Microbiology Exam 3 Chapter Reviews
All prokaryotes reproduce ______________.
asexually
Foodborne botulism symptoms are:
weakness, dizziness, blurred vision, dry mouth, dilated pupils, which progresses to intestinal problems and paralysis
Mycoplasmas are frequently associated:
with pneumonia and urinary tract infections.
In a ______________, tissues are transplanted between individuals of different species.
xenograft
Common characteristics of Archaea:
- They lack true peptidoglycan in their cell walls. - Cytoplasmic membrane lipids have branched or ring-form hydrocarbons. - The initial amino acid in their polypeptide chains is methionine.
Phototrophic bacteria can be divided into the following five groups based on their pigments and their source of electrons for photosynthesis:
1. Blue-green bacteria 2. Green sulfur bacteria 3. Green nonsulfur bacteria 4. Purple sulfur bacteria 5. Purple nonsulfur bacteria
All of the green and purple bacteria differ from plants, algae, and cyanobacteria in two ways:
1. They use bacteriochlorophylls for photosynthesis instead of chlorophyll a. 2. They are anoxygenic; that is, they do not generate oxygen during photosynthesis.
In __% of patients with staphylococcal pneumonia, the fluid filling the alveoli is pus; this condition is called ______________.
10%; empyema
Bacteria are currently largely classified according to differences in their 16S rRNA sequences, resulting in a scheme that includes _______ phyla.
24
Thermophiles thrive at temperatures over _______.
45*C.
Victims of Inhalation anthrax develop a high fever and labored breathing and then go into shock. Even with aggressive treatment, inhalation anthrax is fatal in about ______ of cases.
50%
Hyperthermophiles require temperatures above _______
80*C
In 1945, __% of staphylococci were susceptible to penicillin, but only _% are susceptible today.
90%; 5%
Group A streptococci disease: *Pyoderma and Erysipelas*
A pyoderma is any confined, pus-producing lesion that usually occurs on the exposed skin of the face, arms, or legs, similar to impetigo. When infection also involves lymph nodes and triggers pain and inflammation, the condition is called erysipelas.
Group A streptococci disease: *Pharyngitis*
A sore throat caused by streptococci, commonly called "strep throat," is a type of pharyngitis, or in- flammation of the pharynx.
__________ is chemoautotrophic, thermophilic, and microaerophilic.
Aquifex
Living things are currently classified into three domains—_____________________—based largely on genetic relatedness.
Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya
__________ is a hypersensitivity disorder affecting the lungs and characterized by constriction of the smooth muscle of the bronchi and excessive production of a thick, sticky mucus.
Asthma
_______________________ are any of a group of diseases that can result when an individual begins to make autoantibodies or cytotoxic T cells against normal body components.
Autoimmune diseases
__________________________________ is a disease that results when an individual produces antibodies against his or her own red blood cells. It is a________________________________ in which complement is activated or RBCs are opsonized by antibodies.
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia; type II hypersensitivity disease
C. difficile produces two __________ and the enzyme ___________
toxins; hyaluronidase
S. aureus produces _______________, which allows S. aureus to break down beta-lactam antimicrobial drugs
B-lactamase
_____________ is a large, endospore-forming, rod-shaped, facultatively anaerobic bacterium that normally dwells in soil.
B. anthracis
Bacteria in the genus __________ are Gram-positive endospore-forming bacilli.
Bacillus
________________ is pathogenic to bacteria.
Bdellovibrio
One authoritative reference in modern prokaryotic systematics is _________________________ which classifies prokaryotes into 5 phyla in Archaea and 24 phyla in Bacteria based in part on possible evolutionary relationships.
Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
_____________ is effective against C. difficile endospores.
Bleach
B cell deficiencies also occur, including ___________________________________________________, an inherited disease in which affected babies, usually boys, cannot make immunoglobulins and experience recurrent bacterial infections.
Bruton-type agammaglobulinemia
S. pyogenes produce ______________, which reduces white blood cell movement
C5a peptidase
_________________ causes blood poisoning and inflammation of the intestinal tract, and __________________ causes ulcers.
Campylobacter, Helicobacter
Green sulfur bacteria are placed in phylum _____________.
Chlorobi
Green nonsulfur bacteria are members of phylum _____________.
Chloroflexi
_______________ is used to treat infections with M. hominis
Clindamycin
________________ are rod-shaped, obligate anaerobes, many of which form endospores.
Clostridia
_____________ is an anaerobic, Gram-positive, endospore-forming bacillus that is ubiquitous in soil, water, sewage, and the gastrointestinal tracts of animals and humans.
Clostridium
_________________ _____________ is an anaerobic, endospore-forming, Gram-positive bacillus that is common in soil and water worldwide.
Clostridium botulinum
Clostridia is named for the genus ____________, which causes ________________________________________________.
Clostridium, gangrene, tetanus, botulism, and diarrhea.
_________________________ is a genus of high G + C, pleomorphic, non-endospore-forming bacteria that are ubiquitous on plants and in animals and humans.
Corynebacterium
Archaea are classified into two major phyla, ______________________ and _________________, and three minor phyla.
Crenarchaeota, Euryarchaeota
_________ _____________ is the most common form in humans. Infection results in the formation of a nodule, which progresses to a black crusty ulcer called an eschar. B. anthracis growing in the eschar release anthrax toxins into the blood. Left untreated, it is fatal in 20% of cases.
Cutaneous anthrax
____________ are phototrophs that vary greatly in size, shape, arrangement, and mode of reproduction. They are cocci or disk-shaped, and may form long filaments. Some members reproduce by fragmentation or formation of spores known as akinetes.
Cyanobacteria
______________ is an aerobic rod that degrades wood and raw sewage.
Cytophaga
________ _________ ________ are so named because their rRNA sequences and growth characteristics lead scientists to conclude that these organisms are similar to the earliest bacteria; that is, they branched off the "tree of life" at an early stage.
Deeply branching bacteria
____________ has a variety of unusual characteristics that make it resistant to high levels of radiation.
Deinococcus
_________ _____________ results from a failure of the thymus to develop; thus, there are no T cells, and children generally die of viral infections.
DiGeorge syndrome
Diagnosis involves the observation of Streptococcus in cutaneous samples or the use of immunological tests that identify the presence of group A streptococcal antigens.
Diagnosis involves the observation of Streptococcus in cutaneous samples or the use of immunological tests that identify the presence of group A streptococcal antigens.
Two species of Enterococci that are significant pathogens of humans include _____________ and ____________.
E. faecalis and E. faecium.
Members of the family ________________________ inhabit the intestines of animals
Enterobacteriaceae
____________________ are Gram-positive, catalase-negative nonhemolytic normal members of the intestinal microbiota.
Enterococci
________________ quickly neutralizes anaphylaxis.
Epinephrine
The "giant" bacterium ________________ is related to Clostridium, as is the vibrio __________________, often found in dental plaque and linked to obesity.
Epulopiscium, Selenomonas
Glycolytic Facultative Anaerobes group contains numerous human pathogens, such as _____________ _______.
Escherichia coli
__________________ are microbes that require extreme conditions of temperature, pH, and/or salinity to survive.
Extremophiles
Low G + C bacteria are classified within the phylum _____________
Firmicutes
_____________ is an infection of a hair follicle, and when it occurs at the base of an eyelid, it is called a _______
Folliculitis, Sty
_________ ____________ occurs from the consumption of toxins in contaminated food.
Foodborne botulism
The gaseous smelly bacterial waste products give _____ _____________ its name. Shock, kidney failure, and death may occur in a week.
Gas Gangrene
____________ ________________ is very rare in humans. It results in intestinal hemorrhaging and eventually death.
Gastrointestinal anthrax
_________________________ occurs when immune complexes circulating in the bloodstream are deposited in the walls of the glomeruli, the minute blood vessels of the kidneys.
Glomerulonephritis
The largest group of __________ ____________ _____________ is composed of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic rods that catabolize carbohydrates by glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway.
Glycolytic Facultative Anaerobes
A variation of binary fission called snapping division occurs in some ___________________.
Gram-positive bacilli
Staphylococcus is a genus of _________________________________ whose spherical cells are typically clustered in grapelike arrangements.
Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic prokaryotes
In _______________________, the immune system produces autoantibodies that stimulate thyroid cells, which elicits excessive production of thyroid hormone and growth of the _____________________.
Graves' disease; thyroid gland
The halophile _____________ __________________ is a photoheterotroph that synthesizes purple proteins called ______________________ to harvest light energy to synthesize ATP.
Halobacterium salinarium, bacteriorhodopsins
________________ depend on high concentrations of salt to keep their cell walls intact. They are found in the phylum __________________
Halophiles, Euryarchaeota
______ _________ is localized to the upper respiratory tract and is marked by a runny nose, sneezing, itchy throat and eyes, and excessive tear production.
Hay fever
Administering anti-Rh immunoglobulin (RhoGAM) to Rh-negative women prevents this disease.
Hemolytic disease of the newborn.
Farmer's lung, pigeon breeder's lung, mushroom grower's lung, and librarian's lung are all names for:
Hypersensitivity Pneumonia
Graft rejection is a special case of type _____ hypersensitivity.
IV
In some individuals, B cells are stimulated to become plasma cells producing:
IgE against allergens following initial exposure.
High levels of a specific ______ indicate a _______________________ against that allergen. The tests are called ImmunoCAP Specific IgE blood test, CAP RAST, or Pharmacia CAP.
IgE, hypersensitivity
RA commences when B cells secrete IgM that binds to certain ____ _________________. The IgM-_____ complexes are deposited in the joints and activate complement and mast cells, which release ___________ _______________. The resulting inflammation causes the tissues to swell, resulting in severe pain.
IgG molecules, IgG, inflammatory chemicals
Viral infection may trigger this type IV hypersensitivity, and certain class I MHC molecules may predispose persons. _____________________ __________ may delay onset.
Immunosuppressive drugs
_______________ is a skin disorder in children in which small, flattened, red patches appear on the face and limbs, and develop into pus-filled vesicles that eventually crust over
Impetigo
_________________ _________________ requires the inhalation of airborne endospores. After the endospores germinate in the lungs, they secrete toxins that are absorbed into the bloodstream, producing toxemia.
Inhalation anthrax
___________ are also powerful inflammatory chemicals
Kinins
_________ __________________ is a cold-tolerant Gram-positive bacillus that enters the body in contaminated food or drink and causes listeriosis.
Listeria monocytogenes
S. pyogenes produce __________________________, each of which are antiphagocytic factors.
M protein and a hyaluronic acid capsule
_______________ can cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
M. hominis
Graft rejection occurs when __________________ on the surface of graft cells are perceived as foreign by the recipient's immune system.
MHC proteins
________ ______ are large cells distributed throughout the body in connective tissue.
Mast cells
_________ _______ may cross the placenta and colonize the fetus or vice versa.
Maternal cells
_________________ are obligate anaerobes that convert CO2, H2, and organic acids into methane gas (CH4).
Methanogens
_______ __________ constitute the largest known group in the phylum Euryarchaeota.
Methanogens microbes
___________________ is a methanogen that is also a thermophile.
Methanopyrus
______________________________ is a type IV hypersensitivity disorder in which cytotoxic T cells attack and destroy the ________________________ that insulates neurons. An infection may result in production of the cytotoxic T cells.
Multiple sclerosis (MS); myelin sheath
_______________ are unique bacteria that lack cytochromes, enzymes of the Krebs cycle, and cell walls.
Mycoplasmas
___________________ are Gram-negative, pleomorphic, facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes that lack cell walls.
Mycoplasmas
____________________are soil-dwelling and form stalked fruiting bodies containing resistant, dormant ________________ that can survive for a decade or more before germinating and becoming vegetative cells.
Myxobacteria; myxospores
________________ occurs when the pathogen grows in the gastrointestinal tract of an infant.
Pediatric botulism
_______ _________ and _________ are used to treat B. anthracis
Penicillin, doxycycline, and quinolones
_______________ bacteria acquire the energy needed for anabolism by absorbing light with pigments located in non-membrane-bound thylakoids called photosynthetic lamellae.
Phototrophic
Pneumococcal Meningitis:
Pneumococci can spread to the meninges from the blood, resulting in pneumococcal meningitis, which can be fatal.
_______________________ are by far the most diverse group of cellular microbes.
Prokaryotes
Purple sulfur and Purple nonsulfur bacteria are placed in three classes of phylum ________________.
Proteobacteria
Pseudomonads include the opportunistic pathogen _________________, and the nitrogen fixers _____________ and______________.
Pseudomonas; Azotobacter and Azomonas.
____________ ___________ destroys the recipient's leukemia or lymphoma cell, and leukocytes, eliminating the immune response
Radiation therapy
__ antigens are proteins common to the red blood cells of 85% of humans as well as ______ ____________.
Rh; rhesus monkeys
__________ ________________ is both a hypersensitivity and an autoimmune disease.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
Bacteremia and Endocarditis:
S. pneumoniae can also enter the blood through lacerations or damage in the lungs, producing bacteremia, and can colonize the lining of the heart, causing endocarditis.
Group A streptococci disease: *Necrotizing Fasciitis.*
Sensationalized by the news media as "flesh-eating bacteria." It results in loss of muscle and fat tissues, toxemia, organ failure, and death in about 20% of patients.
______________ are motile helical bacteria that live in diverse environments. They are motile by means of flagella internal to the outer membrane (axial filaments)
Spirochetes
______________ _______ are salt tolerant; thus they tolerate the salt deposited on human skin by sweat glands. They also tolerate desiccation, radiation, and heat.
Staphylococcal cells
________________________________ is caused by a toxin and produces reddening of the skin that typically begins near the mouth, spreads over the entire body, and is followed by large blisters that contain clear fluid lacking bacteria or white blood cells. *Within two days, the affected skin peels off in sheets.
Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
___________________________________, or lupus, is also both a hypersensitivity and an autoimmune disorder.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
_____________________ categorize living things into groups.
Taxonomists
__________________ (tetanus toxin) is a potent neurotoxin that binds to a receptor on neurons, is endocytized, and eventually blocks release of inhibitory neurotransmitters. The result is ____________ _____________ _____________, which can in severe cases break bones.
Tetanospasmin; uncontrolled muscle contraction
Example genera include _______________ and _______________, which grow in acidic hot environments.
Thermococcus, Pyrodictium
______ __ _______________________ is alternatively diagnosed by inoculating the skin with a very small amount of a dilute solution of the allergens being tested. Local swelling indicates sensitivity to that allergen.
Type I hypersensitivity
_______ _____ __________________ reactions result when cells are destroyed by an immune response, typically by the combined activities of complement and antibodies.
Type II hypersensitivity
__________________________________ reactions in the lungs cause a form of pneumonia called hypersensitivity pneumonitis.
Type III hypersensitivity
Corynebacterium divide via snapping division, producing _______________ and _________________.
V-shapes and palisades
________________ or other environmental factors may trigger autoimmune responses.
Viral infections
Sinusitis and Otitis Media:
Viral infections of the upper respiratory tract also allow S. pneumoniae to invade the sinuses and middle ear, producing sinusitis and otitis media (inflammation of the middle ear). Pus production and inflammation in these cavities creates the characteristic pressure and pain.
__________ __________ results when the bacterial endospores germinate in surgical or traumatic wounds.
Wound botulism
Group A streptococci disease: *Rheumatic fever*
a complication of untreated streptococcal pharyngitis in which inflammation leads to damage of heart valves and muscle. The damage may be due to cross-reactive immune responses.
The most significant example of an acquired immunodeficiency is:
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
When the same allergen enters the body again, it binds to the _______ _________ ___ ____________ _____________ on the surfaces of sensitized cells.
active sites of IgE molecules
When the inflammatory mediators exceed the body's coping mechanisms, ______________________________________________________________. This is a form of systemic shock in which violent constriction of the bronchial smooth muscle, widespread vasodilation, and resultant swelling of the larynx and other tissues threaten the patient's life.
acute anaphylaxis or anaphylactic shock may occur
S. pneumoniae are alpha-hemolytic under ___________ conditions, and are not part of a _____________ group.
aerobic; Lancefield
C. difficile is spread as _______________ endospores, often from ___________________ people.
airborne; asymptomatic
Type I hypersensitivities are commonly called allergies, and the antigens that stimulate them are called:
allergens
In an ______________, tissues are transplanted from a donor to a genetically dissimilar recipient.
allograft
The class __________________________ are typically aerobes capable of growing at very low nutrient levels.
alphaproteobacteria
Some bacilli are beneficial in agriculture, for example B. thuringiensis, but one causes __________.
anthrax
RA is treated with:.
anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs.
For treating hay fever, ________________ are administered.
antihistamines
Disease appears in patients treated with broad-spectrum _____________ drugs.
antimicrobial
Vegetative cells produce an __________ capsule.
antiphagocytic
Two opportunistic pathogens of humans include Staphylococcus _________ and Staphylococcus __________.
aureus, epidermidis
The immune system of those affected by Lupus (SLE) produce _______________________ against numerous antigens, including nucleic acids.
autoantibodies
In an ___________, tissues are moved to a different location within the same patient.
autograft
Genetic factors may play a role, including MHC genes that in some way promote ___________________-.
autoimmunity
Deeply branching bacteria are ______________ and live in ____, ________, and _____________ _____________, often with intense exposure to sun.
autotrophic, hot, acidic, and anaerobic environments
The surface molecules of red blood cells, called ________ ___________ ___________, have many useful functions and vary in complexity.
blood group antigens
S. aureus is a common cause of bacteremia, which is the presence of ______________________
bacteria in the blood
Enterococci have few virulence factors but can adhere to epithelial cells, and produce __________.
bacteriocins
G + C ratios ________ 50% are considered "low G + C bacteria"
below
Group A Streptococcus, or S. pyogenes, is a ______________________. Pathogenic strains often have ____________.
beta-hemolytic coccus; capsules
Grafts are tissues or organs that have been transplanted, either:
between sites within an individual or between a donor and a recipient.
Enterococcal infection is diagnosed by testing for sensitivity to ________.
bile
The most common method of reproduction is __________________, in which the parental cell disappears with the formation of progeny.
binary fission
The symptoms of botulism are diagnostic although a ___________ is available to detect toxin activity
bioassay
Group B Streptococcus can cause serious disease in newborns who may be inoculated during passage through the:
birth canal or by health care workers.
Its endospores survive improper canning of food, germinating to produce vegetative cells that grow and release into the can a powerful neurotoxin that causes ____________.
botulism
Seven antigenically distinct ___________ _________ are produced by the different strains of C. botulinum.
botulism toxins
Some prokaryotes reproduce by fragmentation, and still other prokaryotes reproduce by _____________, in which an outgrowth of the original cell receives a copy of the genetic material, enlarges, and is then cut off from the parent cell.
budding
Slightly curved rods are vibrios, and the term ____________________ is used to describe cells that are intermediate in shape between cocci and bacilli
coccobacillus
There are three basic shapes of prokaryotic cells: ________ (plural cocci), which is roughly spherical; ________ (plural bacilli), which is rod-shaped; and ___________.
coccus, bacillus, spirals
E. faecalis is ubiquitous in the human ________, E. faecium is ____ common.
colon; less
Group A streptococci disease: *Glomerulonephritis*
can result from accumulation of immune complexes in the glomeruli following infection with S. pyogenes. Kidney function declines and permanent damage may occur.
When several furuncles fuse, they form a ______________, which extends deeper into the tissues.
carbuncle
Pseudomonads are aerobic motile bacilli that utilize the Entner-Doudoroff and pentose phosphate pathways for:
catabolism of carbohydrates.
Staphylococcal cells synthesize ____________.
catalase
Cytotoxic drugs such as cyclophosphamide and azathioprine inhibit ______________________. Some (mycophenolate mofetil, brequinar sodium, leflunomide) prevent ______________________.
cell division, nucleic acid synthesis
Penicillin resistance has developed in recent years, and ______________________________ may be used.
cephalosporin, erythromycin, or chloramphenicol
Group B Streptococcus, or S. agalactiae, is a Gram-positive coccus that divides to form:
chains, is beta-hemolytic, and bacitracin resistant
One of the more important primary immunodeficiency diseases is _______________________________, in which children have recurrent infections characterized by the inability of their phagocytes to destroy bacteria.
chronic granulomatous disease
Traumatic injury introduces endospores into the body. After germination, _______________ toxins cause pain, swelling, and rapid tissue death.
clostridial
S. aureus produces cell-free ________________ in addition to the bound form.
coagulase
Chlamydias are intracellular ________ typified by the genus Chlamydia, which is responsible for:
cocci; neonatal blindness, pneumonia, and a sexually transmitted disease.
Preventing enterococcal infections is difficult when patients' immune systems are ______________.
compromised
Drugs such as __________________ are potent inhibitors of activated T cell function and can enhance the survival of allografts.
cyclosporine
S. aureus and sometimes S. epidermidis, produce ________ __________ that lyse cells and exfoliative toxins that cause sloughing of the skin.
cytolytic toxins
Estrogen may stimulate the destruction of tissues by __________________.
cytotoxic T cells
So-called ____________ ________________________ is part of many autoimmune diseases, but the most significant examples are the destruction of donor red blood cells following an incompatible transfusion and the destruction of fetal red blood cells.
cytotoxic hypersensitivity
Proper cleaning of wounds can prevent many cases of gas gangrene since necrosis occurs when endospores are introduced __________________.
deep in the tissues.
____________________________________ reactions result not from the action of anti- bodies, but rather from interactions among antigen, antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and T cells; thus, this reaction is also called cell-mediated hypersensitivity.
delayed (cell-mediated) hypersensitivity
The class ________________________________ includes Desulfovibrio, a sulfate-reducing microbe important in the recycling of sulfur corrosion of iron.
deltaproteobacteria
The alpha-hemolytic streptococci are opportunists that produce pus-filled abdominal lesions, and they are one cause of _____________ (cavities).
dental caries
The alpha-hemolytic streptococci produce a biofilm known as ________ __________ on the surface of teeth.
dental plaque
S. pyogenes produce _____________________, which reduce the firmness of pus
deoxyribonucleases
Group A streptococci typically cause disease only when competing normal microbiota are ____________, when immunity is _____________, or when a large inoculum enables them to get a foothold.
depleted; impaired
Bacteroids is a diverse group that includes Bacteroides, an obligate anaerobic rod that inhabits the ___________ ________ and is important to _______________ but can also be an ________________ ______________.
digestive tract, digestion, opportunistic pathogen
Pairs of cocci are ______________, whereas __________________ are long chains.
diplococci, streptococci
Within a host cell, chlamydias form initial bodies that change into smaller __________ ____________ that are released when the host cell dies.
elementary bodies
S. aureus may attack the lining of the heart, producing a condition called _________________, or it may invade the lungs, causing _______________.
endocarditis, pneumonia
The Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus and Clostridium can produce ___________________.
endospores
Bacillus species form __________________ and are common in soils. They are aerobes or facultative anaerobes, and most are motile by means of _____________.
endospores, flagella
Treatment begins with the thorough cleaning of wounds to remove _______________, immediate passive immunotherapy with _____________________, administration of _______________, and active ______________.
endospores; immunoglobulin; antimicrobials; immunization
Mast cell degranulation stimulates the release of eosinophils from the bone marrow, producing _________________________.
eosinophilia
The ________________ migrate to the site of mast cell degranulation and degranulate as well. _______________ are _______________________ containing granules of unique inflammatory molecules including _________________.
eosinophils, eosinophils, leukocytes, leukotrienes
S. pneumoniae secrete protein adhesin, which facilitates binding of the bacteria to ______________________________. Additionally, secretory IgA protease destroys ____ and pneumolysin causes _________________.
epithelial cells of the pharynx; IgA; lysis of cells in the lungs
The class _________________________ are Gram-negative rods, vibrios, or spirals.
epsilonproteobacteria
S. pyogenes also produces _______________ toxins, which lyse blood cells and ____________________, which lyse both red and white blood cells.
erythrogenic; streptolysins
Jaundice is caused by ________ _________.
excess bilirubin
Systemic diseases include toxic shock syndrome, non-streptococcal (TSS), which is characterized by ____________________________________________ in response to production of TSS toxin.
fever, vomiting, red rash, low blood pressure, and loss of sheets of skin
Damage to the vessels can result in kidney failure, as the glomeruli lose their ability to___________________________________.
filter wastes from the body
With tetanus, contraction of the diaphragm results in a _____ _____________; patients die because they cannot ___________.
final inhalation; exhale
Botulism toxins bind irreversibly to the cytoplasmic membrane of neurons and prevent the release of acetylcholine and therefore prevent muscular contraction, resulting in ________ __________
flaccid paralysis.
Mycoplasmas are the smallest:
free-living cells.
A ___________, or boil, is a large, painful, raised nodular ex- tension of folliculitis into surrounding tissue.
furuncle
Listeria monocytogenes binds to the surface of cells, usually in the _____________, and triggers _____________. After exiting the phagosome, it grows and reproduces inside the cytosol, and then moves to the cell surface, where it enters a ______________. A neighboring cell endocytizes the pseudopod, and the cycle begins again.
gallbladder; phagocytosis; pseudopod
Immune complexes are deposited in kidneys and various tissues, and the accompanying cell destruction result in:
glomerulonephritis, arthritis, a red rash, hemolytic anemia, bleeding disorders, and muscle inflammation.
Asthma is treated with inhalants containing:
glucocorticoid, and a bronchodilator
Transplant recipients may suffer ________________________ when donated bone marrow T cells recognize the recipient's cells as foreign.
graft-versus-host disease
A perfect match is rarely achieved, but the closer the match, the greater the chance of successful:
grafting or transplanting.
Because mycoplasmas are small and grow slowly in culture, the infection is difficult to diagnose: ______________, ____, or ELISA may be used for diagnosis.
hemagglutination; IFA
If the recipient has pre-existing antibodies, the donated cells will be destroyed immediately by complement- mediated _____________
hemolysis
S. pneumoniae are alpha-____________ and _____ sensitive.
hemolytic; bile
Many cyanobacteria fix nitrogen in thick-walled cells called _____________.
heterocysts
One significant chemical released from mast cells is __________________, a small molecule that stimulates ________________________________________________________ and irritates nerve endings, causing itching and pain.
histamine, smooth muscle contraction and vasodilation
Tetanus infection is diagnosed by:
history and characteristic signs.
Infants should not consume _______ since it is often associated with infant botulism.
honey
AIDS is characterized by the presence of several rare or opportunistic infections along with infection by:
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or as a severe decrease in CD4 cells and a test showing the presence of HIV.
The alpha-hemolytic streptococci normally inhabit the ______________________. (5 regions)
human mouth; pharynx; and gastrointestinal, urinary, and genital tracts.
S. aureus produces ______________ and ________________, which enable the bacteria to spread within the body
hyaluronidase, staphylokinase
Immunological responses are at times excessive and can give rise to inflammatory reactions called __________________________, which may be more precisely defined as any immune response against a foreign antigen that is exaggerated beyond the norm.
hypersensitivities
Itching in response to contact with wool is an example of a _________________ _________________.
hypersensitivity response
The formation of complexes of antigen bound to IgG, also called _________ _______________, initiates several molecular processes, including complement activation.
immune complexes
Normally, immune complexes are removed from the body via phagocytosis. However, in type III hypersensitivity reactions, the __________________________________________ in the bloodstream until they become trapped in tissues, joints, and organs.
immune complexes escape phagocytosis and circulate
Diagnosis of C. difficile infection is confirmed by isolating the organism from feces or by demonstrating the presence of toxins via ___________________.
immunoassays
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is difficult to diagnose, and is treated with ______________________________.
immunosuppressive drugs.
Commonly used __________________________________ include glucocorticoids, commonly called corticosteroids or steroids, such as _____________________________, which suppresses the response of T cells to antigen and inhibits T cell cytotoxicity and cytokine production.
immunosuppressive drugs; prednisone and methylprednisolone
Some patients elect ______________________ ("allergy shots"), which consists of a series of dilute allergen injections, or allergy shots, administered over a period of several months.
immunotherapy
Basophils are leukocytes that are similar to mast cells in that they have similar ________________ _________________ and __________________ in the same way.
inflammatory chemicals and degranulate
Anthrax is primarily a disease of herbivores; humans normally contract the disease from infected animals. The endospores can invade three ways:
inhalation, inoculation of wounds, and ingestion.
C. difficile is a normal member of the ______________ microbiota, and an opportunistic pathogen.
intestinal
Mariprofundus ferrooxydans oxidizes _______ and uses ____________ as an electron acceptor.
iron, oxygen
Group A streptococci disease: *Streptococcal toxic-shock syndrome (STSS) *
is a rare but severe bacteremia followed by intense pain and organ failure, and over 40% of patients die.
Pneumococcal pneumonia:
is the most prevalent disease caused by S. pneumoniae infection, which constitutes about 85% of all cases of pneumonia and results following viral infections or other damage to the lungs.
Type I (juvenile-onset) diabetes mellitus is an immunological attack on the ______________________ cells resulting in the inability to produce the hormone __________.
islets of Langerhans; insulin
In an __________, tissues are moved between genetically identical individuals (identical twins).
isograft
As RA progresses, cartilage and bone are eroded and destroyed, resulting in ______________________________________.
joint distortion and lost range of motion.
The released hemoglobin may cause ________ ____________, the fragments of cells can cause blood clots and circulatory failure.
kidney damage
S. aureus produces __________, which allow growth in sebaceous glands.
lipases
Preventive measures of B. anthracis include vaccination of __________
livestock
The initial, diagnostic sign of tetanus is tightening of the jaw, called ____________.
lockjaw
Cells of group B Streptococcus occur normally in the:
lower gastrointestinal, urinary, and genital tracts.
Some children fail to develop any __________________ whatsoever and cannot mount any type of immune response.
lymphoid stem cells
What is used to treat mycoplasma infections?
macrolides
Donated _____ restores the immune response but can produce _____________.
marrow; disease
The IgE binds very strongly with its stem to three types of defense cells— __________________________________ —sensitizing them to respond to subsequent exposures to the allergen.
mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils
The chlamydias have two __________________ but no _______________________ in their cell wall.
membranes, peptidoglycan
Viridians streptococci are not invasive but enter the blood through small and large cuts to cause:
meningitis and endocarditis.
Gammaproteobacteria includes _________ ______________, which digest most of the methane produced by methanogens before it can adversely affect the world's climate.
methane oxidizers
(Hypersensitivity Pneumonia) Individuals become sensitized when ________________________ or other ________________ are inhaled deep into the lungs, stimulating the production of antibodies. Subsequent inhalations stimulate the formation of immune complexes that then activate complement.
minute mold spores antigens
Infections may trigger autoimmunity as a result of ______________ ______________, in which an infectious agent has an epitope that is similar to a self-antigen.
molecular mimicry
S. pneumoniae grows in the ________ and _______ in 75% of humans, but do not typically cause disease until they gain access to the lungs.
mouths and pharynges
Streptococcus are catalase ___________ and are facultatively ____________.
negative; anaerobic
Many cyanobacteria reduce atmospheric N2 to NH3 via a process called __________ ____________.
nitrogen fixation
Azospirillum and Rhizobium are __________ ____________ that associate with the roots of plants and are important in agriculture. Another nitrogen-fixer, Rhodopseudomonas palustris has potential for _______ ______________.
nitrogen fixers; biofuel production
Food poisoning is one ____________ disease caused by Staphylococcus.
noninvasive
Staphylococci cause a variety of medical problems that can be categorized as:
noninvasive, cutaneous, and systemic
S. agalactiae forms capsules that, unlike those of S. pyogenes, are:
not protective.
Group A streptococci disease: *Scarlet fever (scarlatina)*
often accompanies streptococcal pharyngitis when the infection involves a lysogenized strain. It is characterized by a diffuse rash followed by sloughing of the skin.
A wide variety of ________________________________________ occur in AIDS patients.
opportunistic infections and rare cancers
Methanogens play significant roles in the environment by converting:
organic wastes in pond, lake, and ocean sediments into methane
When Staphylococcus invades bone, it causes ______________________, inflammation of the bone marrow and surrounding bone.
osteomyelitis
sulfur bacteria derive electrons from the:
oxidation of hydrogen sulfide to sulfur.
Nitrifying bacteria, including Nitrobacter __________________________________________________________.
oxidize nitrogen compounds to NO3 via a process called nitrification.
S. pneumoniae is a Gram-positive coccus that commonly forms ______ and ________.
pairs and short chains
The genus Streptococcus is a diverse assemblage of Gram-positive cocci arranged in ___________________.
pairs or chains
Bacilli are found singly, in pairs, in chains, or in a folded _______________________ arrangement as a consequence of snapping division.
palisade
The G + C content is the:
percentage of all base pairs in a genome that are guanine-cytosine base pairs.
In addition, there are star-shaped, triangular, and rectangular prokaryotes as well as ______________________ prokaryotes, which vary in shape and size.
pleomorphic
Pathogenic strains contain copies of a plasmid coding for anthrax toxins, three distinct ________________ components that in combination are lethal to cells.
polypeptide
Histamine also increases vascular __________________ and ________________.
permeability, secretion
S. pneumoniae is a normal member of the ______________ microbiota.
pharyngeal
Group A streptococci frequently infect the _______ or _________, but the resulting abscesses are usually temporary.
pharynx or skin
Blue-green bacteria are in phylum _________________.
phylum Cyanobacteria
Mycoplasmas appear _______ when stained with Gram stain and may take on a variety of shapes, and require osmotically protected environments.
pink
Virulent strains of S. pneumoniae are protected by _____________ ________________ and ____________________ in their cell walls, which together allow the bacteria to enter cells and "hide."
polysaccharide capsules and phosphorylcholine
Coagulase-______________ S. aureus is able to clot blood.
positive
Mycoplasma pneumoniae attaches to receptors in the human respiratory tract, interrupting the normal removal of mucus from the respiratory tract and leading to _______ _________ _______________, or walking pneumonia.
primary atypical pneumonia
If the recipient does not have pre-existing antibodies, a _________ _____________ _____________ develops and eventually _____________ the donated cells but damage progresses slowly and is not a problem.
primary immune response, destroys
Staphylococci are transmitted through direct contact and via fomites, and _____________________________________ are essential in preventing their transfer in health care settings.
proper hand washing and aseptic techniques
In serious cases, C. difficile can produce a life- threatening ___________________________ _________________, in which large sections of the colon wall slough off, potentially perforating the colon and leading to massive internal infection by fecal bacteria and eventual death.
pseudomembranous colitis
Staphylococcus aureus causes localized ____________ lesions.
pyogenic
S. pyogenes produce __________________, which stimulate fever
pyrogenic toxins
Nonsulfur bacteria derive electrons for the:
reduction of CO2 from organic compounds such as carbohydrates and organic acids
Type I hypersensitivities are localized or systemic reactions that result from the:
release of inflammatory molecules such as histamine.
cuboidal packets are ______________
sarcinae
Survey of prokaryotes largely follows the classification scheme proposed in the _______ _______ of Bergey's Manual.
second edition
Failure of the normal control mechanisms of the immune system may permit ____________________ to survive and cause disease.
self-reactive T cells
The resulting immune defects cause:
severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID).
Previously healthy immune systems may become damaged in very old age and by:
severe stress, malnutrition, or environmental toxins.
Methanogens also have useful industrial applications, such as in ___________ ______________.
sewage treatment
Clostridium tetani is a _______ ________ _______ _________ that produces a terminal endospore, giving the cell a distinctive lollipop appearance.
small, motile, obligate anaerobe
hemolytic disease of the newborn:
smaller IgG molecules directed against Rh antigen cross the placenta, destroying fetal red blood cells and causing a variety of birth defects
In ________________, the parent cell's outer wall tears apart with a snapping movement to create the daughter cells, which often remain attached.
snapping division
Clostridium tetani is ubiquitous in __________________________________________________________. Its toxin causes tetanus.
soil, dust, and the gastrointestinal tract of animals and humans
Enterococci are _________ and form short ________ and________.
spherical; chains and pairs
Actinomycetes produce reproductive cells called __________ that can develop into clones of the original organism.
spores
Irregular clusters are ____________________.
staphylococci
The spasms and contractions of tetanus can spread to other muscles and become so severe that the arms and fists curl tightly, the feet curl down, and the body assumes a ______ __________ _________.
stiff backward arch.
Spiral-shaped prokaryotes are either spirilla, which are ___________, or spirochetes, which are ______________.
stiff, flexible
If blood is transfused to an individual with a different blood type, the donor's blood group antigens may ___________________________________ in the recipient that bind to and eventually destroy the transfused cells. The result can be a potentially life-threatening ___________ ____________
stimulate the production of antibodies; transfusion reaction.
C. botulinum toxins are resistant to _________ _______
stomach acid
S. pyogenes produces enzymes and toxins that dissolve blood clots called _______________________.
streptokinase
Without immediate administration of epinephrine, an individual in anaphylactic shock may ___________________________________________________________. A variety of allergens may cause anaphylaxis.
suffocate, collapse, and die within minutes
AIDS is not a single disease, but a ___________ —a group of signs, symptoms, and diseases associated with a common pathology.
syndrome
Treponema, the agent of _____________, and Borrelia, which causes ________ _________, are examples of ________________.
syphilis, Lyme disease, Spirochetes
Cocci in a square are __________________
tetrads
Arrangements of prokaryotic cells result from two features of binary fission:
the plane of division and whether daughter cells remain attached.
The binding of allergens to IgE on mast cells activates other enzymes that trigger __________________________________________________, lipid molecules that are very powerful inflammatory agents.
the production of leukotrienes and prostaglandins
Proteases are enzymes that destroy nearby cells, activating the complement system, which results in:
the release of yet more inflammatory chemicals
Toxic shock syndrome toxin and enterotoxins cause _________ __________ _______________ and ________ _________, respectively.
toxic shock syndrome, food poisoning
DiGeorge syndrome may be treated with:
thymic stem cell transplants.
Treatment for Graves' disease involves damaging or removing most of the _________.
thyroid
Physicians examine the white cells of potential graft recipients by ______________________ to identify a donor whose MHC proteins closely match those of the recipient.
tissue typing
T cells encountering self-antigens that are normally "hidden" may:
trigger autoimmune disease.
A good example of a delayed hypersensitivity reaction is the _______________ _________________, generated when tuberculin, a protein extract of _________________ _________________, is injected into the skin of an individual who has been infected with or vaccinated against M. tuberculosis.
tuberculin response, Mycobacterium tuberculosis
MRSA is resistant to a variety of antimicrobial agents; ___________________ became the treatment of choice.
vancomycin
Another example of a __________________________ reaction is allergic contact dermatitis, which is ______________________________________________, such as those that have contacted poison ivy (urushiol) or latex.
type IV hypersensitivity; T cell-mediated damage to chemically modified skin cells
Enterococci are _________________, able to grow at temperatures up to ______, in alkaline conditions, and are salt and bile salt __________.
unencapsulated; 45°C; tolerant
Staphylococci are found on human skin, as well as in the:.
upper respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts
Raised, itchy skin lesions characterize _____________, commonly called __________.
urticaria, hives
Now there is an increasing prevalence of ________________________________ (VRSA) strains.
vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
Insufficient T cell production leads to an increased incidence of:
viral diseases and certain types of cancer.
Epulopiscium and many of its relatives have a unique method of reproduction, ___________________, whereby the organism gives "birth" to live offspring that emerge from the body of the dead mother cell.
viviparity
Signs and symptoms of food poisoning:
vomiting, diarrhea, headache, and abdominal pain, and they usually appear within four hours of ingestion.
The class ____________________________ are identified on the basis of DNA sequences. They appear to be autotrophs using carbon dioxide as a carbon source.
zetaproteobacteria