midterm

naive theory

"common sense" not systematically designed truth is self-evident

Plato/Aristotle

- child's nature and need for education - first concept of age level of development

COnfucius

- stressed the duties children had to family and to society -respectful and ethnically responsible member of family, community, and state

Bowlby's attachment theory

4 stages: preattachment, attachment in the making, clear-cut attachment, reciprocal relationship 3 types of attachment in children: secure insecure-avoidant insecure-resistant

Organization of knowledge construction

: internal component of knowledge Knowledge construction processes (functions) -same throughout life Mental organization of knowledge (structures)—change throughout life

secure

Age 2: actively seek contact and comfort on return of caregiver Age 6: relqxed, will initiate interaction with attachment figure, but not dependent on it, ranges far but comes back or verbally reconnects

disordered

Age 2: dazed, confused, and shows contradictory and bizarre patterns of behavior Age 6: overly cheerful and active or controlling and rejecting, patterns of behavior that are still bizarre and contradictory

resistant

Age 2: seeks closeness when caregiver is present, angry and resistant when person returns, difficult to comfort Age 6: may show exaggerated intimacy but also expresses periodic fear, avoidance, hostility, or sadness

Greenspan's theory of emotional development

Assumes capacity to organize experiences is present early in life, but organization is emotion based rather than cognition based. Emotions re a type of personal cognition, infants organize differently at different stages of ego development Emotion generating centers of brain mature earlier than frontal lobe Interpreting the meaning of emotions relies on maturation of cortical areas Emotional organization is primary in infancy, and is acquired through relationships with those who care for the child Developed in playful interactions Social play is vehicle for promotion emotional organization Experiences mush be age appropriate

comparing piaget and vygotsky

Both stress importance of children's active construction of knowledge Both see play and language development as essential in furthering cognitive growth Piaget focused on knowledge construction as a universal characteristic of humans whereas Vygotsky stressed role of cultural context Piaget saw language as egocentric and separate from development of cognition, whereas Vygotsky saw language as social and intertwined as an aid to cognitive development Piaget saw play as assimilative and valuable, whereas Vygotsky saw play a means of organization thought Piaget thought child's knowledge is constructed by reaction of environment and adults should not intervene unnecessarily whereas Vygotsky believed that knowledge is socially mediated for knowledge construction

main themes of ch 6-7

Cognition develops in relationship to sensorimotor and perceptual actions during earliest years Language development appears to have some biological basis and the role of experience is also vital Play is important for both cognitive and language development

theoretical influence of thomas and chess

Committed to validating theoretical ideas through detailed and extensive longitudinal research, using methodology congruent with the rationalist perspective Male to make some predictions about temperamental effects, results support the "situated" perspective of development Cross-cultural studies have tested constructs, categories seem to hold up Strong advocates for teacher consideration of children's temperament within school settings Believed temperamental traits affect how children approach learning tasks and how they interact with others Helped shape present day clinical practice because of empirically tested model for child psychiatry Categories of temperament and discussion of go odness of fit ave been valued and used by early childhood and special educators also wrote advice to parent books. Work to promote consideration of temperament characteristics and environmental dynamics as a means for understanding children's behavioral and learning problems Successful in making a case for consideration of temperament, work has been influential in improving effectiveness of therapeutic and educational practice

3 temperament types (thomas and chess)

Easy: 40%. General positive mood, regular in functions, adaptable, and only moderately intense in reactions, had approachable responses to new situations. Difficult: 10%. Often negative in mood, irregular in sleeping and eating patterns, slow to adapt, and intense in reactions to stimuli, tended to withdraw in new situations. 15%: slow to warm up. Low activity levels and low intensity of reactions, were slow to adapt and likely to withdraw in new situations. 35%. Variety of characteristics but did not fit into any of the three patterns of temperament.

Six milestones of emotional development (Greenspan)

Engagement: 3 weeks to 8 months. Infants learn to share attention, relate to others with warmth, positive emotion, and expectation of pleasant interactions, and trust they are secure. Two milestones: self-regulation and intimacy Two-way communication: 6 to 18 months: infants learn to signal needs and intentions, comprehend others' intentions, communicate information, make assumptions about safety, and have reciprocal interactions. Milestone: two-way communication Shared Meanings: 18 to 36 months: children learn to relate their behaviors, sensations, and gestures to the world of ideas, engage in pretend play, intentionally use language to communicate, begin to understand cognitive concepts. Two milestones: complex communication and emotional ideas Emotional thinking; 3 to 6 years: children can organize experiences and ideas, make connections among ideas, begin reality testing, gain sense of themselves and their emotions, see themselves in space and time, develop categoties of experience. Final milestone: emotional thinking.

greenspan's theorietical influence

Focus on clinical practice: believes many children do not develop the emotional organization that is the essential basis for cognitive development Designed practical methods for helping parents and teachers facilitate children's emotional development during infant/toddler/preschool years Active in initiating therapy for children with PDD, SD, and other disorders of regulation Created Developmental Individual Difference Relationships Model/Floor Time Regulatory disorders in five patterns Hypersensitive/fearful Hypersensitive/defiant Hypo reactive/pain insensitive Self-absorbed/under-reactive Poor motor planning/inattentive Results still being evaluated through research studies that examine clinical therapeutic and floor time interventions Findings are mixed, but more research is still being done Research methods combine empiricist and rationalist approaches, this there may still be controversy over Greenspan's reported theory confirmation Emphasis on emotions as the key cognition draws on current brain research and is potentially testable through neurological means Firmly rooted in rationalist perspective Believe epigenetic process of emotional organization must occur first before cognitive organization can by fully functioning

Horgan and Woodward article:

Folk psychology exists and is usable even though it is not empirical or physiological

Five factors may be responsible for individual differences (thomas and chess)

Genetic familial Prenatal influences Paranatal influences Early life experiences Any combination of the preceding four

horizontal vs vertical decalage

Horizontal Decalage: disparity in levels of logical reasoning for different tasks Occurs when equilibrium is not reached across all knowledge domains at the same time Vertical Decalage: thinking processes from lower stages that reoccur at higher stages

piaget's theory of development

Knowledge development is a progressive construction of logical structures, each of which leads to higher and more powerful adults structures o Children's thinking is qualitatively different from that of adults

Role of Language in Knowledge Construction

Language does not drive thought but rather assists thought to be more elaborate and complex—language is essential for logical and abstract thought Both nature and nurture component Language is an essential ingredient in development of mental operations

sociohistorical

Lewin Bandura Vygotsky: proximal zone of development - can't be too hard or easy, old or new, etc • Human development always reflects many-layered environmental and sociohistorical perspective of the theorist, situated within contexts and thus cannot be universally applied

x

Model becomes part of child's personality → extends to other people throughout life "secure base" provides support for greater and greater extensions in the world

vygotsky's stages of thought and language development

Natural/Primitive (0-2): behavior is biological based and regulated by preverbal thought and preintellectual speech (emotional release, social reactions, and labels for objects) Naïve Psychology (2-7): being to use grammar and syntax of their culture. Words have symbolic function but children do not understand its function as regulator of thought Begin to use language as a problem-solving tool Culturally Mediated External Signs (7-12/14): children use culturally mediated tools to aid problem solving Mediation o teachers and peers provide scaffolding Internal speech aids thinking Ingrowth (12-adult): thinking is internalized in congruence with cultural symptoms of society

9 dimensions in temperament (thomas and chess)

Nine dimensions Level and extent of motor activity Regularity of basic functions Withdrawal or acceptance of new stimuli Adaptability to environmental changes Sensitivity level to stimuli Energy intensity of responses General mood or disposition Distractibility potential Attention span and persistence in activity

vygotsky's 3 lvls of human development

Phylogenetic: development of human species through evolution Historical: development of humans throughout history- culture over generations Ontogenetic- development of individual through childhood and adulthood Depends on biological factors at first and then primarily on acquiring the culturally mediated signs, symptoms, thought processes of particular culture Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) = area in which social mediation can assist children to reach new levels of competence Distance between tasks children can do independently and their potential competence at those tasks, with assistance

piaget's 3 sources of knowledge

Physical knowledge: learning properties of various objects and their actions in space and time Logicomathematical Knowledge: Comparisons of relationships among objects/ideas Social Arbitrary Knowledge: knowledge that must be transmitted by other humans (cannot be uncovered through logical thought)

Role of Play in Knowledge Construction

Play is different from imitation (imitation is accommodation process whereas play is an assimilation process) Use play to construct their knowledge of the world by trying to relate new experiences into their cognitive schema Play development occurs in three phases : Practice Play (6mo-3 years)- repeating similar play actions on toys or objects—adding new elements and not ritual repetition, Pretense (4-7 yr)- role and perspective taking, social comparison, language narration, social script knowledge., Games with rules (toddler and preschool) - charge of rule making and changing them to be fair or adapting rules for more players

Bowlby's Basic Constructs and Stages Four stages of development in first 2 years

Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks) - infant is helpless, has characteristics (appearance and behaviors) that cause mother to respond quickly and consistently to infant needs. Mother responsiveness is CRITICAL Attachment in the making (6 weeks to 8 months) - infant begins to respond to actions of mother or caregiver and begins to trust that his/her needs will be met by the responsive person. Infant responsiveness creates a circle of interaction that encourages more responsiveness from the caregiver and causes attachment to grow between them Clear-cut attachment (6 to 24 months) - attachment of infant to mother is clear in infant bx like: proximity seeking, distress when separated, language that prompts closeness Child and caregiver are "tuned in" to each other's actions Child uses adult as a "secure base" by ranging further to new places, but keeps eye contact and verbal means to maintain sporadic contact with attachment figure Adult encourages exploration, but sets limits Reciprocal relationships (18 months to 24 months) - if attachment process is good, this shows autonomy and strong self-assurance in exploring his/her world. Child is confident that attachment figure will help if needed, maintain interaction, and monitor situations. In new setting child and adult will connect more closely.

Bowlby: Three stages of separation

Protest - related to separation Anxiety Despair - related to grief and mourning Detachment/denial-related to defense of self

Greenspan's work

Psychoanalytic theory, attachment theory, and brain development research Ego psychology - ego has capacity to organize, integrate, differentiate, elaborate, and transform experience Early work focused on describing how infants organize experiences through the interplay of those experiences with the processes of maturation of the CNS

vygotskys theory of development

Psychological phenomena is social in that it embodies cultural artifacts and depends on specific social experiences Knowledge is socially constructed Children's development is affected by what values of the cultural communicate In infancy, biological processes are strong determinants of behavior, but this influence becomes less as social experience comes to dominate = sociogenesis (influence of culture) Human development has been influenced at three levels- phylogenetic, historical, ontogenetic

thomas & chess' temperament theory

Reacted to view that environment, primarily the child's mother, was responsible for all the child's behavioral or emotional problems "individual difference" component of personality and social-emotional development had been minimized in many theoretical accounts. Interested in learning more about what infants and children brig to social and emotional interactions as a result of their initial temperament - "individuality of behavioral responsiveness"

"internal working model"

Result of attachment that has "generalized attachment representations" that involve set of expectations about social-emotional interactions with others

piaget's 4 stages

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operation, and formal operational

influence of bowlby and ainsworth

Strengths: major theoretical constructs are testable, and results have supported constructs Later studies investigate multiple attachments to both mother, father, grandparent, etc. Looked at children with various care giving backgrounds. Support view that maltreatment, lack of interaction, or bizarre interaction patterns are related to insecure attachment. Attachment stability can still be affected by life changes that separate the child fro attachment figures Cultural differences have also been studied Perception that life threatening events may occur, caregiving behaviors may be more intense and long lasting Amount of time child spends along, number of adults who have close interactions, use of alternate caregivers have an effect on number of people to whom a child attaches Major theory in discussing infant development courses and in parenting books Advice to child caregivers Used to investigate "attachment disorders" Theory has shown robustness in testability, with empirical support, and has been judged useful to parental child rearing, child caregiving, and clinical practice Consequences: Movement to learn more about attachment disorders among children who have instability in early care, lack of opportunity to form attachments, or bizarre early experiences Those who looked at adolescents and adults use bowlby's ethological perspective and perspective related to "object relations"

thomas and chess' study

Study with 3 month old babies, followed for 2 years Asked parents extensive questions that referred to children's "concrete objective behaviors rather than to comp motives and other subjective states" Three major questions: Is it possible to find a set of consistent dimensions of temperament by which very young children can be categorized on the basis of their individual behavior responsiveness? How do children with varied temperaments fare in interaction with parents; that is, what is their "goodness of fit" with the childrearing environment? Is temperament a stable characteristic over the lifespan?

vygotsky's theory's influence

Teaching practices use ZPD and functional assessment of children Stressed importance of the school in furthering children's cognitive development and pointed out the importance of language for thinking Formal education is essential for children to develop complex concepts Pretend play is important activity that helps children learn self-regulation Private speech is important in assisting internalizing though Children learn best in ZPD Testable theory - generated research and practical application ZPD is ambiguous

piaget's theoretical influence

Theory continues to generate research—methodology has been influential Influential in educational practice- especially with young children Discovery learning- method Children must be active participants in their knowledge construction Children's stage of thinking should be assessed, not assumed Teacher's role is to provide cognitive conflict by selecting problems that peers can discuss Theory is testable and falsifiable Basic concepts have shown robust quality---but no clear definitions in the mechanisms that affect transition from one stage to next Lack of emphasis on relationship of cognition to performance and relatively little attention to social -emotional issues

Bowlby: Through direct observation investigated patterns of family interactions - held key to pathological development

Worked with children made homeless in post- WWII period Evolutionary theory may help him gain understanding of separation and deprivation on young children because of the focus on adaptive nature Need of young children to have attachment to mothers → idea that certain behaviors evolve as survival mechanisms Questioned Anna Freud's view that infants cannot show grief and mourning Grief and mourning occur when child attachment behaviors are activated by a need for the parent, but the parent continues to be unavailable Separation anxiety cannot be terminated unless reunion is restored Some coping strategies used by children lead to attachment problems

Valliant's study (1977, 2002)

added stages to Erikson's theory people with stable personalities and positive outlooks tended to live longer

Formal Operations (12- adult): piaget

apply logical mental operations to abstract problems Hypothetical reasoning- think of many possible solutions to problems and test each systematically Propositional Reasoning- use properties of logical reasoning to solve abstract problems Reflective thinking- being aware of inconsistencies and mistakes in reasoning, using mental checks and balancing to rethink problems Complex planning- establishing long-range goals and detailed projects

Kirkpatrick & Davis article

avoidant/anxious partners did not pair with those of the same type of attachment style 2. styles contributed significantly to the relationship stability and status longitudinally (certain style pairings lasted longer) 3. relationships of avoidant men and of anxious women were stable over 3 years

Information Processing Theory:

brain's mental hardware has three components- sensory memory (holds sensations briefly), working memory (serves as mental processing), and long-term memory (permanent storehouse of knowledge) Change is seen as constant and gradual rather than abrupt Brain development involves process of synaptogenesis, pruning, and modularity Contemporary cognitive scientists: Case, Kail, Siegler, Gopnik

adaptation (piaget)

change in behavior or thought that makes evident that organization has occurred (knowledge is adaptive) Assimilation—occurs when a new object is incorporated into an existing Accommodation—occurs when existing schema cannot incorporate the schema (ex// sucking bottle from sucking nipple on breast) new object but must be changed to accommodate the new (ex// using cup)

Rousseau

children born innately good and need to protected from corruption

Montessori

children's natural inclination for play and activity can be channeled into developmental progress children's free expression education

Ryff

cross cultural measure of well-being

systems approach to developmental theory

drawn from neuroscience and physics (recent brain research) - in the future, will continually use neuro information to explain development Human development explained as a dynamic system of plasticity and complexity

equilibration

dynamic interplay between assimilation and accommodation Drives the adaptation process—balance between structures of the mind and environmental experiences

Greenspan

early experience is emotion rather than cognitive based abnormal behavior is due to underdeveloped emotional organization

Ainsworth's contribution

elaborated on theory by carrying out research that identified types of attachment and consequences for children

• Social "cognitive" theory, rather than social "learning" theory,

emphasizes person's ability to self-direct and to use forethought to symbolize and use various experience, and to self-regulate and to use forethought, to symbolize and use vicarious experience and to self-reflect

research methods used to test scientific theory

empiricist rationalist (observational, clinical, description)

Schaie's midlife crises (1991)

gradual vs sudden midlife transitions?

linear theories

having a perspective focused on predicting developmental directional progress toward higher levels empiricist/rational

collective efficacy

having many individuals who believe that they can affect events by their action. Defined as the shared belief that group members have about their capabilities to work together to organize and act on plans of action that will achieve their "levels of attainments"

Elder (1974, 1994)

historical events' impact on development

erikson's theory of psychosocial development

how healthy personalities develop rather than focusing on the unhealthy 1. Trust vs Mistrust, 0-1 2. Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt, 1-3 3. Industry vs Inferiority 6-12 4. Identity vs role confusion - adolescence 5. Intimacy vs Isolaton - young adulthood 6. Generativity vs Stagnation - middle adulthood 7. Ego Integrity vs Despair - accept one's life and the fact of it's end

reciprocal determinism

identify three aspects that influence the social learning process: the person, the person's behavior, and the environment.

Calvin

infant were born in sin children's early experiences vital for curbing behaviors related to originally sinful nature

Neugarten (1964, 1968)

middle and late adulthood development especially for females menopause children's departure for college

rationalist

naive theory common sense logic through self-reasoning

Results of study (thomas and chess)

no temperamental attribute confers immunity to behavior disorders. Neither does one exist that mach such disorders inevitable. Issue is divided by process of interaction between child and environment, which each influences the other Illstrated nature/nurture interaction perspective and have used the holistic element of a rationalist approach and the objective study of variables approach drawn from empiricist research.

3 types of influences on personality development

normative graded nonnormative

empiricist

observing processes of stimul discrimination, encoding, association, and transfer evidence physical stimuli strong theories accepted as fact

Bowlby's training as a child psychiatrist at Cambridge U, worked with children as a clinician

owlby trained as a child psychiatrist at Cambridge U, worked with children as a clinician Found juveniles had "affectionless" characters" - due to histories of maternal deprivation and separation

Ainsworth's strange situation experiment

parents asked to leave room and return shortly observed types or responses children exhibited when parent was gone and when parent returned Studied proximity and contact seeking, contact maintaining, resistance to contact, avoidance of contact, distance of interactions, and visual search for absent figures. Secure attachment - reestablishing contact - 65% Inseure-avoidant - stayed away from parent and did not reestablish contact - 20% Insecure-resistant - protesting and lashing out at the parent - 13%. Mini borderline Unclassifiable

Gould's personality development stages (1975, 1978)

personality is not a stable characteristic, but continues to develop throughout life at least into the 5th decade

bandura progressed from behaviorism how

process of learning is more complicated than simple reinforcement because the person determines what learning occurs and what is demonstrated

G. Stanley Hall

promoted child development as a separate field worth of study emphasis on knowing the developmental changes that occur during childhood and adolescence

social cognitive theory

rooted in view of human agency: all persons are agents who are proactively engaged in their own development

nonlinear theories

sociohistorical, bioecological, dynamical

Locke

tabula rasa (vs innate evil) should be taught thru play rather than fear

Thomas and Chess

temperaments in early childhood: easy difficult slow to warm up showed that temperament can be evaluated at an early age

qualities of theories that are especially important for evaluating their credibility and usefulness

testable and stimulate further research that verify/falsify it parts of the theory fit together (internal consistency) enable predictions to be made using theoretical concepts encourage problem solving and result in actions based on predicted changes

freud's theory of psychosexual development

trauma in childhood -> adult personality conscious/unconscious eros/thanatos id/ego/superego defense mechanisms 5 phases of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, puberty

Concrete Operations Stage (7-11 yrs):

use logical mental operations to solve problems (not abstractly though, only concrete situations) Decentration- consider more than one characteristic of object Conservation- understand that a quantity remains the same even if its appearance changes Reversibility- understand that logical actions may be reversed Seriation- order objects according to length, width, and other dimensions Classification- categorize according to more than one dimension

Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs)

use mental representations to manipulate symptoms, but not logical (no mental operations) Unidemnsional (Centration)- focus only on one characteristic Perceptual orientation- accept what you see rather than using logic Irreversibility- difficulty mentally reversing an action Animism- difficulty distinguishing between living and nonliving Egocentrism- not able to see objects from another's visual perspective

Levinson's seasons of life (1986)

used the idea of dividing life into sections, but wanted more than childhood/adolescence, adulthood, and old age added Preadulthood (0-22), Early Adult Transition (17-22), Entry Life Structure (22-28), Age 30 Transition (28-30), Culminating Life Structure (33-40), etc etc gave more detail and precision to transition periods of life

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs.): piaget

using senses and motor abilities to gain knowledge Reflexive actions (0-6 wks)- primarily reflexive actions to interact Primary circular reactions (1- 4/5 mo.)- reflexive actions repeated Secondary circular reactions (4-10mo)- act on objects in environment to get responses (shaking rattle to get noise) Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12mo)- coordinate number of schemes to reach a goal (use a blanket to pull ball closer) Tertiary circular reactions (12-18mo)- act on objects to get a response and continue to elaborate to get different responses (stick to hit multiple toys) Invention of new means by mental combinations (18-24mo)- symbolize mentally, using language, pretend lay, imitation

Chomsky:

young children in every culture have a similar set of language rules with which they operate—internal mediating force, a language acquisition device Brain is hard wired for producing language Nativist perspective

Four processes that affect how the person might interpret environmental events (bandura)

• • Attention: how well the person attends to observed information/behavior and to characteristic of the mode. If little attention is paid to the event, then it will not be incorporated into the person's behavior. if cursory attention is paid, then it may be incorporated incompletely or incorrectly • Retention: how well the person encodes and retains the information behavior in memory. If person is ineffective in encoding the event or retrieving it from memory, it will not be learned well enough to be incorporated into the person's behavior. • Motor reproduction: how capable the person is in recalling the action information and motorically reproducing the behavior. If person is not motorically capable of reproducing the event, it may be incorporated only partially or incorrectly, or may be learned but person will be unable to reproduce the behavior • Motivation: how much the person values the information. behavior and is affected by the reinforcement sources. If person does not believe that there are relevant response consequences, even if the event is incorporated into the behavior repertoire, it will not be acted on. It may appear nor to have been learned, even if attention, retention, and motor reproduction skills are effectively present

measuring adult psychological wellbeing

• "well being" is defined with a range of terminology and theoretical perspectives • Ryff: not influenced empirical research because concept of well-being lacked operational definitions and measures • Designed model that integrated many theoretical perspectives into a number of "core dimensions" • Found differences in patterns of the dimensions of well-being in the various age groups. • Look at figure 5.1 on pg 85

neurgarten

• ......interested in social and emotional development during middle and late adulthood, especially related to issues of women's life span development • timing of menopause, normal turning points • when timing is off it is likely to result in a crisis period • death only sad when it occurs too young • age norms and expectations reflect socially defined times, when there is rapid social change these norms change • sociohistorical dimensions will affect social-emotional development throughout the life span • cultural expectations and historical events have effects on personality and social-emotional development

bandura

• Asserts he is not a behaviorist • Moved from emphasis on social learning to social cognitive theory and in particular to its role in influencing "human agency" • Empiricist perspective has been evidence in his work

Erickson

• Attention to life span development is congruent with concerns of many researcher and theorists • Interested in how resolution of earlier crises stages influenced the last stage of life, integrity vs despair. • Bandura found that important developmental issue for old age of how to maintain a sense of personal agency at that time • Chess and Thomas followed subjects to many years to see how temperament identification was manifested in attachment • Freud predicted backward

banduras influence

• Contributed extensively to the social learning, social cognitive, personality, and social-emotional theoretical literature • Constructs have been supported: observational learning and influence of models • Few studies validate reciprocal determinism or chart development of self-efficacy. • "Resiliency" - children with at least one stable, caring adult help with this • His theories may be further validated • Constructs about observational learning and importance of models have beem prominent in child rearing and educations • Laments that many school practices are not conducive to self-efficacy development

Schaie's View of Midlife Transitions or Crises

• Crisis implies abrupt and salient change period • Explained differing views on stages vs crises • Emphasized if theorists looked at clinical or normative populations • Look at how many studies looked at cross-sectional or longitudinal • Longitudinal were more flexible in terms of stages • Cross- sectional were more static.

Valliant's Study of Adult Development and Aging

• Followed three cohorts of people: • Freshman men, • Men, half with delinquency records, • 90 women from gifted children sample, • Interviewed every 2 to 4 years • Interested in following development in relation to Erickson's psychosocial stages, but added 2 stages called 'adult life tasks' • Achieving identity- task to master separation from childhood and dependence on family of origin, some at age 50 don't achieve this and are prevented from committing to work, friends, and relationships • Career consolidation: task so assume social identity in the work world, those who do not achieve do not develop the "contentment, compensation, competence, and commitment" • Generativity: task involves guidance of the next generation, which requires the giving of self. Includes caring for others and building community • Keeper of the meaning: task is conservation and preservation of the "collective products of mankind" involves having concerns outside of one's own social radius, guiding groups, speaking out for others, and preserving cultural achievements. • Integrity: task is accepting one's life and life cycle and having a spiritual sense. • Found some people master the tasks in a different order • Individuals who have stable personalities and positive outlooks generally lived longer, and that many variables often thought to predict long life did not do so • Seven predictors of healthy aging: never smoking or stopping young, absence of alcohol abuse, healthy weight, exercise, stable marriage, number of years of education, adaptive coping style. • Persons likely to be "happy-well" instead of "sad-sick" more likely to have a mature adaptive style • Protective factors: having future orientation, capacity for gratitude and forgiveness, ability to love and forgive, desire to do things

• Process of developmental changes in perceived self-efficacy

• Gain ability to use a self-referent label (me, mine) at 18 months, describe themselves as the agent by 20 months • Responsiveness of caregivers plays a role in children exercising personal control • Initial efficacy are centered in the family, and family differences can affect children's self-efficacy beliefs • Developing self-appraisal skills: children can improve these skills and they begin to judge their own efficacy in relation to certain actions • Self-appraisals fostered by two types of experience: • Direct experiences, Social comparison • Also receive direct instruction about the effectiveness of their own actions and the appropriateness of their social comparisons • Constantly observe their own actions and the actions of others • Because of immature self-evaluation skills, they may try actions that they are not yet capable of performing well, and this may undermine their developing sense of self-efficacy • Broadening and validating self-efficacy: role of peers more important as children move into the broader community • Competent age-mate peers provide models of efficacious styles and social comparisons of self-efficacy • Children choose peers who have similar interests and values → afflictions affect direction of efficacy development • Children who judge themselves as having low efficacy may exhibit social withdrawal, or may gain a high sense of efficacy for behaviors that are socially alienating • School functions as a major force in promoting children's self-efficacy. Self regulation, self directedness, and self instructional capacity fostered in school • "lock step sequences of instruction", "sorting students" and emphasis on "social comparative appraisals rather than self-appraisals" can lower children's sense of self-efficacy • well-structured cooperative activities can create collective agency during this age period • Self-efficacy in transition: • Adolescence, mastery of many new skills are required, more responsibility must be assumed, decisions that will affect their life course may be made • Bandura believes many theorists over predict adverse consequences during this period • Stresses rather the way that self-efficacy beliefs can be "enablement factors" about their self-efficacy in social and academic situations also affect their emotional development. • Sexuality must be managed, ability o self-regulate is especially important as a means for making this transitional period a positive experience. Crucial factor in management of other high-risk experiences as well • Self-appraisal and self-regulatory skills are important for vocational and higher education successful experiences • Career development and family roles: • Efficacy beliefs affect these areas → individual beliefs about how well they should prepare, their efforts to find opportunities for education and employment, and their effort and persistence in performing employment responsibilities area all related to their efficacy beliefs. Also in taking on responsibilities like marriage and parenthood • Strong sense of self-efficacy positively affects the emotional well being of parents of children who are difficult • When problems occur self-efficacy beliefs are strongly challenged, and perceived self-efficacy usually drops during these periods • Midlife and later life changes: • Need to "restructure" goals and deal with self-doubts about the meaning and direction of life, • Opportunities for self-development always exist, • Reappraisal of self-efficacy • Cognitive, memory, and physical/health decrease, and a major issue in this is how the elderly maintain a sense of personal agency and exercise it in ways that give meaning and purpose to their lives

basic constructs of bandura's theory

• Initial interest in finding explanation for aggressive behavior because he did not agree with freud's explanation that aggressive energy is lessened through vicarious aggressive experiences • Questioned Skinner's explanation of learning because he did not think it explained how novel or complex behaviors were learned • Looked at aggressive and nonaggressive adolescents, concluded that the adolescents imitated behaviors of family models • Major element influencing learning was the way they were interpreted by individual

influence of life spam theoretical perspective

• Life span theoretical perspective has redefined the field because it provided insight into the developmental change as an ongoing process throughout life. Promoted awareness of variations in development that occur as environments and life experiences vary and has drawn attention to the complexity of interactions among these factors. • As this builds life course may change due to cultural backgrounds. • Over-reliance on stability of concepts when we look at longitudinal.

cultural influences on social relationships development

• More emphasis now on looking at minority populations • McAdoo • Family structures and stress levels of African Americans: wide support networks, intact middle class had the lowest stress levels, preferred to rely on family rather than agency support systems • Parent child interactions influence social-emotional development. • Effects of culture also of interest in romantic and sexual experiences of adolescence:

• Bates: Three types of contextual influences

• Normative, graded, and non-normative • These are often called life events and the sequence of these is called the life course • Life course involves examining the progressive temporal sequence of the lives over a span of years. Perspective involves looking at the complexities o life, not at only one domain, to examine integrations of domains and how these evolve over time. • Normative event→ one that is expected by most people; non-normative -→ not expected by most people • Normative life events can be congruent or incongruent, with either personal or societal time expectations. • Duration of event may have three phases: anticipation of event, event itself, and post-event influences.

parts of self belief that affect social cognition

• Possess self beliefs that affect their thinking, feelings, and actions, and those "personal competency" beliefs are derived from how individuals interpret their own performance • "self-efficacy": specific to human agency and contains types of actions, skills, and competencies for which the person feels efficacious. • "self-concept": global belief about one's self • "self-esteem" belief about how one is valued by others

Levinson's stages of life

• Rejected idea that there were only three stages of life • Divided adulthood into smaller periods between each of the seasons • Birth -22: Pre-adulthood • Early adult transition period (17-22) • Modifies relationships with parents and enters into the adult world • Provides the basis of adult life, not a "finish" • Early life structure: 22-28 • Period of health and energy • Stress related to decisions to be made that will make mode for adult living • Transition (28 to 30) • Opportunity to reassess and redesign for the next period • Culminating Life Structure (33 to 40) • Involves living out the life plans that were designed earlier • Mid life transition (40 to 45) • Involves a reassessment and preparation to enter the nex phase • Later life seasons: similar reassessment, plans, and accomplishments. • Entry Life Structure (45 to 50) • Age 50 Transition (50 to 55) • Culminating Life Structure (55 to 60) • Late Adult Transition (60-65) • Same sequence for men and women, but there are variations in what people do within these sequences • Work was important in giving more detail and precisions to transition periods and to pointing out that development continues throughout the lifespan

james' view of self development

• Self as actor (I) and self as object of one's own knowledge (me)

Gould's personality dvlpment stages

• Studied patients in therapy and sample of non-patients from 16 to 50 • Seven age-graded groups • Rather that personality being stable, it continues throughout life, into the fifth decade • Youngest: grappling to escape from dominance of parents • 30s: more questions of goals and self-reflectiveness increased. Marriage and children a major focus • 40s: more unstable and uncomfortable, decreased marital satisfaction "quiet urgency" about reaching life goals, with some regrets of the past • 50s: saw themselves as stable personalities, coming to terms with time, increasing health concerns and feelings, • Did not conduct interview on people over 50, but at that age people were beginning to find themselves • One of the first to see adult development as an ongoing process rather than having development considered essentially over by early adulthood.

baldwin's view of self development

• Viewed the self as bipolar, with one's own self at one pole and the other persons at the opposite pole • Social interaction and the reflected appraisal of other people form the self

Elder's study of cohort effects on personality and social-emotional development

• social-emotional development is highly affected by the timing of historical events and may create unique characteristics in individuals born at particular time periods: WWII cause interruption in cohort life course because they already had jobs and families, converse to the Berkeley study who were young. • Relation to Bandura's discussion of importance of human agency development and Neugarten's evidence that the "normative" time of life events affects developmental change • Shift from scientific absolutes to ecological perspectives that argue that all realities are socially mediated.