MICROBIOLOGY LECTURE AND LAB FINAL REVIEWS

Macrophages

*Antigen presenting cells. **Monocytes become macrophages at maturation ***They move between interstitial fluid where they phagocytize bacteria and cell debris. ****Prepare foreign substances for reactions with B and T cells.

What are the two life cycles in viral replication?

a)Lytic cycle b)Lysogenic cycle

what is miniaturized or automated identification of bacteria

biolog microstation

What do you understand by Microbicidal?

- Kills organism outright - Ex: incineration

Immunogen

- is a substance that can produce a state of immunity in the host, after processing by the immune system. Therefore if an antigen is big enough, the right shape, is considered foreign, and is accessible (by presentation in an APC cell) then it will produce an immune state (or resistance to disease) in the host and is considered an immunogen. Most use the terms antigen and immunogen synonymously.

general characteristics of a virus

-acellular -genome -protein coat -no ribosomes -no metabolism -obligate-intracellular parasites -no growth -not alive basically a genome surrounded by a capsid

Basophiles

0.5% of total wbc's.

1 codon =

1 amino acid 3 nucleotides

3 Processes that constitute hemopoiesis

1)Erythropoiesis 2)Leukopoiesis 3)Thrombopoiesis

What are the parts of viruses?

A genome and a protein molecule

Cell surface markers involved in immune reactions

A. are the result of genetic expression B. function in recognition of self molecules C. receive and transmit chemical messages among other cells of the system D. aid in cellular development

Allergy

an unfortunate side effect of a working immune system.

Know the start codons.

AUG

Attachment is also known as _______

Adsorption

Are microaerophiles aerobic or anaerobic?

Aerobic but requires very small amounts of oyxgen

lysozyme

An enzyme that hydrolyzes the cell wall of bacteria, in tea000rs/saliva/sweat. 1st line defense

What alters flora?

Antibiotics, dietary changes, and disease.

Allergens

Antigens which can cause allergic symptoms. Mostly environmental antigens.

Bone marrow

Are localized in the red marrow of the bone. - B cells.

Antibiotics

Are natural chemotherapeutic agents, produced by microbes which in very small quantities is inhibitory or destructive to other organisms.

Antibiotics

Are natural chemotherapeutic agents, produced by microbes, which in very small quantities is inhibitory or destructive to other microorganisms.

Decomposers

Are organisms that get their energy by breaking down wastes and dead organisms

Prokaryotic reproduction is _____ and is done via binary ____

Asexual, binary fission

Viral components will now infect other cells in which step?

Assembly and release

Monocytes

At maturation become macrophages.

When does the human body begin to be colonized by its normal flora?

At the moment of birth or shortly after

__________________ stimulated with ___________ differentiate into __________, which secrete antibodies into the bloodstream.

B-cells, antigen, plasma cells

Bacteria infected by viruses are also known as ______ or _______

Bacteriophage, phage

Bacterial flora

Benefits host by preventing overgrowth of harmful microbes - microbial antagonism.

Identical subunits of the capsid are called _________.

Capsomeres

What are the four macromolecules?

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

What is the primary dye in the acid fast stain?

Carbol Fuchsin

Combined response to sluble antigens

Causes neutralization and clearance of the antigen.

Asthma

Chronic respiratory condition

Cells die exponentially in this phase.

Death phase

This counts both dead and alive microbes.

Direct cell count

Sites that harbor microflora

Females - vagina and outer opening of urethra Males - Anterior

Cellular immunity

Generally the body will initiate a cellular immune response when the antigenic compound is large e.g., cancer, viruses etc. Lymphocytes>T-lymph>T - cells>T Helper cells, T suppressor cells, T memory cells

Repressible

Genes in a series are turned off by the product synthesized; anabolic operon-enzymes used to synthesize an amino acid stop being produced when they are not needed.

Three basic categories of genes

Genes that code for protein - structural genes Genes that code for RNA Genes that control gene expression - regulatory genes

Chromosome is divided into _____?

Genes the fundamental unit of heredity responsible for a given trait.

Probiotic

Good bacteria

Interferon

HUman based glycoproteins that are secreted by infected cells (cancer and virus). To treat cancer patients.

30 enzymes to unwind and duplicate DNA, 6 are important enzymes

Helicase Primase DNA polymerace III DNA polymerare I Lipase Gyrase

Primosome

Helicase - unwinds and unzips the DNA double helix. Topoisomerases relieve the coiling tension that develops as the helicase unwinds. Primase - An RNA primer synthesized at the origin of replication

Immune cells that secrete cytokines and activate other immune cells are:

Helper T-cells

_________ infects human liver cells

Hepatitis B

Body's thermostat

Hypothalamus

The immunoglobulin class that has a dimer form found in mucus, saliva, colostrum, and other body secretions is

IgA

The primary B-cell receptor is

IgD

The immunoglobulin class that is the only one capable of crossing the placenta is

IgG

If a patient has been exposed to an antigen for the first time, which class of immunoglobulin appears first?

IgM

Systemic infection

Infection spreads to several sites and tissue fluids usually in the bloodstream.

There are no perfect drugs only ideal drugs which?

Inhibit or destroy

Primary infection

Initial infection

Halogens

Iodine and chlorine

Active natural immunity

Is acquired after an infection.

Instead of capsids, these atypical viruses have ______

Lipoproteins

Hepatitis B can lead to _______ cirrhosis or cancer

Liver

Invasive cancer cells are said to be _______

Malignant

These bacteria like to grow in human body temperate

Mesophiles

The process of cancer cells invading other tissues and organs is called

Metastasis

The more the hydroxyl, the more ____

More basic=higher pH

Microbial ______ is why we inoculate

Nutrition

These are viruses that have the capacity to initiate tumors/cancer

Oncoviruses

5. What does PABA stand for?

Para-Aminobenzoic acid

What viruses are viroids?

Plant viruses (only infects plants such as bananas and potatoes

The progeny cells of a B-cell clone are called

Plasma cells

Reservoir

Primary habitat of pathogen in the natural world. (human, or animal carrier, soil, water, plants).

Chronic infections

Progress and persist over a long period of time.

Apoenzyme

Protein portion of a holoenzyme

Nitrogenous bases are categorized into two families

Pyramidines > Cytosine, thymine, Uracil (CTU) Purines > Adenine, guanine (AG)

What are the name of some drugs that impede microbial nucleoid, stopping transcription and translation?

Quinolones- ciproflaxin, RNA- polymerase, rifampin

Surfactants

Reduce the surface tension in liquid molecules. Mechanically remove microbes from the surfaces.

Immunodeficiency disease - Hyposensitivity of the immune system

Reduced or absent immune response

Degermation

Reduces the number of microbes through mechanical means.

What is the medium for growing fastidious bacteria?

Reducing

These viruses need other viruses for replication

Satellite Viruses

These viruses will not infect you unless you are already infected with other viruses

Satellite Viruses

Mixed infection

Several microbes grow simultaneously at the infection site - polymicrobial.

Each nucleotide is made up of?

Sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate and a nitrogen base.

These are microbes that establish ecological, nutritional relationships

Symbiont

These are required relationships between organisms because it is used for survival

Symbiotic relationships

Organisms cooperate and share nutrients in what kind of relationship?

Synergism

The messages are carried from?

The DNA to the mRNA and coded for amino acid. This flow of information is called CENTRAL DOGMA of molecular biology. DNA.......Transcription......mRNA Translation........ Amino acid....(proteins).

Memory

The ability of the immune system to recognize previously encountered microbes. Also called the anamnestic response. Which is the ability to quickly respond to a previous infection.

Diversity

The ability of the immune system to respond to the numerous types of microbes.

Specificity

The ability of the immune system to specifically recognize and eliminate a specific microbe.

Epitopes

The portion of the antigen that reacts with the antibodies.

Type IV Delayed or Cell - Mediated Hypersensitivity

The skin reaction caused by antigen , delayed for many hours, - gradually becomes bigger over 24-48 hours and then diminishes. It is a delay response to antigens involving the activation of and damage by T cells. Function to kill virus - Infected cells or tumor cells, but in the process many normal host cells are killed as innocent bystanders. EX: tuberculin reaction, contact dermatitis, mismatched organ transplant.

Genetics

The study of inheritance or heredity similarities to parents and differences from parents.

Immunology

The study of the natural resistance to pathogen and of the immune systems.

Central lymphoid organs

Thymus and bone marrow

What is transcription?

Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language.

________ is the process by which a protein is synthesized from the information contained in a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA)

Translation

Stop (termination) codon

UAA, UAG, UGA

How are viruses classified under the taxonomic hierarchy?

Viruses can be classified starting from order. Order=3 Family=63 Genus=263 Species-type--refers to the class of the virus such as HIV class I, HIV class II

Define broad-spectrum drug?

Work against a wide variety of bacteria -- Can be used in cases where you may not be exactly sure what bacteria is causing the infection

hemolytic bacteria and diseases

X-alpha-hemolysis Pseudomonas aerugenosa B-Beta hemolysis. Straph. aureus

What is a semisynthetic antibiotic?

a natural antibiotic that has been chemically modified in the laboratory to enhance its stability.

What is intron?

a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule that does not code for proteins and interrupts the sequence of genes.

What is an anticodon?

a sequence of three nucleotides forming a unit of genetic code in a transfer RNA molecule, corresponding to a complementary codon in messenger RNA.

Edema

a soft swelling due to fluid accumulation in the tissues.

The cross-linkage of antigens by antibodies is known as

agglutination

Peripheral lymphoid systems

all lymphoid tissues and organs except the thymus. bone marrow, thymus glands, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils.

Differential medium

allows growth of several types of microbes and displays visible differences among those microbes

Ig D

attached on the surface membrane of b cells.

Know examples of drugs for treating fungal infections.

clotrimazole econazole miconazole terbinafine fluconazole ketoconazole amphotericin

Conjugated vaccines combine combine antigens and _________.

foreign proteins

Which is incorrect about the Fc region of an immunoglobulin?

forms the antigen binding sites

The monomer subunit of immunoglobulin molecules has all the following except

four antigen binding sites

**LYOPHILIZATION:

free drying; preservation.

An example of artificial passive immunity would be

giving a person immune serum globulins to chickenpox virus after exposure to the disease

The major histocompatability complex is

glycoproteins, called MHC antigens, found on all body cells except red blood cells

Widespread immunity that protects the population from the spread of disease is called:

herd immunity

Osmotic pressure dictates that bacteria prefer ______ and ______ environments

hypotonic and isotonic environments

What is the E-test in microbiology?

is a manual in vitro diagnostic device used by laboratories to determine the MIC and whether or not a specific strain of bacterium or fungus is susceptible to the action of a specific antimicrobial

Immunocompetence

is the ability of the body to react with a wide spectrum of foreign substances.

Properties of effective antigens include all the following except

large polymers made up of repeating subunits

lysogenic cycle

latent,temprate,dormant attachment-adsoptom penetration-entry un coat integration

What are the three types of RNA and what do they stand for? What do they do?

mRNA- messenger RNA, carries message tRNA- transfer RNA brings protein subunits, known as amino acids, to the ribosome where proteins are constructed rRNA- ribosomal RNA--helps package all these different secretory proteins

Variable side chain main ingredient

metabolic activity, allergic reaction

What is a differential medium?

multiple types grow. differences shown through: size and color, media color changes, formation of bubbles and precipitates. media can be both selective and differential.

These lymphocytes lack specificity for antigen and are cells that attack cancer cells and virus-infected cells

natural killer (NK) cells

opportunistic pathogens

normal microbial inhabitants of the human body that are non-pathogens become pathogenic when immune system is immune suppressed.(when the immune system is weak)e.g. streptococtus pneumonia > strep throat/pneumonia>herpes simplex >cold sores

Mechanical vector

not necessary to the life cycle of an infectious agent and merely transports it without being infected.

Endogenous infections

occur when normal flora is introduced to a site that was previously sterile.

Iodine

one of the oldest antiseptics: affects a broad spectrum of organisms: bacteria, some fungi & some viruses.

Prostaglandns

powerful inflammatory agents. Vasodilation - increased vascular permeability, increased sensitivity to pain, and bronchoconstriction.

Leukotriene

prolonged bronchospasm, vascular permeability, and mucous secretion of the asthmatic individual.

Erythema

redenind, edema

rRNA

ribosomal RNA; type of RNA that makes up part of the ribosome. "workbench"

1st line of defense - Nonspecific innate immunity

skin, mucous membranes, sweat, tears, coughing, nasal hair traps, tear production, etc.

If conversion takes place within retroviruses, they are said to be _________

ssRNA negative sense viruses

These cells carry CD8 receptors and function to inhibit B cells and other T cells

suppressor T cells

controlling microbes

the goal of ______ is to control the growth of microbes that can cause infection or spoilage (detrimental effects) -targets all microbes, vegetative and inert forms -targets: bacteria (vegetative and endospores), fungal hyphae and spores, yeast, protozoans (trophozoites and cysts), and viruses

What is antisepsis?

the practice of using antiseptics to eliminate the microorganisms that cause disease.

Bioremediation

the use of microorganisms to degrade and/or remove potentially harmful contaminants from the environment

Activation of B cells occurs when antigen binds to B cell surface immunoglobulin receptors

true

What is irradiation?

use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors.

ogliodynamic activity

using a small amount of heavy metal dust to inhibit or destroy a large amount of microbes.

heat, low temperature, filtration, radiation, osmotic pressure

what are the 5 methods of physical control?

What are purines?

(AG) Adenine, guanine

What is the mode of action for antiviral drugs?

1.Inactivate extracellular virus particles 2.Prevent viral attachment and/or entry 3.prevent replication of the viral genome 4.prevent synthesis of specific viral protein(S) 5.prevent assembly or release of new infectious virions

Adults synthesize __ amino acids and need __ essential amino acids.

12, 20

Atopy

A chronic local allergy

What is reverse transcriptase?

A reverse transcriptase (RT) is an enzyme used to generate DNA from an RNA template, a process termed reverse transcription.

Exon

A segment of DNA molecule that codes for proteins.

Mutation

A stable change of a gene.

Transduction

A virus (vector) serves as the carriers of DNA from a donor bacterium to a recipent bacterium. Bacteriophage involved.

The lower the pH, the more _____

Acidic

Natural immunity

Acquired as part of normal life experiences.

Biological vectors

Actively participate in pathogen's life cycle

Phenol

Also called carbolic acid, was used to control surgical infections, due to it's effect on controlling odor in sewage. No longer used often- due to irritation of skin and bad odor.

Thiazolidine ring

Aminopenicillianic acid

Pathogens

Are parasitic microbes whose relationship with a host results in infection and disease.

What are the stages of the lysogenic cycle?

Attachment (adsorption), entry (penetration), uncoat, integration

Which of the following can serve an antigen-presenting cells (APCs)?

B cells macrophages dendritic cells

A tumor that does not spread its cells to other tissues or organs is

Benign

How do we achieve sterility?

Best accomplished by physical methods Achieved on basis of probability because bacteria are killed exponentially over time

Permease

Brings lactose across cell membrane

If a codon for alanine is GCA, then the anticodon is

CGU

The four classical signs of inflammation may also arise:

Calor - Heat Dolor - Pain Rubor - Redness Tumor - swelling Fever - may develop due to the release of PYROGENS (PYLETIC chemicals)

Cells dividing rapidly outside of the cell cycle is _______

Cancer

Capnophiles are bacteria that will grow in very high ___________ environment

Carbon dioxide

Nonsense mutation

Changes a normal codon onto a stop codon.(EX:UUU.UAA)

Organisms that get their energy from food are said to be ______

Chemotrophic (remember that food is a chemical)

AUG

Codes for Methionine> Start codon = start making more

Genome cells

Composed of DNA

Flora

Creates an environment that may prevent infections and can enhance host defenses.

______ or _______ can be single stranded or double stranded but never both.

DNA or RNA

FAB - Fragments antigen binding

Defines the specificity of antibodies.

After secreting antibodies during an immune response, plasma cells then differentiate into memory cells.

False

Antibodies are secreted by monocytes

False

Antibodies directed to alloantigen from one organism often cross-react with alloantigens from another organism.

False

Chlorine Cl2

Has 2 forms: Gas or combined with other chemicals. Liquid form: compressed chlorine gas, used in disinfecting municipal water supply. Hypochlorite solution: may be used to disinfect restaurant utensils is known as household bleach. Clorox. Chloramines: Chlorine combined with ammonia. Used for disinfection.

Lymphocytes system

Interconnecting network of organ and tissues.

______ is responsible for hyperactivity

Iodine

Nucleus and protein

Is chromatid and chromosome

Where is vitamin K produced in the body?

K1 is produced from dietary sources while K2 is produced in the intestines.

The ______ cycle is destructive and virulent while the _____ cycle is temperate and dormant.

Lytic, lysogenic

Questions 31 to 36 are all part of the _____ cycle

Lytic.

Define, narrow-spectrum drug?

Only active against a small group of bacteria -- Know you are treating those specific bacteria when using these drugs

Viruses that have only proteins without genome are called ______.

Prions

These microorganisms like to grow in very cold environments

Psychrophiles

Medium with thioglycollic acid

Reducing media

What is resolving power or resolution?

Resolving power is defined as the ability of a microscope or telescope to distinguish two close together images as being separate. An example of resolving power is how well a telescope can show two stars as being separate stars.

Food allergy

Respiratory, cutaneous, and skin reactions to common foodstuff.

Lymphokines

Soluble protein produced and secreted by sensitized T lymphocytes (T cells).

A vaccine that contains parts of viruses is called

Subunit

Thymus

Synthesized in the red bone marrow of bone and migrate to the thymus gland. T-cells.

During immune response.

T cells recognizes the carrier and B cells produce antibodies to epitopes

Ethylene oxide gas is used in a special chamber.

TRUE

Glutaraldehyde is officially accepted as a sterilant.

TRUE

Self/non-self recognition

The ability of the immune system to distinguish between its own cells and all other foreign substances.

Structure of antibody - characteristics

The antibody unit resembles a small, fat letter Y with 3 regions corresponding to the arms of the Y constructed from 4 polypeptide chains - heavy chains plus 2 light chains, all bound to each other in the intact molecule by disulfide bounds.

True or false: ALL tumors are cancerous

True, even benign ones

T/F: Metabolic mechanism of our cells are affected negatively by viruses

True. Remember viruses do not have a metabolism and thus rely on our cells' metabolism in order to reproduce

Chlorhexidine is used for wound degerming, neonatal washes, hand scrubbing, and prepping surgical skin sites.

True: Surfactant and protein denaturant with broad microbiocidal properties Skin degerming agents for preoperative scrubs, skin cleaning and burns

This form of cell count involves a degree of cloudiness which is used to calculate the number of microbes.

Turbidimetric analysis

If the DNA sequence is ATTCCGGA, the mRNA transcript would be

UAAGGCCU

Serotonin

Uncertain role. Complements histamine action. Increases vascular permeability, capillary dilation, smooth muscle contraction, intestinal peristalsis, and resipratory rate, Diminishes CNS activity

What is Biotechnology?

Using microorganisms in the production of foods, new substances, such as vaccines, antibiotics an vitamins.

What are enterotoxins?

a toxin produced in or affecting the intestines such as those causing food poisoning or cholera.

asepsis

absence of significant contamination

What does STORCH stand for?

acronym for disease group comprising syphilis,toxoplasmosis,rubella,cytomegalovirus,and herpes.

Helper T cells

activate B cells and other T cells

Tincture of iodine

alcohol solution of iodine

bacteriophages

bacteria infected by a virus have the natural ability to inject their DNA into bacterial hosts through transduction

cold and desiccation

cold, freezing, refrigeration, desiccation, lyphophilization

Examples of antiseptics.

common antiseptics are alcohol, iodine, hydrogen peroxide, and boric acid

DNA

double helical structure discovered by Watson and Crick in 1956.

sepsis

growth of microbes in blood and other tissues

What is thermal death time (TDT)?

how long it takes to kill a specific bacteria at a specific temperature.

Lysozyme

is found in tears, saliva. They break down cell wall of bacteria

Which process involves antibodies coating microorganisms in order to facilitate phagocytosis?

opsonization

Plasma cells

secrete antibodies

Phylogeny

the evolutionary history of a species or group of species

What are some characteristics of antimicrobial drugs?

•Selectively toxic to the microbe but nontoxic to the host •Microbicidal rather than microbistatic •Relatively soluble; functions even when highly diluted in body fluids •Remains potent long enough to act and is not broken down or excreted prematurely •Doesn't lead to the development of antimicrobial resistance •Complements or assists the activities of the host's defenses •Remains active in tissues and body fluids •Readily delivered to the site of infection •Reasonably priced •Does not disrupt the host's health by causing allergies or predisposing the host to other infections

physical, chemical

(of factors that affect efficacy of _____ and _____ agents) -nature of microbes in population: single or multiple types of microbes present -degree of contamination (the number of microbes): larger populations harder to treat; activity also affected by the presence of solvents, organic matters, or inhibitors -presence of solvents, organic matter, inhibitors -temperature and pH of the environment -duration of exposure (longer is better) -concentration of agent: usually higher concentration or intensities kill more rapidly; relationship is not linear

True pathogens

(primary pathogens) capable of causing disease in healthy person with normal immune defenses TB influenza virus plague bacillus malarral protozoan.

True pathogens (primary pathogens)

* Capable of causing disease in healthy persons with normal immune defenses. They are generally associated with a specific, recognizable disease. * Influenza virus, plague bacillus, malarial protozoan

Natural Killer Cells

*No phagocytic activity. *Destroys the body's own infected cells, especially those harboring viruses. *Attacks abnormal cells that could become tumors. ****The 1st line of defense against cancer - they seek, recognize and destroy tumor cells as soon as they appear. ****Kills self while destroying infected cells.

There are two general groups of pathogens.

*True pathogens (primary pathogens) *Opportunistic pathogens -

Hemopoiesis

-->The process of blood cell formation from established blood cell precursors -->A necessary process b/c mature blood cells have a relatively short life-span & must be continously replaced by the progeny of STEM CELLS -->Cells produced from stem cells: Erythrocytes, Granular Leukocytes, Monocytes, Lymphocytes, and Platelets

Cancer

-Overgrowth of abnormal tissue - Neoplasm May be due to: A. genetic predisposition B. Behavioral C. Spontaneous mutation

What is Kirby Bauer testing?

antimicrobial-impregnated paper disks are placed on plate inoculated to form a bacterial lawn. the plates are incubated and time is given for agent to diffuse into agar. The resulting concentration gradient establishes the organisms supposed susceptibility to supposed agent.

What are phenols or phenolics?

any compound that contains a six-membered aromatic ring, bonded directly to a hydroxyl group

Codons

are located on messenger RNA

What type of immunity results from vaccination?

artificially acquired active immunity

moist heat

-use: disinfection, sanitization, sterilization -mode of action: denatures/coagulates proteins and disrupts membranes -more effective than dry hear because water is a better conductor of heat than air -autoclave, tyndallization, pasteurization, ultra high temperature, boiling

.No new cells are formed in what phase? What are no new cells formed?

.Lag phase. No new cells formed because bacteria are still getting used to the new environment and hides between cells of our bodies to avoid our body's immune defenses

What is sterilization?

1. the process of making something free from bacteria or other living microorganisms. "disinfection and sterilization of surgical equipment" 2. surgery to make a person or animal unable to produce offspring. "she had three children and had undergone sterilization"

Taxonomic hierarchy

1. Domain 2. kingdom 3. Phylum (division for plants) 4. Classes 5. Order 6. Family 7. Genus 8. Species

Know the characteristics of ideal drugs?

1. It should be able to DESTROY or INHIBIT many kinds of pathogenic microorganisms. Broad spectrum antibiotics - Effective against many different species. 2. It should inhibit microorganisms, to prevent the development of antibiotic-resistant forms of disease - producing microorganisms. 3. It should not produce undesirable side effects; e.g. allergic reactions. 4. It should not eliminate the normal microorganisms that inhabit the intestinal or other areas of the body-normal flora, which helps in preventing pathogenic microorganisms from growing and establishing infections. 5. If given orally, it should not be inactivated by stomach acids; it should be absorbed into the boy from the intestinal tract. If given by injection; it should not be inactivated by binding to blood proteins. 6. It should be highly soluble in body fluids; it must be in a solution to be active. 7. It must be able to reach sufficiently high concentration in the tissues or blood of the patient to kill or inhibit pathogens. Antibiotics are classified into groups based on their chemical structure and mode of action.

3 main types of RNA involved in protein synthesis. 1.

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) mostly linear molecules that carry genetic messages from dna. mRNA encodes triplets of neucleotides called codons. Codons are only found on mRNA. They are A,U,G, and C.

modes of action

1. alteration of cell walls: results in cell lysis 2. alteration of cytoplasmic or viral membranes: results in leakage of cellular content; viral membrane→ block adsorption→ interrupts viral replication 3. interference with protein and nucleic acid structure: damage to nucleic acid, denaturation of protein 4. interference with protein function: denaturation of protein

types of hemolysis

1.hemolysis/partial hemolysis/pseudomones aerugenosa 2.hemolysis/complete hemolysis/staph. aureus(clear) 3.hemolysis/no homolysis/ecoli(White)

purpose of steak method

1.streak plate 2.streak to isolate 3.quadrant test 4.Z plate to isolated separate the different species bacteria on the 3rd quadrant (critical)

pH runs from 0 to ___, with the midpoint being ___

14,7

What are the units of autoclave.

15 psi/121c/10-40min

Antibiotics

2 antibiotics can be used in food preservation: Nisin - added to cheese to inhibit an endospore - forming bacteria that may cause spoilage of the dairy products. Natamycin - antifungal used in foods, especially cheese.

Structure if an Antibody - antibodies have bivalent nature:

2 antigen-binding, which cause aggregation of the antigens, resulting in precipitation and cell activation.

3 main types of RNA involved in protein synthesis. 2.

2. In prokaryotes onr mRNA molecule carries a code for several different proteins and are said to be POLYCISTRONIC.

Out of the 93 occurring elements, __ of which are of biological importance, and __ are very essential.

25,6

3 main types of RNA involved in protein synthesis. 3.

3. In eukaryotes mRNA codes for one amino acid and are said to be MONOCISTRONIC.

Each nucleotide consists of 3 parts

A 5 carbon sugar-deoxyribose A phosphate group A nitrogenous base-adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine

Coenzyme

A cofactor (vitamins) is the nonprotein portion of a holoenzyme. Cofactors may be organic or inorganic molecules. The organic cofactor is called COENZYME

Chromosome

A dense structure inside cells that carries hereditary information from one generation to the next. Composed of long neatly packed DNA. Contains genes(coding parts of DNA)

With regards to the previous question, what are these parts made of?

A genome is made of nucleic acid; it can be DNA or RNA. A protein molecule is made out of protein.

Vector

A live animal (other than human) that transmits an infectious agent from one host to another. EX: mosquito>plasmodium>malaria>TSE tse ply>Trypanosoma>sleeping sickness. Mosquitoes does not cause malaria but carry the disease.

Definition of pathogens

A microorganism that causes disease

Spliceosome

A molecular complex that splices and removes introns from genetic material sequences. Intron then becomes a lane and a loop then strand will join back.

What is mutation?

A permanent, inheritable change in the genetic information is called a(n) Alteration Regeneration Transcription Translation

Sterilization

A process that destroys all viable microbes, including viruses and endospores.

Disinfection

A process to destroy vegetative pathogens, not endospores, inanimate objects.

What is Ames test designed for?

A screening system called the _____ test is used for detecting chemicals with carcinogenic compounds. Any chemical capable of mutating bacterial DNA can similarly mutate mammalian DNA. Agricultural, industrial and medicinal compounds are screened using the ____ test.

Intron

A segment of DNA molecule that does not code for proteins and intervenes between two segments of genes.

In prokaryotes this regulation is coordinated by operons.

A set of genes, all of which are regulated as a single unit.

3. Gene probe

A single-stranded DNA or RNA fragment used in genetic engineering to search for a particular gene or other DNA sequence.

Nucleotides covalently bond to form?

A sugar - phosphate linkage (the backbone) Each sugar attaches to 2 phosphates - 5' carbon - 3' carbon

What is tRNA?

A transfer RNA is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA, typically 76 to 90 nucleotides in length, that serves as the physical link between the mRNA and the amino acid sequence of proteins

How is a viral infection different from a disease?

A viral infection is when the host is just infected but the host cells do not lyse. When the microbe spreads to the other organs and tissues and causes cell lysis/bursting, that is a disease.

Antigen presenting cells

A. include dendritic cells B. include macrophages C. engulf and modify antigen to be more immunogenic D. hold and present processed antigen on their cell membrane surface

Lymphocytes:

A. possess MHC antigens for recognizing self B. have membrane receptors that recognize foreign antigens C. gain tolerance to self by destruction of lymphocytes that could react against self D. develop into clones of B and T cells with extreme variations of specificity

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Acquired deficiencies in B and T cells caused by: Acquisition, blood transfusion, behavioral.

Artificial immunity

Acquired through a medical procedure such as a vaccine.

Point mutation

Addition, deletion, or substitution of a few bases. (may result in a frame shift mutation)

DNA polymerase III

Adds nucleotides in a 5' to 3' direction.

Chargaffs rule

Adenine - Thymine> (A-T) two hydrogen bonds Guanine - Cytosine> (C-G) three hydrogen bonds apples to trees cars to garages

This virus only infects you if you have adenovirus

Adeno-associate virus

Regarding the previous question, what are its two types?

Adeno-associated virus and delta agent

Latency

After the initial symptoms in certain chronic diseases, the microbe can periodically become active and produce a recurrent disease; person may or may not shed it during the latent stage.

Agglutination. Cross linking of antibodies

Agglutination tests detect antibody or antigen and involve agglutination of bacteria, red cells, or antigen- or antibody-coated latex particles. They rely on the bivalent nature of antibodies, which can cross-link particulate antigens

The higher the pH, the more _____

Alkaline

These organisms grow in more extreme alkaline pH

Alkalinophiles

Silent mutation

Alters a base but does not change the amino acid. (does not secrete a new amino acid).

Asymptomatic (subclinical) infections

Although infected, the host doesn't show any signs of disease. It is inapparent , so person doesn't seek medical attention.

Sulfonamides

Aminoglycosides are a class of antibiotics used to treat serious infections caused by bacteria that either multiply very quickly or are difficult to treat. Aminoglycosides are called bactericidal antibiotics because they kill bacteria directly. .Inhibits protein synthesis at the 30's site of the ribosome. EX: Streptomycin, Amikacin, Tetracycline. Streptomycin may be damaging to the nervous system if given over a long period of time. Neomycin is the most toxic of the aminoglycosides.

What are Aminoglycosides?

Aminoglycosides are a class of antibiotics used to treat serious infections caused by bacteria that either multiply very quickly or are difficult to treat. Aminoglycosides are called bactericidal antibiotics because they kill bacteria directly. .Inhibits protein synthesis at the 30's site of the ribosome. EX: Streptomycin, Amikacin, Tetracycline. Streptomycin may be damaging to the nervous system if given over a long period of time. Neomycin is the most toxic of the aminoglycosides.

Carrier

An individual who inconspicuously shelters a pathogen and spreads it to others;

Zoonosis

An infection indigenous to animals but naturally transmissible to humans is a zoonosis. Humans don't transmit the disease to others. At least 150 zoonosis exist worldwide; make up 70% of all new emerging diseases worldwide. Impossible to eradicate the disease without eradicating the animal reservoir.

Are aerotolerant bacteria aerobic or anaerobic?

Anaerobic but can tolerate small amounts of oxygen

Secondary infection

Another infection by a different microbe

This is the most important of all relationships. It is when we use one bacteria to kill other bacteria

Antagonism

This relationship is used in the manufacture of drugs.

Antagonism

Neutralization.

Antibodies cover surface receptors on viruses and neutralize them.

Compare the terms antigen, immunogen, and epitope.

Antigen - is anything that can generate an immune response

Sanitization

Any cleansing technique that mechanically removes microbes.

Antigen

Any foreign substance that initiates a specific immune response. Any substance that can induce an immune response in a host and react specifically with the mediator cells or molecules that result.

This is the ability of our own cells to destroy themselves

Apoptosis (eg. baby forming has webbed fingers but is born without webbed fingers due to apoptosis)

The majority of vectors are?

Arthropods - fleas, mosquitoes, flies, and ticks.

Convalescent period

As person begins to respond to the infection, symptoms decline.

What are the stages of the lytic cycle?

Attachment, entry, uncoat, integration, biosynthesis, assembly and release

Know about NK (natural killer) cells.

Attack cancer and virus infected cells. -Kill virus-infected and cancer cells by cell-to-cell contact -Seek out and kill cells that lake a particular type of "self" molecule on their surface -Considered innate immune because they do not recognize specific viral or tumor antigens, and do not proliferate when exposed to a particular antigen

Eosinophils

Attracted to sites of parasitic infections. *1.5% of total wbc **Limited phagocytic activity. ***Contains destructive enzymes that lyze pathogens.

If an organism is able to maintain carbon from the environment by itself, the organism is said to be _______

Autotrophic

B cells will; be activated when antigen bind to immunoglobulin's..

B-cells are activated by the binding of antigen to receptors on its cell surface which causes the cell to divide and proliferate. Some stimulated B-cells become plasma cells, which secrete antibodies. Others become long-lived memory B-cells which can be stimulated at a later time to differentiate into plasma cells.

A beta lactam antibiotic has three parts namely?

B-lactam rings Thiazolidine ring Variable side chain

List the types of cells that can act as antigen-presenting cells

B-lymphocytes Macrophages Dendritic Cells

Tumors

Benign - non spreading local mass tissue. Malignant -- Cancer; spreading from the tissue of origin to other sites by circulation. The spreading of cancer cells is called metastasis. Cancer is the result of malfunction of the immune of the immune surveillance system.

his involves the computerization and automation of microbes

Biolog microstation

Viral proteins and viral genome are being synthesized until the host cell becomes overwhelmed and it bursts. Which step in the lytic cycle is this? Biosynthesis

Biosynthesis

Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)

Both Humoral and cell-mediated systems are defective; fatal without replacement of the bone marrow or special facilities.

Alcohols

Can kill bacteria and fungi, but cannot effect the endspores and most viruses. Usually by denaturing the proteins of the organism, damaging the cell membranes, and dissolving the lipids.Cannot be considered an antiseptic agent (on wounds) because they can coagulate a layer of protection where bacteria can grow.

Missense mutation

Causes change in a single amino acid. (to secrete a different amino acid)

Signs of infection in the blood

Changes in the number of white blood cells. *Leukocytosis - increase in white blood cells. *Leukopenia - decrease in white blood cells. *Septicemia - microorganisms are multiplying in the blood and present in large numbers. *Bacteremia - small numbers of bacteria present in blood not necessarily multiplying. *Viremia - small number of viruses present not necessarily multiplying.

What systems are microbes studied under?

Closed

Nutrients cannot be added or removed in a _________

Closed system

Acute infection

Comes on rapidly, with severe but short lived effects

One symbiont benefits while the other is neither harmed nor benefiting in what kind of relationship?

Commensalism

Antimicrobial proteins

Complement - A group of about 26 interacting proteins in the serum of higher animals.

These are atypical viruses that do not have a capsid

Complex viruses

Genome viruses

Composed of either DNA or RNA but never both

Holoenzyme

Conjugated enzymes that consist of both protein and nonprotein molecules

Reducing media

Contains a substance tha absorbs oxygen or slows penetration of oxygen into medium; used for growing anaerobic bacteria, EX will include thioglycollate media.

Selective medium

Contains one or more agents that inhibit growth of some microbes and encourages growth of the desired microbes.

Passive carrier

Contaminated healthcare provider picks up pathogens and transfers them to other patients.

Chlorexidine

Control microbes on the skin and mucous membranes. May be used for surgical hands scrubs, when combined with a dteregent. Toxicity level low.. Kills most vegetative bacteria and fungi, but cannot kill endospores and most viruses.

Biguanides (Chlorexidine)

Controls microbes on the skin and mucous membranes May be used for surgical hand scrubs, when combined with a detergent Toxicity level low Kills most vegetative bacteria and fungi, but cannot kill endospores and most viruses.

What are other essential nutrients considered to be miscellaneous?

Copper, iron, zinc, manganese, magnesium, silicon, iodine

Entry of a microbe

Cough and sneezing may develop. With the release of histamine by mast cells and basophils sneezing, runny eyes and runny nose develop.

Therapy for IgE and mast cell allergies

Counteract and interrupt the allergic responses Desensitization of hypo sensitization.

DNA template makes a copy of what?

DNA Replication How DNA Makes Copies of Itself. Before a cell divides, its DNA is replicated (duplicated.) Because the two strands of a DNA molecule have complementary base pairs, the nucleotide sequence of each strand automatically supplies the information needed to produce its partner.

What are the differences between DNA and RNA.

DNA stores and transmits genetic information. DNA is Double stranded DNA is a double helix DNA has ADENINE-THYAMINE DNA is found in the nucleus only RNA acts as a template for making proteins. RNA is Single-Stranded RNA is a single helix RNA has adenine-URICILE RNA is found everywhere in the cell

The flow of genetic information is from?

DNA to RNA to Proteins

Mode of action of antibiotics 2.

Damage of the cytoplasmic membrane. EX: polymins

Ionizing radiation

Deep penetrating that has sufficient energy to cause electrons to leave their orbit, breaks DNA, EX: gamma rays, x-rays, cathode rays.

This virus only infects you if you have Hepatitis B

Delta agent

Phenolics

Derivatives of phenol without its undesirable effects; but with more antibacterial effects (combined with detergents) damages the cell membrane and the cell walls of certain microorganisms. May be used as disinfectants - Lysol

What are the cell count techniques?

Direct cell, viable cell count, and turbidometric analysis

Endemic

Disease that exhibits a relatively steady frequency over a long period of time in a particular geographic locale.

Antiseptic

Disinfectants applied directly to exposed body surfaces.

What is dry heat?

Dry heat, as the name indicates, utilizes hot air that is either free from water vapor, or has very little of it, and where this moisture plays a minimal or no role in the process of sterilization.

Signs of inflammation

Edema - accumulation of fluid. Granulomas and abscesses - Walled off collections of inflammatory cells and microbes. Lymphadenitis - Swollen lymph nodes

Regarding the previous question, what are examples of these diseases?

Encephalopathy such as scrapie in sheep/goats, bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cows (aka mad cow disease)

Medium for fastidious bacteria

Enriched media - contains complex organic substances such as blood, serum, hemoglobin or special growth factors required.

Not all viruses have a/an ________

Envelope

Prebiotic

Environment that encourages bacterial growth EX:fiber

Pandemic

Epidemic across continents

Epitope.

Epitope - the portion of the antigen that the B-cell and T-cell receptors bind to

The ______ _______ virus can lead to lymphoma

Epstein Barr

This word means that we are unable to synthesize these forms of macromolecules

Essential

Regarding the previous question, give examples of macromolecules we can't synthesize

Essential fatty acids and some proteins

Infection begins in what phase?

Exponential growth

Know the components of the first line of defense.

External Physical Barriers - Skin and mucous membranes Made up of structures, chemicals, and processes that work to prevent pathogens entering the body. Includes the skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.

What are bacteria can survive in extreme environments? Give examples as well.

Extremophiles, psychrophiles, thermophiles

Betadine is an example of Iodophors.

False

Chills do not arise from inflammatory response.

False

Human B lymphocytes mature in an intestinal region called the bursa

False

IgE antibodies are found in body secretions.

False

The hinge region of an antibody has a hypervariable amino acid region where the antigenic determinant fits

False

The process of reducing the virulence of microbes so that they can be used in vaccines is called denaturation.

False

Vaccination could be described as artificial passive immunity.

False

Class 1 MHC help to identify self.

False Found on nucleated cells. Facilitate antigen binding on cytotoxic T-cells CD8 cells recognize antigen -Present the peptides derived from proteins in cytosol (viral proteins) to CD8 T cells. -Important in fighting off intracellular infections and killing off cancerous cells.

. T/F: Viral particles are metabolically active, ubiquitous particles that can only be called a virus once they infect host cells.

False. Viral particles are inactive/not metabolically active.

T/F: Viroids are short, naked DNA molecules

False; should be RNA

74. T/F: All microbes have life

False; viruses are not alive. All other microbes need to feed/need nutrition

Earliest symptoms of disease as a result of the activation of the body's defenses.

Fever, pain, soreness, swelling.

What are different stages of infection, for example - prodromal stage?

First stage is the incubation period followed by a prodromal period.During this period symptoms may not be specific or severe.The person affected can still preform usual functions although distress or discomfort may be present.

Antigens

Foreign materials which induce a specific immune response.

A large amount of antigen enters the system

Formation of large quantities of antibody-antigen- antibody reaction causes formation of large, soluable immune complexes - aettle in the tissues cell membranes- chronic destructive inflammation.

Babies are unable to make essential nutrients as much as adults, which is why babies' food are usually _______

Fortified

Humoral immunity

Generally the body initiates the human immune response when the antigenic compound is small e.g poisons and toxins , against bacteria and viruses within infected cells or phagocytic cells, also responsible for rejection of f transplanted tissues as well as defense against cancer. Also called the Antibody response. Lymphocytes>B lymph>B-cells>Plasma cells>antibodies>immunoglobulins IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE.

Primary immunodeficiency disease

Genetically induce deficiencies of B cells, the thymus gland, or a combination of them.

A protein molecule covering the ______ is called the capsid.

Genome

The integration of the viral ______ with the host cell _______ gives the virus control

Genome, genome

Everything on your body is based on the specific instructions on your _______.

Genome, or the genetic information coming from your body (eg. fight or flight, metabolism)

Ligase

Glues the lagging strands okazaki fragments together.

Probiotics

Good bacteria introduces known microbes back into the body.

dessication

Gradual removal of water from cells, leads to metabolic inhibition. *Not effective microbial control - many cells retain ability to grow when water is reintroduced. .

What is the opposite of helicase?

Gyrase

opportunistic pathogens

H.I.V,Herpes,Streptococus

pathogens and diseases

HIV-AIDS. Influenza virus -flu Herpes (cold sores. human papeloma virus -cervical cancer

IgD

Has no major function. On found in very small amounts in serum. Acts as a primary antibody - producing cell receptor antigen.

Allergic rhinitis

Hay fever, seasonal respiratory allergy

The capsid of a virus can also be called its _______.

Head

How do helper T-cells and cytotoxic T-cells work together?

Helper T-cells produce cytokines to activate other cells of the immune system.

If an organism depends on others to get its carbon, it is called _____

Heterotrophic

What are HEPA filters?

High Efficiency Particle Air HEPA air purifiers captures up to 99.97 percent of particles as small as 0.3 microns, which include a range of allergens and odors. On the other hand, a purifier with a HEPA Type filter is capable of capturing 99 percent of particles that are 2 microns or larger, such as pet dander and dust

What does HEPA filter stand for?

High-efficiency particle air (HEPA) filters

With regards to the previous question, _______ ________, for instance, can infect cervical cells.

Human papillomavirus

Too much iodine and feeling hyper is likely due to _____

Hyperthyroidism

Increased solutes in this environment is known as ______

Hypertonic

What are hypochlorites?

Hypochlorite refers to the various salts of hypochlorous acid commonly used in water treatment for disinfection, oxidation, and taste and odor control. There are two types of hypochlorites that are manufactured: liquid sodium hypochlorite and granular calcium hypochlorite.

_______ is when one feels weak due to the lack of iodine.

Hypothyroidism

Less solute, more solvent is known as _______

Hypotonic

FC - Fragments crystallizable

Identical for all antibodies of the same class, and determines may of the physical properties of an antibody.

Which immunoglobulin class, found in blood, lymph, and the intestine, can cross the placenta and help to protect a fetus?

Ig G

Endocytosis

Import or engulfment of substance using vacuoles. Phagocytosis - ingestion of solids Pinocytosis - Ingestion of liquid droplets. Receptor mediated endocytosis - Import of substances using a receptor molecule.

What are viruses?

Inactive particles that do not divide and are obligated to be intracellular before they become parasites More viral characteristics are found on page 20 of the resource manual.

Asymptomatic carrier

Incubation carriers - spread the infectious agent during the incubation period. Convalescent carriers - recuperating without symptoms. Chronic carrier - individual who shelters the infectious agent for a long period.

Source

Individual or object from which an infection is actually acquired. Where or how we get infections.

When do infections occur?

Infection occurs when viruses, bacteria, or other microbes enter your body and begin to multiply.

What is inflammation?

Inflammation is the body's response to injury. It works to heal wounds but it can also play a role in some chronic diseases.

What do you understand by Microbiostatic drug?

Inhibit the growth of microbes without killing them Fridge or freezer - slows metabolism and reproduction - allows microbes to be preserved and studied - may also be used on humans as they tend to be less toxic - Ex: cold

What are macrolides?

Inhibits protein synthesis at the 50's site of the ribosome. Very good broad spectrum drugs. Not destroyed by penicillinase enzyme. May be used as an alternative to penicillin. EX: Erythromycin, Chloroamphenicol, clindamycin and oxazolidinone.

Six I's of studying microbiology

Inoculation - introduction of a sample into a container of media to produce a culture. Incubation - under conditions that allow groeth. Isolation - separating one species from another. A colony consists of one species. An isolation technique may involve Streak plate technique: Pour plate technique or Spread plate technique. Inspection Information gathering Identification

Mode of action of antibiotics 5.

Interference with metabolic pathway. EX: Sulfa drugs

Mode of action of antibiotics 3.

Interference with nucleic acid EX: quinolones

Tyndallization:

Intermittent sterilization for substances that cannot withstand autoclaving

IgE

Involved in allergies. The allergic antibody - responsible for hypersensitive responses to many antigens. Found only in trace amounts in serum. Short half-life (2 days).

The swelling of the thyroid gland is due to the lack of _____ in the diet

Iodine

Vaccine

Is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. Typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. The gent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize that agent as foreign, destroy it, and keep memory or a record of it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters.

2. Southern Blot

Is a method used in molecular biologyfor detection of a specific , DNAsequencein DNA samples. Transfer of electrophoresis separated dna fragments to a filter membrane and subsequent fragment detection by probe hybridization.

4. Polymerase chain reaction PCR

Is a technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence.

Food irradiation

Is a technology that improves the safety and extends the shelf life of foods by reducing or eliminating microorganisms and insects. Not approved by WHO Non-ionizing radiation - little penetrating power - must be directly exposed *UV light creates pyrimidine dimers, which interfere with replication of DNA.

Active artificial immunity

Is also called immunization (vaccination)

Extremozyme

Is an enzyme, often created by archaea, which are known prokaryotic extremophiles that can function under extreme environments.

Beta B - lactam ring

Is part of the core structure of several antibiotic families the main ones are penicillins cephalosporins, carbapenems, and monobactams. Nearly all of these work by inhibiting bacterial cell wall biosynthesis.

Passive natural immunity

Is the transfer of antibodies through the placenta of the mother to the fetus.

Secondary immune response

Is when the body is exposed to a previously encountered antigen. Response is faster due to the presence of memory cells. Lag period is 2 to 7 days.

When do we use mannitol salt agar?

Isolation and differentiation of Staphylococcus aureus.

Immunity can be active or passive.

It can also be natural or artificial.

Characteristics of the Genetic Code

It is Universal It is redundant (even where the third base is replaced) There is No Ambiguity (nothing complex or simple)

3rd line of defense - Specific

It is specific - acquired It has immunological memory It is adaptive

Gyrase

Known as the SUPERCOILING ENZYME, winds and zips them back together

What are the phases of microbial growth?

Lag phase, exponential growth, stationary phase, death phase

IgM

Large macroglobulin. The first class of antibody to be produced in response to an antigen- 4 days after immunization with antigen, short life span. Too big to pass from a mother to a fetus across the placental barrier.

Atopic allergy

Local reaction to an allergen

Sequelae

Long-term or permanent damage to tissues or organs..

Lymph nodes

Lymph nodes are major sites of B and T lymphocytes, and other white blood cells. Lymph nodes are important for the proper functioning of the immune system, acting as filters for foreign particles and cancer cells. Lymph nodes do not have a detoxification function, which is primarily dealt with by the liver and kidneys

_______ cycle happens when the immune system is compromised

Lysogenic

Macronutrient

Macronutrients are required in relatively large quantities and play principal roles in cell structure and metabolism. Examples of macronutrients are: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

What is the temperature and time interval for steam autoclave?

Many autoclaves are used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to high-pressure saturated steam at 121 °C (249 °F) for around 15-20 minutes depending on the size of the load and the contents.

Synthetic viral agents

Many chemicals can inhibit viral replication, but most of them also inhibit the host-cell metabolism. EX: Azidothymidine (AZT) for treatment of AIDS.

Incidence

Measures the number of new cases over a certain time period, as compared with the general healthy population.

mRNA

Messenger RNA. messenger from DNA to cytoplasm to make polypeptides (amino acid sequences). (mRNA= 5' to 3')

Localized infection

Microbes enter the body and remains confined to a specific tissue.

What are halophiles?

Microbes that like to grow in salt and salinity

Micronutrient

Micronutrients, or trace elements, such as manganese, zinc, and nickel, are present in much smaller amounts and are involved in enzyme function and maintenance of proteins structure.

Trace element

Mineral elements needed in extremely small amounts, such as: zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, iron: These essential elements are also called trace elements: Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulfur

What is MIC?

Minimal inhibitory concentration:The smallest concentration of an antibiotic that regularly inhibits growth of a bacterium into vitro.

What are the three cardinal temperatures for microbial growth?

Minimum, maximum, and optimum

Psychrophile

Miroorganisms will grow in a :cold-loving (15-20 degree celsius) , cannot grow in temperatures above 20 degrees celcius. EX: pseudomonas

Mitotic division is due to ______ and ______

Mitosis and cytokinesis

Aldehydes

Most effective agents. Formaldehyde - disinfectant; available as formaline (a 37% solution of formaldehyde gas in water) Gluteraldehyde - less irritating and more effective; used for disinfection of hospital instruments; can also steralize.

Period of stage

Multiplies at high levels, becomes well-established; more specific signs and symptoms.

What is a parasite?

Must harm other symbiont while it benefits

Both symbionts benefit from the relationship in ______

Mutualism

What are the three kinds of symbiotic relationships?

Mutualism, parasitism, commensalism

Bacteria with mycolic acid is called ________ ________

Mycobacteria nocardia

With regards to the previous question (#12), if viruses do not have this, what are they called?

Naked

Know about natural passive immunity

Naturally acquired passive immunity occurs during pregnancy, in which certain antibodies are passed from the maternal blood into the fetal bloodstream in the form of IgG. Antibodies are transferred from one person to another through natural means such as in prenatal and postnatal relationships between mother and child.

Prions are misfolded and malformed proteins that cause ________ diseases

Neurodegenerative

Phagocytic WBC/Natural killer cells

Neutrophils - most abundant wbc Have general purpose React early to bacteria and to tissue damage. 60% to 70% of total wbc Live a few days; die after destroying pathogens.

Do antibodies differentiate into memory cells?

No. B lymphocytes are the cells of the immune system that make antibodies to invading pathogens like viruses. They form memory cells that remember the same pathogen for faster antibody production in future infections

Free-living organisms are in a _______ relationship

Non-symbiotic

A relationship is not required for survival in what kind of relationship?

Non-symbiotic relationship

Opportunistic pathogens

Normal microbial inhabitants of the human body that are non-pathogenic but become pathogenic when the immune system is immuno-suppressed. ex: Streptococcus pneumonia - strep throat/pneumonae. Herpes simplex - cold sores

Examples of resident flora of different parts of the body.

Nose,mouth,skin,small intestine,lungs,stomach,colon,rectum,vaginal

As a result of the question #8, a virus can also be called a _________.

Nucleocapsid

These organisms like more acidic environments

Obligate acidophiles

What is an obligate intracellular parasite? What is an example of one?

Obligate intracellular parasites must get inside you in order to be considered parasitic. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites.

Kind of type III allergic reaction - Local - Arthrus

Occur at the site of injected drugs and booster shots.

Kind of type III allergic reaction - Systemic - Serim sickness

Occur when repeated antigen challenges causes systemic distribution of the immune complexes. It could cause Autoimmunity - Inappropriate response against self - occurs when antibodies or host T cells mount an abnormal attack against self antigens. EX: systemic lupus erythematous, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus.

Inflammatory responses

Occurs when there is damage to tissue due to: Physical injury, or entry of a microbe. Histamine is released from basophiles and mast cells. Prostaglandins are also released by white blood cells to help in vasodilation and chemotactic activities. *Accumulation of fluid in this area results in EDEMA (excess of watery fluid collecting in the cavities or tissues of the body). *swelling and puffiness may result. *Pus (debris and fluid)may form to prevent spread of the infection. *If physical injury results in damage of blood vessels, blood cells may escape resulting in Diapedisis. *Prolonged diapedisis may lead to HEMORRHAGE.

This is a gene that can initiate cancer

Oncogene

Prokaryotic chromosomes

Only one chromosome in the form of a single molecule of double-stranded DNA in a close circle; its length is 1200x that of the entire cell.

Genes are regulated to be active?

Only when their product is required.

A system where nutrients can be added or removed is an __________

Open system

Inducible

Operon is turned on by substrate catabolic operons - enzymes needed to metabolize a nutrient are produced when needed.

Opsonization.

Opsonization is a term that refers to an immune process where particles such as bacteria are targeted for destruction by an immune cell known as a phagocyte . The process of opsonization is a means of identifying the invading particle to the phagocyte.

Most bacteria fall under which category of cardinal temperature?

Optimum, mesophiles

Heterotrophy

Organism uses organic compounds as their major source of carbon.

Chemotroph

Organisms use chemical compounds (organic or inorganic) for their energy sources.

Prototroph

Organisms use light (radiant energy) as their source of enercy.

This means a high concentration of solute is not required but can be tolerated when it occurs

Osmotolerant

Peroxygens

Oxidizing agents Hydrogen peroxide - They oxidize the vital components of the cell. Antiseptic- household and hospital.

What are these 6 essential elements?

Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur

Helminthes

Parasitis worms

One symbiont benefits while the other is harmed in ________

Parasitism

2nd line of defense - Nonspecific innate immunity

Pathogen penetrates the 1st line of defense to get to 2nd line of defense. Phagocytic cells/natural killer cells. Inflammatory response. Antimicrobial proteins No immunological memory.

Entry is also known as _______

Penetration

This is the chemical secreted by the microbe penicillium

Penicillin

What are the name of some drugs that create holes on cell wall?

Penicillins, Cephalosporins, Vancomycin, Bacitracin, Monobactams, carbapems, fosfomycin, isoniazid.

Microbial death

Permanent loss of reproductive capability even under optimum growth conditions.

Chronic carrier

Person with a latent infection who sheds the infectious agent.

Organisms that can get their energy from the sun are said to be _____

Phototrophic

Types of microbial media

Physical state media: liquid, semisolid and solid Chemical composition: synthetic, and nonsynthetic Functional type: general purpose, enriched, selective, differential, anaerobic, transport, assay, enumeration.

Decontamination

Physical, chemical, and mechanical methods used to destroy or reduce undesirable microbes in a given area.

Ig G crosses the placenta

Placental transfer of maternal IgG antibodies to the fetus is an important mechanism that provides protection to the infant while his/her humoral response is inefficient. IgG is the only antibody class that significantly crosses the human placenta.

Variable region of the antibody.

Point mutations occur Rearrangement of variable region gene segments

______ virus infects primate intestinal and nerve cells

Poliovirus

What are the name of some drugs that create holes on cell membrane?

Polymyxins, Amphotericin B, and Nystatin

Small, simple molecules are ______ antigens.

Poor

Development of infection

Portal of entry - the way the microbes enters. Adhesion Invasion - tissue and organs Multiplication - infection Infection of target - cell organ Disease Portal of exit - if the pathogens survives.

Anaphylaxis

Potentially fatal allergic response:acute type of life-threatening systemic allergy causing asphyxia in severe cases of asthma. Most common form of allergy Causes hay fever and the acute reactions to insect sting. Occurs within minutes of exposure to a soluble allergen Allergens: inhalants, ingestants, injections, contactants,

Passive immunity

Preformed antibodies are donated to an individual; does not create memory, acts immediately, and is short term.

Mode of action of antibiotics 1.

Prevention of synthesis of the bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan. EX: penicillins

Complement - Mediated or Cytolytic Hypersensitivity

Primarily directed against cellular targets Requires complement (protein involved in antigen - antibody reaction) Occur over several days or hours Activated complement cause the lysis of some bacteria and viruses.: If the antigen is part of the red blood cells (or is a drug that has become attached to them)-lysis of red blood cells which results in hemolytic anemia. Most common blood transfusion - antibodies formed against red blood cells antigens (or against other cell-bound antigens) following prior exposure.

What occurs between stage 1 and 2 or mitosis?

Prometaphase

What are the stages of mitosis?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (& cytokinesis)

TLR Toll like receptors

Protein receptors within the cell membrane macrophages called _________ will detect the foreign molecules and alert both the nonspecific mechanisms.

Mode of action of antibiotics 4.

Protein synthesis. EX: aminoglycosides

Enzymes are

Proteins

Spontaneous mutation

Random change in the DNA due to errors in replication that occur without known cause.

Spectrum

Range of activity

Restriction endonucleases

Recognize specific sequences of DNA and break phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides. The enzyme can be used to cleave DNA at desired sites. Recognize and clip the DNA at Palindrome base sequence. (going in opposite direction equals the same thing EX:MOM) Used in the lab to cut DNA into smaller pieces.

Induced mutations

Result from exposure to known mutagens, physical (primarily radiation) or chemical agents that interact with DNA in a disruptive manner.

What is semiconservative replication?

Results in the production of: one old DNA strand and one new DNA strand

What kind of viruses are typically associated with reverse transcriptase?

Retroviruses. These are viiruses with RNA as their genetic material but that include DNA intermediates in their replication cycle.

Rh factor - RBC antigen

Rh - negative mother becomes sensitized to Rh-positive red blood cells of the first baby. Second pregnancy: mother's anti - Rh antibodies cross the placenta - hemolysis pf the newborns RBC. Hemolytic disease of the newborn or Erythroblasts fetalis.

Therapy for Rh factor

Rho immune globulin (Rho Gam)

What is rRNA (ribosomal)?

Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is the RNA component of the ribosome, and is essential for protein synthesis in all living organisms. ... Ribosomes contain two major rRNAs and 50 or more proteins. The ribosomal RNAs form two subunits, the large subunit (LSU) and small subunit (SSU).

IgA

Secretory immunoglobulin. Provide humoral immunity in mucous secretions(tears, saliva, ..). Resistance to proteases - responsible for neutralizing toxins, allergens and bacteria. Major component of breast milk protein - provides passive immunity against enteric pthogen to the gut of the newborn.

1. Gel electrophoresis/Methods for Analysis of DNA

Separates DNA fragments based on size. The molecules to be separated are pushed by an electrical field through a gel that contains small pores

Conjugation

Sex pili: Needs cell to cell contact. DNA is transferred directly from one bacterium to another.

What is Okazaki fragment?

Short segments of DNA that are synthesized at the 3 prime end.. Many Okazaki fragments make up the lagging strand of newly synthesized DNA. 100-200 nucleotides long in Eukaryotes.

What are the four shapes viruses can have?

Simple, complex, helical, icosahedral

Transformation

Simplest type - assimilation of genetic material from the environment.

Sites that have normal flora

Skin and mucous membranes Upper respiratory tract Gastrointestinal tract outer opening of the urethra External genitalia Vagina External ear and canal External eye (lids, lash follicles)

Hapten.

Small foreign molecules that are too small by themselves to elicit an immune response are termed

In biology/microbiology, solutions refer to ______

Solutes

Transposons

Special DNA segments that have the capability of moving from one location in the genome to another (jumping genes)

If ______ do not match the indentations on the cell_____, you will not get infected by the viral particle.

Spikes, cell membrane

In this phase, the number of microbes that multiplied equals the number of cell death

Stationary phase

This microbe produces streptomycin, erythromycin, tetracyclin, vancomycin, and amphotericin B

Streptomyces

Hydrogen peroxide is a disinfectant for soft contact lenses.

TRUE

Pseudomonas aeruginosa grows in soap dish.

TRUE

Structure of an antibody

The IgG molecule cleaved at the hinge region, yields 3 fragments-2 antigen-binding fragments called FAB and one crystallizable fragment called FC.

Immune resonse

The body will mount a humoral immune response of a cell mediated immune response.

How do we kill microbacteria?

The body's immune system is a great way to kill microbes.

Lymphocytes

The cells capable of responding to antigens. The dominant cell type in most of the organs and tissues of the immune system - these tissues and organ are described as lymphoid. E.g. lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils.

Chemotherapeutic agents

The chemical used for chemotherapy; some of these agents are produced by microorganisms and are called antibiotics.

Respiratory tract is ciliated.

The conducting passageways of the respiratory system (nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles) are lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue, which is ciliated and which includes mucus-secreting goblet cells

Reading frame =

The correct nucleotide sequence on a chromosomal strand.

Phenotype

The expression of the physical, observable genetic traits of an organism.

Genotype

The genetic make-up of a cell or virus.

What is antiparallel arrangement within DNA molecule

The halves of the double helix are parallel and run in opposite directions of each other one helix strand runs from the 5' (posphate) to 3' (OH) and the other strand runs from the 3' to 5' direction 5' leading strand, 3' lagging > 3, lagging 5' leading

Genetic engineering

The insertion of genes into cells to produce chemicals (not naturally made).

What is Genetic engineering?

The insertion of genes into cells to produce chemicals (not naturally made).

Mannitol salt agar

The media is both selective and differential and can be used for the isolation and differentiation of various Staphylococcus species.

Infectious dose (ID)

The minimum number of microbes required to initiate an infection and disease. * Microbes with small ID's have greater virulence

IgG

The most common antibody. The humoral line of defense. Neutralizes toxins and viruses, also opsonize bacteria and viruses for phagocytosis. Can be transferred across the placenta from the mother to her unborn child - passive immunity. Produced later in immune response, and has longer life span.

Histamine

The most profuse and fast acting mediator to anaphylaxis. Potent stimulator of smooth muscle glands and eosinophils - Constriction of smooth muscle layers of small bronchi and intestine. - Labored breathing and increased intestinal motility. Also causes the relaxation of vascular smooth muscle - dilates arterioles and venules - skin reaction, itching, and headache.

What is the difference between ssRNA (single-stranded RNA) positive sense virus and ssRNA negative sense virus?

The positive-sense RNA viruses and indeed all RNA defined as positive-sense can be directly accessed by host ribosomes to immediately form proteins. These can be divided into two groups, both of which reproduce in the cytoplasm. The negative-sense RNA viruses cannot be directly accessed by host ribosomes to immediately form proteins. Instead, they must be transcribed by viral polymerases into a "readable" form, which is the positive-sense reciprocal

Passive immune response

The proliferation of lymphocytes to form clones of effector cells and memory cells. Lag period is 10 to 17 days.

Structure of antibody - IgG

The proteins in the gamma region are mostly of one type - Immunoglobulin gamma or IgG.

Carriers of epitopes

The remainder of the antigen molecules. Antibodies produced by B lymphocytes specifically react with epitopes.

Genome

The total of genetic material of a cell

Chemotherapy

The treatment of disease with chemical substance

No vaccines against malaria

There's currently no vaccine available that offers protection against malaria, so it's very important to take antimalarial medication to reduce your chances of getting the disease. However, antimalarials only reduce your risk of infection by about 90%, so taking steps to avoid bites is also important.

What is TDP?

Thermal death point - lowest temperature required to kill all microbes in a sample in 10 minutes.

What is TDT

Thermal death time - Shortest length of time required to kill all microbes at a specified temperature.

These microorganisms like very high temperature.

Thermophiles

Thermoduric

These are bacteria that are able to survive high temperature. They can survive, to varying extents, the pasteurization process. Species of bacteria in this category include: Bacillus, Clostridium, and Enterococci.

Antibodies circulate in body fluids

They are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. IgG antibodies are the most common and the most important. They circulate in the blood and other body fluids, defending against invading bacteria and viruses

Characteristics of viruses

They are obligate, intracellular parasites of bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae, plants, and animals. -acellular: Not cell like -Ultra miscroscopic -Shape may be simple, icosahedral, envelope, naked, complex, or helical. -Inactive when outside of host. -Basic structure consists of protein shell (capsid) which surrounds a nucleic acid (core). -Nucleic acid can be either DNA or RNA but never both. -Nucleic acid can be dsDna, ssDNA, dsRNA, or ssRNA. -Viruses are specific to host cells. -Multiply by taking control of host cell's metabolic activities. Basically a genome surrounded by a capsid

Passive artificial immunity

Through the introduction of serum from an animal or human who is immune to the disease.

Incubation period

Time from initial contact with the infectious agent to the appearance of the first symptoms; agent is multiplying but damage is insufficient to cause symptoms; several hours to several years.

Trophos means ______

To feed

How can endospores be killed?

To kill endospores, and therefore sterilize a solution, very long (>6 hours) boiling, or intermittent boiling is required (See Table 1 below). Autoclaving is the most effective and most efficient means of sterilization. All autoclaves operate on a time/temperature relationship.

Prevalence

Total number of existing cases with respect to the entire population usually represented by a percentage of the population.

The accumulation of waste products leads to a high buildup of _______, which causes microbial death. This is the ________ phase.

Toxicity, stationary

We just need small amounts of _____ elements but these are still necessary for us to survive

Trace elements

DNA gives instructions or message to RNA in a process known as __________.

Transcription

. T/F: Viroids only have the genome

True

. T/F: Viruses have strict specificity.

True

. T/F: Viruses only infect white blood cells.

True

Antibody molecules circulate in lymph, blood, and tissue fluids. T/F

True

Basophils are the least numerous of all white blood cells.

True

Cell surface markers are also ofter called receptors.

True

Class I, II, and III MHC genes are located on the sixth chromosome of humans.

True

Eosinophils attack parasitic infections.

True

Monocytes at maturation become macrophages.

True

Neutrophils are the most numerous white blood cells.

True

One plasma cell will secrete antibodies of various classes but the antibodies will all have the same specificity

True

Skin protects the body from infections.

True

Some viruses have only the capsid, while others have only the genome

True

T/F: Most antiviral drugs are very toxic to human cells and can also cause very serious side effects

True

T/F: Viroids have no protein molecules

True

The albumin fraction of serum separated by electrophoresis will contain most of the antibodies.

True

The structural and functional differences that distinguish immunoglobulin isotypes are due to variations associated with their Fc fragments.

True

Thymus gland shrinks with maturation.

True

True or false: regarding the previous question, we ALL have these genes

True

Spleen filters pathogens from blood.

True It mainly acts as a filter for purifying the blood, removing microbes and worn out or damaged red blood cells. It is also an important organ in the immune system, producing the white blood cells that fight infection and synthesize antibodies

T helper cells help to activate both b cells and t cells.

True Helper T cells are arguably the most important cells in adaptive immunity, as they are required for almost all adaptive immune responses. They not only help activate B cells to secrete antibodies and macrophages to destroy ingested microbes, but they also help activate cytotoxic T cells to kill infected target cells

Plasma cells secrete antibodies.

True Plasma cells, also called plasma B cells, plasmocytes, plasmacytes, or effector B cells, are white blood cells that secrete large volumes of antibodies. They are transported by the blood plasma and the lymphatic systeme

MHC is a set of genes that code for MHC cell receptors.

True set of genes that codes for human cell receptors that play a role in recognition of self by the immune system

. T/F: Viruses do not have the characteristics of life.

True. Organisms must have a metabolism in order to be considered alive. Viruses do not metabolize and can only reproduce once inside a host (obligate intracellular parasite)

ABO Blood Groups

Type A - A antigens - antibodies against B Type B - B antigens - antibodies against A Type AB - both antigens - no antibodies (universal Recipients) Type O - neither antigens - antibodies against A and B (universal donors).

Biotechnology

Using microorganisms in the production of foods, new substances, such as vaccines, antibiotics and vitamins.

requirement of culturing

bacteria, nutrient,moisten,ph,temp,heat Mesophiles:microbes like to live in human body temp.

Superantegen

bacterial toxins that activate T cells at a 100 times greater rate than other antigens

B-lactam rings main ingredient

basic nucleus

Prodromal stage

Vague feelings of discomfort; nonspecific complaints

This only counts microbes that are alive

Viable cell count

We know viruses are being classified according to order when the virus ends with ________

Virales

We know viruses are being classified according to family when the virus ends with _________

Viridae

Newly assembled viruses that can infect other neighboring cells are also known as ______.

Virions

If someone is sick for unknown reasons, what is the likely cause?

Viruses

Salvarsan

Was the first lab-synthesized chemical that could cure a disease without poisoning the patient.

Resolving power

Wavelength of light in nm/2X numerical aperture of objective lens.

When do we use thioglycollic acid in a media?

When attempting to culture anaerobe microbes.

Idophor

When combined with an organic molecule > antimicrobial; do not stain or irritate skin (e.g. Betadine)

Focal infection

When infectious agent breaks loose from a local infection and is carried to other sites.

Sporadic

When occasional cases are reported at irregular intervals.

Where do b lymphocytes mature.

White blood cells called lymphocytes originate in the bone marrow but migrate to parts of the lymphatic system such as the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus. There are two main types of lymphatic cells, T cells and B cells.B cell activation occurs in the secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs), such as the spleen and lymph nodes. After B cells mature in the bone marrow, they migrate through the blood to SLOs, which receive a constant supply of antigen through circulating lymph

What do you understand by shotgun approach

You use a broad spectrum drug to inhibit or destroy a microbe without carrying out the Kirby Bauer experiment.

germicides, microbicides

____ and _____ are chemical agents that kill microbes

What is therapeutic index (TI)?

a comparison of the amount of a therapeutic agent tat causes the therapeutic effect to the amount that causes toxicity.

What are allergic reactions?

a condition in which the immune system reacts abnormally to a foreign substance.

what are antibiotics?

a medicine (such as penicillin or its derivatives) that inhibits the growth of or destroys microorganisms.

What are exotoxins?

a toxin released by living bacterial cell into its surroundings

In humans, B cells mature in the ______ and T cells mature in the _______.

bone marrow, thymus

Know examples of drugs for treating helminthic infections.

broad-spectrum benzimidazoles (such as albendazole and mebendazole) treatment for intestine roundworm and tapeworm infections.macrocyclic lactons (such as ivermectin) adult and migrating larvae stages of nematodes

Artificial passive immunization

can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are transferred to the fetus through the placenta, and it can also be induced artificially, when high levels of antibodies specific to a pathogen or toxin (obtained from humans, horses, or other animals) are transferred to non-immune persons through blood

DNA structure

double helix composed of many molecules -Two strands twisted into a double helix -Basic unit ______ is a nucleotide

How are antibiotics derived?

drugs are made from living organisms such as fungi, molds, and certain soil bacteria that are harmful to disease-causing bacteria.can also be produced synthetically (artificially) or combined with natural substances to form semisynthetic antibiotics.

What are broad-spectrum drugs?

drugs that acts against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, in contrast to a narrow-spectrum antibiotic, which is effective against specific families of bacteria.

Atopic dermatitis

eczema, itchy skin rash

Narrow- spectrum

effective on a small range of microbes. Target a specific cell component that is found only certain microbes.

The carrier determines the immunogenicity;

epitopes determine the specificity of antigen.

Broad-spectrum

greatest range of activity. Target cell components common to most pathogens (ribosomes)

Bradykinin

group of plasma & tissues peptides (kinins) Blood clotting and chemotaxis Prolonged smooth muscle contraction of bronchioles dilation of peripheral arterioles, increased capillary permeability and increased mucous secretion.

T _____ cells assist in the functions of certain B cells and other T cells.

helper

Examples of termination/stop codons?

in RNA: UAG ("amber") UAA ("ochre") UGA ("opal") in DNA: TAG ("amber") TAA ("ochre") TGA ("opal" or "umber")

What is a superinfection?

infection occurring after or on top of an earlier infection especially following treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics

Acyclovir is used to treat what?

infections caused by certain types of viruses.

normal flora

is non-pathogens bacteria that inhabit the human body.

Ig M is the first antibody to get to site of infection.

is one of several forms of antibody that are produced by vertebrates. IgM is the largest antibody, and it is the first antibody to appear in the response to initial exposure to an antigen. In the case of humans and other mammals that have been studied, the spleen, where plasmablasts responsible for antibody production reside, is the major site of specific IgM production

Artificial active immunization.

is the induction of immunity after exposure to an antigen. Antibodies are created by the recipient and may be stored permanently. This immunization is where the microbe is injected into the person before they are able to take it in naturally.

bactericide

kills bacteria, not endospores

fungicide

kills fungal spores, hyphae, and yeast

Some large animals that also spread infection are?

mammals, birds, lower vertebraes.

enriched media

media that added some substances to it such as blood to permit the growth of fastidious bacteria that are difficult to grow, identify,and isolate e.g. blood sugar

selective media

media that encourage the growth of one specific bacteria and discourage the growth of others MSA-selective for staph. aureus(gold)

differential media

media that permit growth of more than one bacteria e.g. macconkey agar ecoli(pink) staph(no growth) proteus(green)

tRNA

reads mRNA to be complementary to it. (3' -5') -90 nucleotides long. -undergoes POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL MODIFICATION -raw tRNA contains introns which must be excised Functions: 1. Covalently Bonds to its specific A.A. at one end (CCA stem) with amino acid -acyl tRNA synthetase 2. Conects to ribosomes 3. Base pairs w/ mRNA (codon; tRNA= anti codon)

Class II MHC genes code for

receptors located primarily on macrophages and B cells. Found on specialized cells e.g B cells and macrophages. Facilitate antigen binding on helper T cells.

DNA polymerase I

removes the RNA primers and replaces them with DNA.

Active immunity

results when a person is challenged with antigen that stimulates production of antibodies; creates memory, takes time and is lasting.

Cytotoxic T cells

secrete lymphotoxins and perforins that damage target cells

Class I MHC genes code for

self receptors recognized by T lymphocytes

no metabolism characteristic

since viruses do not make proteins, they do not have enzymes and since they don't have enzymes, there is no metabolism so viruses aren't doing anything just sitting on a table

Eukaryotic chromosomes

single, long, double-stranded DNA molecule; most extended state appears in the form of long string of beads; tightly winds around Histone proteins, linear not circular.

staining procedure

stain to increase contrast to visual after smear preparation application of primary stain(crystal violet)purple application of mordant (gram iodine) application of decolonized(ethyalcolhol-ethanol application of secondary stain or counter stain(safranin)red

The embryonic yolk sac, the liver, and the bone marrow are sites where:

stem cells give rise to immature lymphocytes

cidal

suffix used to indicate that an agent kills -bactericide, virucide, sporicide, germicide and microbicide -also called -cide

What is drug susceptibility?

testing to find out if a person has got drug resistant TB.finding out which drugs the TB bacteria in their bdy are sensitive to

Diapedesis.

the passage of blood cells through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation.

What is disinfection?

the process of cleaning something, especially with a chemical, in order to destroy bacteria. "instruments must undergo high-level disinfection before reuse"

What is thermal death point (TDP)?

the temperature at which all organisms of a culture will be killed by heat either instantaneously or within an arbitrary brief finite period.

why do we sterilize

to prevent contamination

What are the drugs of choice for treating MRSA?

vancomycin clindamycin minocycline doxycycline trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole

lytic cycle stages

virulent distractive attachment -adsoption penetration-entry un coat integration biosynthesis<V-genome<V-protiens (capsid) assembly release

Tc cells are important in controlling

virus infections

obligate-intracellular parasite characteristic

viruses MUST (are obligated to) be inside a host to replicate

no growth characteristic

viruses are "assembled" using host cell machinery

no alive characteristic

viruses are not alive because they are not made of cells and to replicate they must hijack a host cell's machinery; when not in host (virion), not doing anything

no ribosomes characteristic

viruses cannot make proteins

acellular characteristic

viruses do not have a cell membrane or organelles; they are not made up of cells

genome characteristic

viruses have one or more pieces of DNA or RNA but not both (depends on the virus); have nucleic acids coding for viral proteins; helps to classify viruses

Epidemic

when prevalence of disease is increasing beyond what is expected.

Know about antigen presenting cells. Dendritic cells, macrophages, more antigenic

• Unlike Ig, T-cell receptor complex can only recognize antigen presented by another human cell by an MHC molecule. • MHC (major histocompatibility complex) molecules are special antigen-presenting glycoproteins present on almost all cells of the body. • There are large number of diverse genetic variants of MHC molecule in the human population and is the primary cause of graft rejection or graft-versus-host disease. Pathogen-derived proteins must be degraded into peptides and assemble into a peptide: MHC molecule complex, and displayed on the cell's surface Antigen presenting cells (APC) are cells that contain MHC II molecules and present antigens to activate T cells