Microbiology Exam 3 Chapter Reviews

All prokaryotes reproduce ______________.

asexually

Foodborne botulism symptoms are:

weakness, dizziness, blurred vision, dry mouth, dilated pupils, which progresses to intestinal problems and paralysis

Mycoplasmas are frequently associated:

with pneumonia and urinary tract infections.

In a ______________, tissues are transplanted between individuals of different species.

xenograft

Common characteristics of Archaea:

- They lack true peptidoglycan in their cell walls. - Cytoplasmic membrane lipids have branched or ring-form hydrocarbons. - The initial amino acid in their polypeptide chains is methionine.

Phototrophic bacteria can be divided into the following five groups based on their pigments and their source of electrons for photosynthesis:

1. Blue-green bacteria 2. Green sulfur bacteria 3. Green nonsulfur bacteria 4. Purple sulfur bacteria 5. Purple nonsulfur bacteria

All of the green and purple bacteria differ from plants, algae, and cyanobacteria in two ways:

1. They use bacteriochlorophylls for photosynthesis instead of chlorophyll a. 2. They are anoxygenic; that is, they do not generate oxygen during photosynthesis.

In __% of patients with staphylococcal pneumonia, the fluid filling the alveoli is pus; this condition is called ______________.

10%; empyema

Bacteria are currently largely classified according to differences in their 16S rRNA sequences, resulting in a scheme that includes _______ phyla.

24

Thermophiles thrive at temperatures over _______.

45*C.

Victims of Inhalation anthrax develop a high fever and labored breathing and then go into shock. Even with aggressive treatment, inhalation anthrax is fatal in about ______ of cases.

50%

Hyperthermophiles require temperatures above _______

80*C

In 1945, __% of staphylococci were susceptible to penicillin, but only _% are susceptible today.

90%; 5%

Group A streptococci disease: *Pyoderma and Erysipelas*

A pyoderma is any confined, pus-producing lesion that usually occurs on the exposed skin of the face, arms, or legs, similar to impetigo. When infection also involves lymph nodes and triggers pain and inflammation, the condition is called erysipelas.

Group A streptococci disease: *Pharyngitis*

A sore throat caused by streptococci, commonly called "strep throat," is a type of pharyngitis, or in- flammation of the pharynx.

__________ is chemoautotrophic, thermophilic, and microaerophilic.

Aquifex

Living things are currently classified into three domains—_____________________—based largely on genetic relatedness.

Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya

__________ is a hypersensitivity disorder affecting the lungs and characterized by constriction of the smooth muscle of the bronchi and excessive production of a thick, sticky mucus.

Asthma

_______________________ are any of a group of diseases that can result when an individual begins to make autoantibodies or cytotoxic T cells against normal body components.

Autoimmune diseases

__________________________________ is a disease that results when an individual produces antibodies against his or her own red blood cells. It is a________________________________ in which complement is activated or RBCs are opsonized by antibodies.

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia; type II hypersensitivity disease

C. difficile produces two __________ and the enzyme ___________

toxins; hyaluronidase

S. aureus produces _______________, which allows S. aureus to break down beta-lactam antimicrobial drugs

B-lactamase

_____________ is a large, endospore-forming, rod-shaped, facultatively anaerobic bacterium that normally dwells in soil.

B. anthracis

Bacteria in the genus __________ are Gram-positive endospore-forming bacilli.

Bacillus

________________ is pathogenic to bacteria.

Bdellovibrio

One authoritative reference in modern prokaryotic systematics is _________________________ which classifies prokaryotes into 5 phyla in Archaea and 24 phyla in Bacteria based in part on possible evolutionary relationships.

Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology

_____________ is effective against C. difficile endospores.

Bleach

B cell deficiencies also occur, including ___________________________________________________, an inherited disease in which affected babies, usually boys, cannot make immunoglobulins and experience recurrent bacterial infections.

Bruton-type agammaglobulinemia

S. pyogenes produce ______________, which reduces white blood cell movement

C5a peptidase

_________________ causes blood poisoning and inflammation of the intestinal tract, and __________________ causes ulcers.

Campylobacter, Helicobacter

Green sulfur bacteria are placed in phylum _____________.

Chlorobi

Green nonsulfur bacteria are members of phylum _____________.

Chloroflexi

_______________ is used to treat infections with M. hominis

Clindamycin

________________ are rod-shaped, obligate anaerobes, many of which form endospores.

Clostridia

_____________ is an anaerobic, Gram-positive, endospore-forming bacillus that is ubiquitous in soil, water, sewage, and the gastrointestinal tracts of animals and humans.

Clostridium

_________________ _____________ is an anaerobic, endospore-forming, Gram-positive bacillus that is common in soil and water worldwide.

Clostridium botulinum

Clostridia is named for the genus ____________, which causes ________________________________________________.

Clostridium, gangrene, tetanus, botulism, and diarrhea.

_________________________ is a genus of high G + C, pleomorphic, non-endospore-forming bacteria that are ubiquitous on plants and in animals and humans.

Corynebacterium

Archaea are classified into two major phyla, ______________________ and _________________, and three minor phyla.

Crenarchaeota, Euryarchaeota

_________ _____________ is the most common form in humans. Infection results in the formation of a nodule, which progresses to a black crusty ulcer called an eschar. B. anthracis growing in the eschar release anthrax toxins into the blood. Left untreated, it is fatal in 20% of cases.

Cutaneous anthrax

____________ are phototrophs that vary greatly in size, shape, arrangement, and mode of reproduction. They are cocci or disk-shaped, and may form long filaments. Some members reproduce by fragmentation or formation of spores known as akinetes.

Cyanobacteria

______________ is an aerobic rod that degrades wood and raw sewage.

Cytophaga

________ _________ ________ are so named because their rRNA sequences and growth characteristics lead scientists to conclude that these organisms are similar to the earliest bacteria; that is, they branched off the "tree of life" at an early stage.

Deeply branching bacteria

____________ has a variety of unusual characteristics that make it resistant to high levels of radiation.

Deinococcus

_________ _____________ results from a failure of the thymus to develop; thus, there are no T cells, and children generally die of viral infections.

DiGeorge syndrome

Diagnosis involves the observation of Streptococcus in cutaneous samples or the use of immunological tests that identify the presence of group A streptococcal antigens.

Diagnosis involves the observation of Streptococcus in cutaneous samples or the use of immunological tests that identify the presence of group A streptococcal antigens.

Two species of Enterococci that are significant pathogens of humans include _____________ and ____________.

E. faecalis and E. faecium.

Members of the family ________________________ inhabit the intestines of animals

Enterobacteriaceae

____________________ are Gram-positive, catalase-negative nonhemolytic normal members of the intestinal microbiota.

Enterococci

________________ quickly neutralizes anaphylaxis.

Epinephrine

The "giant" bacterium ________________ is related to Clostridium, as is the vibrio __________________, often found in dental plaque and linked to obesity.

Epulopiscium, Selenomonas

Glycolytic Facultative Anaerobes group contains numerous human pathogens, such as _____________ _______.

Escherichia coli

__________________ are microbes that require extreme conditions of temperature, pH, and/or salinity to survive.

Extremophiles

Low G + C bacteria are classified within the phylum _____________

Firmicutes

_____________ is an infection of a hair follicle, and when it occurs at the base of an eyelid, it is called a _______

Folliculitis, Sty

_________ ____________ occurs from the consumption of toxins in contaminated food.

Foodborne botulism

The gaseous smelly bacterial waste products give _____ _____________ its name. Shock, kidney failure, and death may occur in a week.

Gas Gangrene

____________ ________________ is very rare in humans. It results in intestinal hemorrhaging and eventually death.

Gastrointestinal anthrax

_________________________ occurs when immune complexes circulating in the bloodstream are deposited in the walls of the glomeruli, the minute blood vessels of the kidneys.

Glomerulonephritis

The largest group of __________ ____________ _____________ is composed of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic rods that catabolize carbohydrates by glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway.

Glycolytic Facultative Anaerobes

A variation of binary fission called snapping division occurs in some ___________________.

Gram-positive bacilli

Staphylococcus is a genus of _________________________________ whose spherical cells are typically clustered in grapelike arrangements.

Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic prokaryotes

In _______________________, the immune system produces autoantibodies that stimulate thyroid cells, which elicits excessive production of thyroid hormone and growth of the _____________________.

Graves' disease; thyroid gland

The halophile _____________ __________________ is a photoheterotroph that synthesizes purple proteins called ______________________ to harvest light energy to synthesize ATP.

Halobacterium salinarium, bacteriorhodopsins

________________ depend on high concentrations of salt to keep their cell walls intact. They are found in the phylum __________________

Halophiles, Euryarchaeota

______ _________ is localized to the upper respiratory tract and is marked by a runny nose, sneezing, itchy throat and eyes, and excessive tear production.

Hay fever

Administering anti-Rh immunoglobulin (RhoGAM) to Rh-negative women prevents this disease.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn.

Farmer's lung, pigeon breeder's lung, mushroom grower's lung, and librarian's lung are all names for:

Hypersensitivity Pneumonia

Graft rejection is a special case of type _____ hypersensitivity.

IV

In some individuals, B cells are stimulated to become plasma cells producing:

IgE against allergens following initial exposure.

High levels of a specific ______ indicate a _______________________ against that allergen. The tests are called ImmunoCAP Specific IgE blood test, CAP RAST, or Pharmacia CAP.

IgE, hypersensitivity

RA commences when B cells secrete IgM that binds to certain ____ _________________. The IgM-_____ complexes are deposited in the joints and activate complement and mast cells, which release ___________ _______________. The resulting inflammation causes the tissues to swell, resulting in severe pain.

IgG molecules, IgG, inflammatory chemicals

Viral infection may trigger this type IV hypersensitivity, and certain class I MHC molecules may predispose persons. _____________________ __________ may delay onset.

Immunosuppressive drugs

_______________ is a skin disorder in children in which small, flattened, red patches appear on the face and limbs, and develop into pus-filled vesicles that eventually crust over

Impetigo

_________________ _________________ requires the inhalation of airborne endospores. After the endospores germinate in the lungs, they secrete toxins that are absorbed into the bloodstream, producing toxemia.

Inhalation anthrax

___________ are also powerful inflammatory chemicals

Kinins

_________ __________________ is a cold-tolerant Gram-positive bacillus that enters the body in contaminated food or drink and causes listeriosis.

Listeria monocytogenes

S. pyogenes produce __________________________, each of which are antiphagocytic factors.

M protein and a hyaluronic acid capsule

_______________ can cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)

M. hominis

Graft rejection occurs when __________________ on the surface of graft cells are perceived as foreign by the recipient's immune system.

MHC proteins

________ ______ are large cells distributed throughout the body in connective tissue.

Mast cells

_________ _______ may cross the placenta and colonize the fetus or vice versa.

Maternal cells

_________________ are obligate anaerobes that convert CO2, H2, and organic acids into methane gas (CH4).

Methanogens

_______ __________ constitute the largest known group in the phylum Euryarchaeota.

Methanogens microbes

___________________ is a methanogen that is also a thermophile.

Methanopyrus

______________________________ is a type IV hypersensitivity disorder in which cytotoxic T cells attack and destroy the ________________________ that insulates neurons. An infection may result in production of the cytotoxic T cells.

Multiple sclerosis (MS); myelin sheath

_______________ are unique bacteria that lack cytochromes, enzymes of the Krebs cycle, and cell walls.

Mycoplasmas

___________________ are Gram-negative, pleomorphic, facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes that lack cell walls.

Mycoplasmas

____________________are soil-dwelling and form stalked fruiting bodies containing resistant, dormant ________________ that can survive for a decade or more before germinating and becoming vegetative cells.

Myxobacteria; myxospores

________________ occurs when the pathogen grows in the gastrointestinal tract of an infant.

Pediatric botulism

_______ _________ and _________ are used to treat B. anthracis

Penicillin, doxycycline, and quinolones

_______________ bacteria acquire the energy needed for anabolism by absorbing light with pigments located in non-membrane-bound thylakoids called photosynthetic lamellae.

Phototrophic

Pneumococcal Meningitis:

Pneumococci can spread to the meninges from the blood, resulting in pneumococcal meningitis, which can be fatal.

_______________________ are by far the most diverse group of cellular microbes.

Prokaryotes

Purple sulfur and Purple nonsulfur bacteria are placed in three classes of phylum ________________.

Proteobacteria

Pseudomonads include the opportunistic pathogen _________________, and the nitrogen fixers _____________ and______________.

Pseudomonas; Azotobacter and Azomonas.

____________ ___________ destroys the recipient's leukemia or lymphoma cell, and leukocytes, eliminating the immune response

Radiation therapy

__ antigens are proteins common to the red blood cells of 85% of humans as well as ______ ____________.

Rh; rhesus monkeys

__________ ________________ is both a hypersensitivity and an autoimmune disease.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)

Bacteremia and Endocarditis:

S. pneumoniae can also enter the blood through lacerations or damage in the lungs, producing bacteremia, and can colonize the lining of the heart, causing endocarditis.

Group A streptococci disease: *Necrotizing Fasciitis.*

Sensationalized by the news media as "flesh-eating bacteria." It results in loss of muscle and fat tissues, toxemia, organ failure, and death in about 20% of patients.

______________ are motile helical bacteria that live in diverse environments. They are motile by means of flagella internal to the outer membrane (axial filaments)

Spirochetes

______________ _______ are salt tolerant; thus they tolerate the salt deposited on human skin by sweat glands. They also tolerate desiccation, radiation, and heat.

Staphylococcal cells

________________________________ is caused by a toxin and produces reddening of the skin that typically begins near the mouth, spreads over the entire body, and is followed by large blisters that contain clear fluid lacking bacteria or white blood cells. *Within two days, the affected skin peels off in sheets.

Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome

___________________________________, or lupus, is also both a hypersensitivity and an autoimmune disorder.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

_____________________ categorize living things into groups.

Taxonomists

__________________ (tetanus toxin) is a potent neurotoxin that binds to a receptor on neurons, is endocytized, and eventually blocks release of inhibitory neurotransmitters. The result is ____________ _____________ _____________, which can in severe cases break bones.

Tetanospasmin; uncontrolled muscle contraction

Example genera include _______________ and _______________, which grow in acidic hot environments.

Thermococcus, Pyrodictium

______ __ _______________________ is alternatively diagnosed by inoculating the skin with a very small amount of a dilute solution of the allergens being tested. Local swelling indicates sensitivity to that allergen.

Type I hypersensitivity

_______ _____ __________________ reactions result when cells are destroyed by an immune response, typically by the combined activities of complement and antibodies.

Type II hypersensitivity

__________________________________ reactions in the lungs cause a form of pneumonia called hypersensitivity pneumonitis.

Type III hypersensitivity

Corynebacterium divide via snapping division, producing _______________ and _________________.

V-shapes and palisades

________________ or other environmental factors may trigger autoimmune responses.

Viral infections

Sinusitis and Otitis Media:

Viral infections of the upper respiratory tract also allow S. pneumoniae to invade the sinuses and middle ear, producing sinusitis and otitis media (inflammation of the middle ear). Pus production and inflammation in these cavities creates the characteristic pressure and pain.

__________ __________ results when the bacterial endospores germinate in surgical or traumatic wounds.

Wound botulism

Group A streptococci disease: *Rheumatic fever*

a complication of untreated streptococcal pharyngitis in which inflammation leads to damage of heart valves and muscle. The damage may be due to cross-reactive immune responses.

The most significant example of an acquired immunodeficiency is:

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

When the same allergen enters the body again, it binds to the _______ _________ ___ ____________ _____________ on the surfaces of sensitized cells.

active sites of IgE molecules

When the inflammatory mediators exceed the body's coping mechanisms, ______________________________________________________________. This is a form of systemic shock in which violent constriction of the bronchial smooth muscle, widespread vasodilation, and resultant swelling of the larynx and other tissues threaten the patient's life.

acute anaphylaxis or anaphylactic shock may occur

S. pneumoniae are alpha-hemolytic under ___________ conditions, and are not part of a _____________ group.

aerobic; Lancefield

C. difficile is spread as _______________ endospores, often from ___________________ people.

airborne; asymptomatic

Type I hypersensitivities are commonly called allergies, and the antigens that stimulate them are called:

allergens

In an ______________, tissues are transplanted from a donor to a genetically dissimilar recipient.

allograft

The class __________________________ are typically aerobes capable of growing at very low nutrient levels.

alphaproteobacteria

Some bacilli are beneficial in agriculture, for example B. thuringiensis, but one causes __________.

anthrax

RA is treated with:.

anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs.

For treating hay fever, ________________ are administered.

antihistamines

Disease appears in patients treated with broad-spectrum _____________ drugs.

antimicrobial

Vegetative cells produce an __________ capsule.

antiphagocytic

Two opportunistic pathogens of humans include Staphylococcus _________ and Staphylococcus __________.

aureus, epidermidis

The immune system of those affected by Lupus (SLE) produce _______________________ against numerous antigens, including nucleic acids.

autoantibodies

In an ___________, tissues are moved to a different location within the same patient.

autograft

Genetic factors may play a role, including MHC genes that in some way promote ___________________-.

autoimmunity

Deeply branching bacteria are ______________ and live in ____, ________, and _____________ _____________, often with intense exposure to sun.

autotrophic, hot, acidic, and anaerobic environments

The surface molecules of red blood cells, called ________ ___________ ___________, have many useful functions and vary in complexity.

blood group antigens

S. aureus is a common cause of bacteremia, which is the presence of ______________________

bacteria in the blood

Enterococci have few virulence factors but can adhere to epithelial cells, and produce __________.

bacteriocins

G + C ratios ________ 50% are considered "low G + C bacteria"

below

Group A Streptococcus, or S. pyogenes, is a ______________________. Pathogenic strains often have ____________.

beta-hemolytic coccus; capsules

Grafts are tissues or organs that have been transplanted, either:

between sites within an individual or between a donor and a recipient.

Enterococcal infection is diagnosed by testing for sensitivity to ________.

bile

The most common method of reproduction is __________________, in which the parental cell disappears with the formation of progeny.

binary fission

The symptoms of botulism are diagnostic although a ___________ is available to detect toxin activity

bioassay

Group B Streptococcus can cause serious disease in newborns who may be inoculated during passage through the:

birth canal or by health care workers.

Its endospores survive improper canning of food, germinating to produce vegetative cells that grow and release into the can a powerful neurotoxin that causes ____________.

botulism

Seven antigenically distinct ___________ _________ are produced by the different strains of C. botulinum.

botulism toxins

Some prokaryotes reproduce by fragmentation, and still other prokaryotes reproduce by _____________, in which an outgrowth of the original cell receives a copy of the genetic material, enlarges, and is then cut off from the parent cell.

budding

Slightly curved rods are vibrios, and the term ____________________ is used to describe cells that are intermediate in shape between cocci and bacilli

coccobacillus

There are three basic shapes of prokaryotic cells: ________ (plural cocci), which is roughly spherical; ________ (plural bacilli), which is rod-shaped; and ___________.

coccus, bacillus, spirals

E. faecalis is ubiquitous in the human ________, E. faecium is ____ common.

colon; less

Group A streptococci disease: *Glomerulonephritis*

can result from accumulation of immune complexes in the glomeruli following infection with S. pyogenes. Kidney function declines and permanent damage may occur.

When several furuncles fuse, they form a ______________, which extends deeper into the tissues.

carbuncle

Pseudomonads are aerobic motile bacilli that utilize the Entner-Doudoroff and pentose phosphate pathways for:

catabolism of carbohydrates.

Staphylococcal cells synthesize ____________.

catalase

Cytotoxic drugs such as cyclophosphamide and azathioprine inhibit ______________________. Some (mycophenolate mofetil, brequinar sodium, leflunomide) prevent ______________________.

cell division, nucleic acid synthesis

Penicillin resistance has developed in recent years, and ______________________________ may be used.

cephalosporin, erythromycin, or chloramphenicol

Group B Streptococcus, or S. agalactiae, is a Gram-positive coccus that divides to form:

chains, is beta-hemolytic, and bacitracin resistant

One of the more important primary immunodeficiency diseases is _______________________________, in which children have recurrent infections characterized by the inability of their phagocytes to destroy bacteria.

chronic granulomatous disease

Traumatic injury introduces endospores into the body. After germination, _______________ toxins cause pain, swelling, and rapid tissue death.

clostridial

S. aureus produces cell-free ________________ in addition to the bound form.

coagulase

Chlamydias are intracellular ________ typified by the genus Chlamydia, which is responsible for:

cocci; neonatal blindness, pneumonia, and a sexually transmitted disease.

Preventing enterococcal infections is difficult when patients' immune systems are ______________.

compromised

Drugs such as __________________ are potent inhibitors of activated T cell function and can enhance the survival of allografts.

cyclosporine

S. aureus and sometimes S. epidermidis, produce ________ __________ that lyse cells and exfoliative toxins that cause sloughing of the skin.

cytolytic toxins

Estrogen may stimulate the destruction of tissues by __________________.

cytotoxic T cells

So-called ____________ ________________________ is part of many autoimmune diseases, but the most significant examples are the destruction of donor red blood cells following an incompatible transfusion and the destruction of fetal red blood cells.

cytotoxic hypersensitivity

Proper cleaning of wounds can prevent many cases of gas gangrene since necrosis occurs when endospores are introduced __________________.

deep in the tissues.

____________________________________ reactions result not from the action of anti- bodies, but rather from interactions among antigen, antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and T cells; thus, this reaction is also called cell-mediated hypersensitivity.

delayed (cell-mediated) hypersensitivity

The class ________________________________ includes Desulfovibrio, a sulfate-reducing microbe important in the recycling of sulfur corrosion of iron.

deltaproteobacteria

The alpha-hemolytic streptococci are opportunists that produce pus-filled abdominal lesions, and they are one cause of _____________ (cavities).

dental caries

The alpha-hemolytic streptococci produce a biofilm known as ________ __________ on the surface of teeth.

dental plaque

S. pyogenes produce _____________________, which reduce the firmness of pus

deoxyribonucleases

Group A streptococci typically cause disease only when competing normal microbiota are ____________, when immunity is _____________, or when a large inoculum enables them to get a foothold.

depleted; impaired

Bacteroids is a diverse group that includes Bacteroides, an obligate anaerobic rod that inhabits the ___________ ________ and is important to _______________ but can also be an ________________ ______________.

digestive tract, digestion, opportunistic pathogen

Pairs of cocci are ______________, whereas __________________ are long chains.

diplococci, streptococci

Within a host cell, chlamydias form initial bodies that change into smaller __________ ____________ that are released when the host cell dies.

elementary bodies

S. aureus may attack the lining of the heart, producing a condition called _________________, or it may invade the lungs, causing _______________.

endocarditis, pneumonia

The Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus and Clostridium can produce ___________________.

endospores

Bacillus species form __________________ and are common in soils. They are aerobes or facultative anaerobes, and most are motile by means of _____________.

endospores, flagella

Treatment begins with the thorough cleaning of wounds to remove _______________, immediate passive immunotherapy with _____________________, administration of _______________, and active ______________.

endospores; immunoglobulin; antimicrobials; immunization

Mast cell degranulation stimulates the release of eosinophils from the bone marrow, producing _________________________.

eosinophilia

The ________________ migrate to the site of mast cell degranulation and degranulate as well. _______________ are _______________________ containing granules of unique inflammatory molecules including _________________.

eosinophils, eosinophils, leukocytes, leukotrienes

S. pneumoniae secrete protein adhesin, which facilitates binding of the bacteria to ______________________________. Additionally, secretory IgA protease destroys ____ and pneumolysin causes _________________.

epithelial cells of the pharynx; IgA; lysis of cells in the lungs

The class _________________________ are Gram-negative rods, vibrios, or spirals.

epsilonproteobacteria

S. pyogenes also produces _______________ toxins, which lyse blood cells and ____________________, which lyse both red and white blood cells.

erythrogenic; streptolysins

Jaundice is caused by ________ _________.

excess bilirubin

Systemic diseases include toxic shock syndrome, non-streptococcal (TSS), which is characterized by ____________________________________________ in response to production of TSS toxin.

fever, vomiting, red rash, low blood pressure, and loss of sheets of skin

Damage to the vessels can result in kidney failure, as the glomeruli lose their ability to___________________________________.

filter wastes from the body

With tetanus, contraction of the diaphragm results in a _____ _____________; patients die because they cannot ___________.

final inhalation; exhale

Botulism toxins bind irreversibly to the cytoplasmic membrane of neurons and prevent the release of acetylcholine and therefore prevent muscular contraction, resulting in ________ __________

flaccid paralysis.

Mycoplasmas are the smallest:

free-living cells.

A ___________, or boil, is a large, painful, raised nodular ex- tension of folliculitis into surrounding tissue.

furuncle

Listeria monocytogenes binds to the surface of cells, usually in the _____________, and triggers _____________. After exiting the phagosome, it grows and reproduces inside the cytosol, and then moves to the cell surface, where it enters a ______________. A neighboring cell endocytizes the pseudopod, and the cycle begins again.

gallbladder; phagocytosis; pseudopod

Immune complexes are deposited in kidneys and various tissues, and the accompanying cell destruction result in:

glomerulonephritis, arthritis, a red rash, hemolytic anemia, bleeding disorders, and muscle inflammation.

Asthma is treated with inhalants containing:

glucocorticoid, and a bronchodilator

Transplant recipients may suffer ________________________ when donated bone marrow T cells recognize the recipient's cells as foreign.

graft-versus-host disease

A perfect match is rarely achieved, but the closer the match, the greater the chance of successful:

grafting or transplanting.

Because mycoplasmas are small and grow slowly in culture, the infection is difficult to diagnose: ______________, ____, or ELISA may be used for diagnosis.

hemagglutination; IFA

If the recipient has pre-existing antibodies, the donated cells will be destroyed immediately by complement- mediated _____________

hemolysis

S. pneumoniae are alpha-____________ and _____ sensitive.

hemolytic; bile

Many cyanobacteria fix nitrogen in thick-walled cells called _____________.

heterocysts

One significant chemical released from mast cells is __________________, a small molecule that stimulates ________________________________________________________ and irritates nerve endings, causing itching and pain.

histamine, smooth muscle contraction and vasodilation

Tetanus infection is diagnosed by:

history and characteristic signs.

Infants should not consume _______ since it is often associated with infant botulism.

honey

AIDS is characterized by the presence of several rare or opportunistic infections along with infection by:

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or as a severe decrease in CD4 cells and a test showing the presence of HIV.

The alpha-hemolytic streptococci normally inhabit the ______________________. (5 regions)

human mouth; pharynx; and gastrointestinal, urinary, and genital tracts.

S. aureus produces ______________ and ________________, which enable the bacteria to spread within the body

hyaluronidase, staphylokinase

Immunological responses are at times excessive and can give rise to inflammatory reactions called __________________________, which may be more precisely defined as any immune response against a foreign antigen that is exaggerated beyond the norm.

hypersensitivities

Itching in response to contact with wool is an example of a _________________ _________________.

hypersensitivity response

The formation of complexes of antigen bound to IgG, also called _________ _______________, initiates several molecular processes, including complement activation.

immune complexes

Normally, immune complexes are removed from the body via phagocytosis. However, in type III hypersensitivity reactions, the __________________________________________ in the bloodstream until they become trapped in tissues, joints, and organs.

immune complexes escape phagocytosis and circulate

Diagnosis of C. difficile infection is confirmed by isolating the organism from feces or by demonstrating the presence of toxins via ___________________.

immunoassays

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is difficult to diagnose, and is treated with ______________________________.

immunosuppressive drugs.

Commonly used __________________________________ include glucocorticoids, commonly called corticosteroids or steroids, such as _____________________________, which suppresses the response of T cells to antigen and inhibits T cell cytotoxicity and cytokine production.

immunosuppressive drugs; prednisone and methylprednisolone

Some patients elect ______________________ ("allergy shots"), which consists of a series of dilute allergen injections, or allergy shots, administered over a period of several months.

immunotherapy

Basophils are leukocytes that are similar to mast cells in that they have similar ________________ _________________ and __________________ in the same way.

inflammatory chemicals and degranulate

Anthrax is primarily a disease of herbivores; humans normally contract the disease from infected animals. The endospores can invade three ways:

inhalation, inoculation of wounds, and ingestion.

C. difficile is a normal member of the ______________ microbiota, and an opportunistic pathogen.

intestinal

Mariprofundus ferrooxydans oxidizes _______ and uses ____________ as an electron acceptor.

iron, oxygen

Group A streptococci disease: *Streptococcal toxic-shock syndrome (STSS) *

is a rare but severe bacteremia followed by intense pain and organ failure, and over 40% of patients die.

Pneumococcal pneumonia:

is the most prevalent disease caused by S. pneumoniae infection, which constitutes about 85% of all cases of pneumonia and results following viral infections or other damage to the lungs.

Type I (juvenile-onset) diabetes mellitus is an immunological attack on the ______________________ cells resulting in the inability to produce the hormone __________.

islets of Langerhans; insulin

In an __________, tissues are moved between genetically identical individuals (identical twins).

isograft

As RA progresses, cartilage and bone are eroded and destroyed, resulting in ______________________________________.

joint distortion and lost range of motion.

The released hemoglobin may cause ________ ____________, the fragments of cells can cause blood clots and circulatory failure.

kidney damage

S. aureus produces __________, which allow growth in sebaceous glands.

lipases

Preventive measures of B. anthracis include vaccination of __________

livestock

The initial, diagnostic sign of tetanus is tightening of the jaw, called ____________.

lockjaw

Cells of group B Streptococcus occur normally in the:

lower gastrointestinal, urinary, and genital tracts.

Some children fail to develop any __________________ whatsoever and cannot mount any type of immune response.

lymphoid stem cells

What is used to treat mycoplasma infections?

macrolides

Donated _____ restores the immune response but can produce _____________.

marrow; disease

The IgE binds very strongly with its stem to three types of defense cells— __________________________________ —sensitizing them to respond to subsequent exposures to the allergen.

mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils

The chlamydias have two __________________ but no _______________________ in their cell wall.

membranes, peptidoglycan

Viridians streptococci are not invasive but enter the blood through small and large cuts to cause:

meningitis and endocarditis.

Gammaproteobacteria includes _________ ______________, which digest most of the methane produced by methanogens before it can adversely affect the world's climate.

methane oxidizers

(Hypersensitivity Pneumonia) Individuals become sensitized when ________________________ or other ________________ are inhaled deep into the lungs, stimulating the production of antibodies. Subsequent inhalations stimulate the formation of immune complexes that then activate complement.

minute mold spores antigens

Infections may trigger autoimmunity as a result of ______________ ______________, in which an infectious agent has an epitope that is similar to a self-antigen.

molecular mimicry

S. pneumoniae grows in the ________ and _______ in 75% of humans, but do not typically cause disease until they gain access to the lungs.

mouths and pharynges

Streptococcus are catalase ___________ and are facultatively ____________.

negative; anaerobic

Many cyanobacteria reduce atmospheric N2 to NH3 via a process called __________ ____________.

nitrogen fixation

Azospirillum and Rhizobium are __________ ____________ that associate with the roots of plants and are important in agriculture. Another nitrogen-fixer, Rhodopseudomonas palustris has potential for _______ ______________.

nitrogen fixers; biofuel production

Food poisoning is one ____________ disease caused by Staphylococcus.

noninvasive

Staphylococci cause a variety of medical problems that can be categorized as:

noninvasive, cutaneous, and systemic

S. agalactiae forms capsules that, unlike those of S. pyogenes, are:

not protective.

Group A streptococci disease: *Scarlet fever (scarlatina)*

often accompanies streptococcal pharyngitis when the infection involves a lysogenized strain. It is characterized by a diffuse rash followed by sloughing of the skin.

A wide variety of ________________________________________ occur in AIDS patients.

opportunistic infections and rare cancers

Methanogens play significant roles in the environment by converting:

organic wastes in pond, lake, and ocean sediments into methane

When Staphylococcus invades bone, it causes ______________________, inflammation of the bone marrow and surrounding bone.

osteomyelitis

sulfur bacteria derive electrons from the:

oxidation of hydrogen sulfide to sulfur.

Nitrifying bacteria, including Nitrobacter __________________________________________________________.

oxidize nitrogen compounds to NO3 via a process called nitrification.

S. pneumoniae is a Gram-positive coccus that commonly forms ______ and ________.

pairs and short chains

The genus Streptococcus is a diverse assemblage of Gram-positive cocci arranged in ___________________.

pairs or chains

Bacilli are found singly, in pairs, in chains, or in a folded _______________________ arrangement as a consequence of snapping division.

palisade

The G + C content is the:

percentage of all base pairs in a genome that are guanine-cytosine base pairs.

In addition, there are star-shaped, triangular, and rectangular prokaryotes as well as ______________________ prokaryotes, which vary in shape and size.

pleomorphic

Pathogenic strains contain copies of a plasmid coding for anthrax toxins, three distinct ________________ components that in combination are lethal to cells.

polypeptide

Histamine also increases vascular __________________ and ________________.

permeability, secretion

S. pneumoniae is a normal member of the ______________ microbiota.

pharyngeal

Group A streptococci frequently infect the _______ or _________, but the resulting abscesses are usually temporary.

pharynx or skin

Blue-green bacteria are in phylum _________________.

phylum Cyanobacteria

Mycoplasmas appear _______ when stained with Gram stain and may take on a variety of shapes, and require osmotically protected environments.

pink

Virulent strains of S. pneumoniae are protected by _____________ ________________ and ____________________ in their cell walls, which together allow the bacteria to enter cells and "hide."

polysaccharide capsules and phosphorylcholine

Coagulase-______________ S. aureus is able to clot blood.

positive

Mycoplasma pneumoniae attaches to receptors in the human respiratory tract, interrupting the normal removal of mucus from the respiratory tract and leading to _______ _________ _______________, or walking pneumonia.

primary atypical pneumonia

If the recipient does not have pre-existing antibodies, a _________ _____________ _____________ develops and eventually _____________ the donated cells but damage progresses slowly and is not a problem.

primary immune response, destroys

Staphylococci are transmitted through direct contact and via fomites, and _____________________________________ are essential in preventing their transfer in health care settings.

proper hand washing and aseptic techniques

In serious cases, C. difficile can produce a life- threatening ___________________________ _________________, in which large sections of the colon wall slough off, potentially perforating the colon and leading to massive internal infection by fecal bacteria and eventual death.

pseudomembranous colitis

Staphylococcus aureus causes localized ____________ lesions.

pyogenic

S. pyogenes produce __________________, which stimulate fever

pyrogenic toxins

Nonsulfur bacteria derive electrons for the:

reduction of CO2 from organic compounds such as carbohydrates and organic acids

Type I hypersensitivities are localized or systemic reactions that result from the:

release of inflammatory molecules such as histamine.

cuboidal packets are ______________

sarcinae

Survey of prokaryotes largely follows the classification scheme proposed in the _______ _______ of Bergey's Manual.

second edition

Failure of the normal control mechanisms of the immune system may permit ____________________ to survive and cause disease.

self-reactive T cells

The resulting immune defects cause:

severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID).

Previously healthy immune systems may become damaged in very old age and by:

severe stress, malnutrition, or environmental toxins.

Methanogens also have useful industrial applications, such as in ___________ ______________.

sewage treatment

Clostridium tetani is a _______ ________ _______ _________ that produces a terminal endospore, giving the cell a distinctive lollipop appearance.

small, motile, obligate anaerobe

hemolytic disease of the newborn:

smaller IgG molecules directed against Rh antigen cross the placenta, destroying fetal red blood cells and causing a variety of birth defects

In ________________, the parent cell's outer wall tears apart with a snapping movement to create the daughter cells, which often remain attached.

snapping division

Clostridium tetani is ubiquitous in __________________________________________________________. Its toxin causes tetanus.

soil, dust, and the gastrointestinal tract of animals and humans

Enterococci are _________ and form short ________ and________.

spherical; chains and pairs

Actinomycetes produce reproductive cells called __________ that can develop into clones of the original organism.

spores

Irregular clusters are ____________________.

staphylococci

The spasms and contractions of tetanus can spread to other muscles and become so severe that the arms and fists curl tightly, the feet curl down, and the body assumes a ______ __________ _________.

stiff backward arch.

Spiral-shaped prokaryotes are either spirilla, which are ___________, or spirochetes, which are ______________.

stiff, flexible

If blood is transfused to an individual with a different blood type, the donor's blood group antigens may ___________________________________ in the recipient that bind to and eventually destroy the transfused cells. The result can be a potentially life-threatening ___________ ____________

stimulate the production of antibodies; transfusion reaction.

C. botulinum toxins are resistant to _________ _______

stomach acid

S. pyogenes produces enzymes and toxins that dissolve blood clots called _______________________.

streptokinase

Without immediate administration of epinephrine, an individual in anaphylactic shock may ___________________________________________________________. A variety of allergens may cause anaphylaxis.

suffocate, collapse, and die within minutes

AIDS is not a single disease, but a ___________ —a group of signs, symptoms, and diseases associated with a common pathology.

syndrome

Treponema, the agent of _____________, and Borrelia, which causes ________ _________, are examples of ________________.

syphilis, Lyme disease, Spirochetes

Cocci in a square are __________________

tetrads

Arrangements of prokaryotic cells result from two features of binary fission:

the plane of division and whether daughter cells remain attached.

The binding of allergens to IgE on mast cells activates other enzymes that trigger __________________________________________________, lipid molecules that are very powerful inflammatory agents.

the production of leukotrienes and prostaglandins

Proteases are enzymes that destroy nearby cells, activating the complement system, which results in:

the release of yet more inflammatory chemicals

Toxic shock syndrome toxin and enterotoxins cause _________ __________ _______________ and ________ _________, respectively.

toxic shock syndrome, food poisoning

DiGeorge syndrome may be treated with:

thymic stem cell transplants.

Treatment for Graves' disease involves damaging or removing most of the _________.

thyroid

Physicians examine the white cells of potential graft recipients by ______________________ to identify a donor whose MHC proteins closely match those of the recipient.

tissue typing

T cells encountering self-antigens that are normally "hidden" may:

trigger autoimmune disease.

A good example of a delayed hypersensitivity reaction is the _______________ _________________, generated when tuberculin, a protein extract of _________________ _________________, is injected into the skin of an individual who has been infected with or vaccinated against M. tuberculosis.

tuberculin response, Mycobacterium tuberculosis

MRSA is resistant to a variety of antimicrobial agents; ___________________ became the treatment of choice.

vancomycin

Another example of a __________________________ reaction is allergic contact dermatitis, which is ______________________________________________, such as those that have contacted poison ivy (urushiol) or latex.

type IV hypersensitivity; T cell-mediated damage to chemically modified skin cells

Enterococci are _________________, able to grow at temperatures up to ______, in alkaline conditions, and are salt and bile salt __________.

unencapsulated; 45°C; tolerant

Staphylococci are found on human skin, as well as in the:.

upper respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts

Raised, itchy skin lesions characterize _____________, commonly called __________.

urticaria, hives

Now there is an increasing prevalence of ________________________________ (VRSA) strains.

vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Insufficient T cell production leads to an increased incidence of:

viral diseases and certain types of cancer.

Epulopiscium and many of its relatives have a unique method of reproduction, ___________________, whereby the organism gives "birth" to live offspring that emerge from the body of the dead mother cell.

viviparity

Signs and symptoms of food poisoning:

vomiting, diarrhea, headache, and abdominal pain, and they usually appear within four hours of ingestion.

The class ____________________________ are identified on the basis of DNA sequences. They appear to be autotrophs using carbon dioxide as a carbon source.

zetaproteobacteria