K+ to leave cell
pleura
double layered serous membrane that lines the thoracic cavity
thyrotoxic crisis
effects of dangerously high levels of thyroid hormone w/ high fever, extreme tachycardia & potential death from HF or cardiac dysrythmias
hyperthermia
elevation of temperature without an increase in the hypothalamic set point
proto-oncogenes
encode growth factors (PDGF0 growth factor receptors (HER2) signal transducers (RAS) nuclear growth-promoting proteins (MYC)
tumor suppressor gene
encodes proteins that inhibit proliferation & prevent or repair mutations
adipokine leptin
enhances the production of inflammatory factors & TNF-a
glutathion-S transferases
enzyme housekeepers involved in metabolism of environmental carcinogens & ROS -those who lack this enzyme may be at higher risk for CA
phase I activation enzymes
enzymes that activate xenobiotics represented by the CYP 450 family
dipsogenic DI
excessive H2O intake that decreases osmolality by overwhelming ADH mechanisms
hypersomnia
excessive daytime sleepiness
Kidneys effect on K+
excretion and absorption of K+ is regulated by tubule system
forced expiratory volume
expiratory volume in a given period fev1
dendrites
extensions that carry nerve impulses toward the cell body
basal ganglia system
extrapyramidal system - eferrent pathways outside the pyramids of the medulla oblongata
survival of malignant tumors is
facilitated by tumor-associated macrophages that secrete cytokines & other factors that assist ca cell survival & proliferation
pituitary disease
failure of hypothalamus to secrete its usual hormones
clinical manifestations of ca
fatigue pain cachexia anemia leukopenia thrombocytopenia infection
38.5-41C 100-105.8
fever temperature range
Autosomal chromosomes
first 22 of 23 chromosomes
N2 (TNM staging)
fixed nodes involved
induction chemo
for shrinkage or disappearance of tumors
neuroglial cells
found in the CNS and PNS and can provide structural support and nutrition for neurons, remove debris, increase speed of nerve impulses, and play a role in memory
dx SIADH, best treatment
free H2O restriction
hypovolemic hypernatremia
from GI losses or diuretics C.M. Volume depletion, orthostatic hypotension, tachycardia, lack of organ perfusion
-blastoma
from blasts or immature cells- neuroblastoma
Sarco-
from connective tissue- chondrosarcoma
Carcino-
from epithelial tissue- renal cell carcinoma
forced vital capacity
full inspiration followed by forceful max expiration
hypothalamus
function includes maintenance of constant internal environment and implementation of behavioral patterns. Exerts its influence through the endocrine system and neural pathways
Pulmonary circulation
gas exchange for lungs
TP53
gene where resistance to apoptosis occurs
transgenerational effect
genetic effects arise in distant progeny
Beta Human Chorionic gonadotropin origin
germ cell tumors
adjuvant chemo
given after surgical excision to eliminate micrometastasis after surgery
neo-adjuvant chemo
given before localized (surgical or radiation) treatment of cancer. may shrink tumor to make localized treatment easier or more effective
uncontrolled release of ROS
important contributor to skin carcinogenesis
immune system
important in protecting against ca caused by specific viral infection
prolactin secreting tumors
in anterior pituitary called prolactinomas in woman and normally cause galactorrhea
sulci
grooves between adjacent gyri
ganglia
groups of cells bodies in the PNS
thyrotoxicosis
having too much thyroid hormone as seen w/ hyperthyroidism
pleomorphic
having variable size & shape
stimulates the adrenal cortex increase in skeletal muscle tone initiates the shivering response produces vasoconstriction
heat conservation (sympathetic nervous system)
TSH-RH pathway is shut down sympathetic pathway is decreased produces vasodilation decreased muscle tone increased sweat production increased pulmonary ventilation
heat loss
adipokines
hormones secreted by adipose tissue that play an important role in energy balance and metabolism
10-20 years
how long does it take for HPV infection to cause CA?
acid base balance effect on K+
hydrogen enters cell, allowing potassium to escape during acidosis, visa versa for alkalosis
Osmolality effect on K+
hyperosmolality causes water to shift out of cell via osmosis. K+ will also shift out, causing hyperkalemia.
awake promoting neurotransmitters
hypocretin, acetylcholine, somatostatin, glutamate, cortisol
pituitary gland located in body
hypothalamus
myxedema
hypothyroidism can develop nonpitting boggy edema.
occipital
lobe containing the primary visual cortex
nodes of Ranvier
interruptions in the neurilemma and myelin sheath
Cell lysis effect on K+
intracellular K+ is released into bloodstream
Fatty Infiltration
intracellular accumulation of lipids in the liver liver fails to metabolize lipids. usually from ETOH or high fat diet. can lead to cirrhosis
calcium and phosphorus relationship
inverse relationship- if one increases= other one decreases, rehulated by PTH, Vit D, calcitonin
inferior colliculi
involved with voluntary and involuntary auditory motor movements, such as turning the head to improve hearing
superior colliculi
involved with voluntary and involuntary visual motor movements, such as ability of eyes to track moving objects
development of ca
involves both inactivation of tumor suppressor genes usually by loss of heterzygosity or by silencing & activation of oncogenes
Coagulative Necrosis
kidneys, heart, adrenals- secondary to hypoxia
deficiency of TSH cause
lack of thyroid hormone
thalamus
largest component of the diencephalon
5-10 years
latent period of radiation induced CA
white matter
lies beneath the cerebral cortex and is composed of myelinated nerve fibers which send messages to neurons
Caseous Necrosis
lung disease- usually TB- tissue looks like clumped cheese
isotonic hyponatremia
mOsm 280-295- not true hypovolemia- from elevated triglycerides or serum proteins
hypotonic hyponatremia
mOsm <280 and urine Na >100- fluid excess r/t intake or renal impairment
hypertonic hyponatremia
mOsm >295- from solutes other than Na- osmotic pressure leads to fluid shift from intracellular to extracellular
microtubules
made of protein and believed to be involved in transport of cellular products
basis pedunculi
made up of efferent fibers of the corticospinal, corticobulbar, and corticopontocerebellar tracts
brainstem
made up of the midbrain, medulla oblongata, and the pons
magnesium and potassium
mag inhibits the potassium channels, keeping balance. when mag is low, more K+ exits the call, and is excreted via the kidneys.
ozone
main ingredient in smog air pollution
Role of the respiratory system
make oxygen available for tissues for metabolism and remove byproducts- co2. barrier immunity synthesis and metabolism of various substances
osteogenic sarcoma
malignant bone tumor
sacroma
malignant tumor arising from connective tissue
carcinoma
malignant tumor arising from epithelial tissue
liposarcoma
malignant tumor of fat cells
adenocarcinoma
malignant tumor of glandular epithelium
melanoma
malignant tumor of pigmented cells in the skin
rhabdomyosarcoma
malignant tumor of skeletal muscle
liver
malignant tumors in intestines commonly mets to ____
inspiratory reserve volume
max amount of air that can be inhaled from a point of normal inspiration
expiratory reserve volume
max volume of air that can be exhaled from point of normal expiration
infection
may cause by leukopenia, immunosuppressed or debility associated w/ advanced disease
BCR-ABL protein
misregulated protein tyrosine kinase that promotes growth of myeloid cells
N1 (TNM staging)
mobile nodes involved
primary insomnia
more common in women; may last only a few days due to acute stress, traveling or disrupted sleep schedule
fatigue
most frequently reported symptom of ca
cigarette smoking
most important cause of CA
neuroglia
most numerous type of CNS cell
voluntary regulation of breathing is controlled by
motor and premotor cortex.
structural component of conducting airways
mucous layer smooth muscle layer supporting connective tissue layer
Liquefactive Necrosis
nerve cells- brain- accumulation of pus
ependymal
neuroglial cell that lines the CSF-filled cavities in the CNS
unipolar
neurons have one process that branches shortly after leaving the cell body.
multipolar
neurons that are the most common and have multiple dendrites and a single axon; example: most motor neurons
sensory
neurons that carry im,pulses from peripheral sensory receptors to the CNS
pseudounipolar
neurons that have one process that has its dendritic portion extending away from the CNS and its axon portion projecting into the CNS -typical of sensory neurons in cranial and spinal nerves
bipolar
neurons that have two distinct processes arising from the cell body; example: neuron connecting rod and cone cells of the retina
postsynaptic
neurons that relay impulses away from the synapse
presynaptic
neurons that relay impulses toward the synapse
motor
neurons that transmit impulses away from the CNS to an effector organ
neoplasm
new growth
N0 (TNM staging)
no axillary nodes involved
M0 (TNM staging)
no metastases
T0 (TNM staging)
no tumor
bystander effect
non-irradiated tissue shows genetic effects in nearby cells
OXPHOS, glycolysis
normal cells metabolize by ______ & ca cells metabolize it by _________
proto-oncogene
normal gene that codes for proteins that stimulate cell proliferation appropriately
36.2-37.7C 97.2-99.9F
normal temperature range
gyri
numerous convolutions on the surface of the cerebrum
febrile seizures
occur at temperatures greater than 39C or 102.2; predominant in boys under 5; brief and self-limiting; prolonged episodes are assocaited with the development of temporal lobe epilepsy in children
decreased
older adults have a _____ fever response to infections
erbB2
oncogene amplified in 20% of breast cancer
N-myc
oncogene amplified in 25% of childhood Neuroblastoma cases
Cancers linked to alcohol
oral cavity, larynx, pharynx, hypopharynx, esophagus, & liver
afferent
pathways that carry sensory impulses toward the CNS
central hypoventilation syndrome
patients are asleep, cannot breathe can be congenital or due to head truma or tumor in medulla, pons sleep apnea is mild form of this
contralateral control
phenomenon meaning that cerebral impulses control function on the opposite side of the body
prolactinoma
pituitary tumors that secrete prolactin
pacemaker action of respiration
pneumotaxic center in upper pons. expiratory center and inhibits inspiratory apneustic center in lower pons inspiratory center
myc protein
positive signal for cell proliferation
Sheehan's syndrome
postpartum pituitary infarction
dopamine
precursor of norepinephrine
chronic inflammation
predisposes to develop ca
Carcinoma in situ
preinvasive epithelial malignant tumors of glandular or squamous cells- cervix
hepatocellular carcinoma
primary liver ca
sunlight
principle source of UV radiation
differentiation
process by which cell develops specialized organization & function
CIS
refers to preinvasive epithelial tumors of glandular or squamous cell origin
synapse
region between adjacent neurons
microglia
remove debris through phagocytosis in the CNS
alveolar macrophages
removed inhaled particulate matter from alveoli
antioxidant, oxidant
repeated CT scanning can alter the balance between _______ and _____ systems & increase the number of ROS
breathing is controlled by
respiratory center- pons and medulla
caretaker genes
responsible for maintaining genomic integrity inherited mutations can disrupts caretaker genes & cause chromosome instability
leukopenia
result of chemo which is toxic to bone marrow or radiation
reticular activating system
reticular formation + cerebral cortex
5 years
secondary CA from IR treatment usually occurs within _ ____ for leukemia patients
protease & protease activators
secreted by metastatic cells to digest the extracellular matrix and basement membrane, enabling cells to move
pineal body
secretes melatonin. Located in the epithalamus
type 2 alveolar cells
secretory cells; produce pulmonary surfacing; reduces surface tension and prevents collapse of alveoli
longitudinal fissure
separates the two cerebral hemispheres
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
significantly lowered oxygen tension and increases in carbon dioxide retention during sleep
T3 (TNM staging)
skin and/or chest wall involved by invasion
urate accumulation
sodium urate crystals are deposited in tissues- group of disorders collectively called gout- acute arthritis, chronic gouty arthritis, tophus, nephritis
TP53
squamous cell carcinoma involves mutation of this gene
43C 109.4
temperature that causes death
41C 105.8F
temperature that produces convulsions in the adult
4-7 specific hits
the accumulation of ___ ________ ____ over time is required to cause full-blown cancer
Tidal volume
the amount of air moves in and out of the lungs with normal breathing
inspiratory capacity
the amount of air that can be inhaled from normal expiratory level to the max amount
spatial summation
the combined effects of impulses from a number of neurons on a single synapse at the same time
Ventilation
the conducting airways movement of air between atmosphere and lungs
conus medullaris
the cone shaped end of the spinal cord
axon hillock
the cone-shaped, organelle-free area where the axon leaves the cell body
facilitation
the effect of excitatory postsynaptic potentials on the plasma membrane potential
temporal summation
the effects of successive, rapid impulses received from a single neuron on the same synapse
medulla oblongata
the lowest portion of the brainstem
summation
the number and frequency of potentials the postsynaptic neuron receives
dendritic zone
the receptive portion of a neuron that receives a stimulus and continues further conduction
wallerian degeneration
the sequence of events that occur when an axon is severed
L1-L2
the spinal cord terminates at ____ - ____
law of partial pressure of gases
the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the different gases in the mixture.
Type 1 alveolar cells
thin squamous cells with a thin cytoplasm and nucleus
T3 & T4 stored as
throglobulin
Three processes involved in respiration
ventilation perfusion diffusion
HTLV-1 (human T-cell lymphotropic virus)
viruses associated with Adult T-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma
epstein-barr (EBV or HHV4)
viruses associated with Burkitt lymphoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma
HPV
viruses associated with Cervical & Anogenital cancers
Hep B & Hep C
viruses associated with Hepatocellular carcinoma
KSHV/HHV8 (herpes virus)
viruses associated with Kaposi sarcoma
dx SIADH monitor for
volume overload
residual volume
volume that remains in the lungs after max expiration
paraneoplastic syndrome
when a tumor marker has biologic activity and causes symptoms (pheochromocytoma)
head & neck
where does basal cell carcinoma typically occur?
HPV & hep B
which 2 vaccines are cancer preventive vaccines?
HPV -16, -18
which HPV types cause the majority of cancers?
HPV -16, -18, -31, -45
which HPV viruses are associated with the highest risk for cervical CA?
metastatic prostate CA
which cancer has a treatment vaccine available?
men who work outdoors
which patient population is most likely to develop squamous cell carcinoma?
