M.T

1. Under what conditions is an argument valid?

An argument is valid if its premises guarantee the conclusion. A valid argument is an argument where the assumed truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.

2. Under what conditions is an argument sound?

An deductively valid argument whose premises are actually true (hence whose conclusion is actually true).

21. In the Apology, what reasons does Socrates give for why we shouldn't fear death?

He claims he has no reason to fear death, because natural death that comes to an elderly person who has lived a full life may well be a good. Death is like a eternal sleep, which we should look forward to. In death, Socrates would meet all the great souls already in the beyond, and this type of death would be a joy.

24. In the apology, Socrates says that he would refuse to obey the court if they released him on the condition that they give up philosophy. But in the Crito, he argues for obedience to the city and it laws, even if one is sentenced to death because of an error by the jury. So he seems to be arguing for obedience to the state no matter what in the Crito, and at the same time to be arguing in the Apology that there is an exception to this obedience. Assuming that this claim in the Apology does not actually contradict what he says is in the Crito, how can the apparent conflict in Socrates position be resolved?

He does hold the god in higher authority rather than men He advocates abiding by the laws if they require suffering an injustice, but not if they require one to commit an injustice

5. Did Ptolemy believe the earth is a sphere? Did Copernicus? Give one argument by each for or against this claim

Yes Yes Ptolemy 1: Sailing towards land, one sees the tops of mountains before the bases Ptolemy 2: Land is seen from the top of a mast before the deck of a ship Ptolemy 3: A shining object placed at the top of a mast gradually sets as the ship sails away Conclusion: The earth is a sphere Copernicus 1: As one travels in latitude, new stars become visible as others disappear below the horizon, all in proportion to the distance traveled Copernicus 2: This PROPORTIONAL change would only occur on a uniformly curved surface (spherical) Conclusion: The earth is a spherical

15. State three of Euthyphro's attempted definitions of holiness and Socrates objection to each one.

1: "What I am now doing" (which is prosecuting his father) 2: Euthyphro has no answered the question and has only given an example 1: Holiness is what is loved by the Gods 2: But the Gods disagree on everything 1: Holiness is ministry/service to the Gods 2: The Gods aren't improved by our ministry

6. State three of Ptolemy's arguments that the earth is not moving , and for each one explain whether the argument is valid or sound

Argument 1 1.If the Earth were in motion, it would not be at the center 2. Its at the center Conclusion: Its not in motion This argument is valid because the premises add up to the conclusion, but it is not sound because the conclusion is false therefore it is not sound Argument 2 1.If the Earth were moving heavy bodies would fall at any inclined angle to the surface 2. Heavy bodies actually fall perpendicular to the surface Conclusion: The Earth is at rest This argument is valid because the premises add up to the conclusion, but it is not sound because the conclusion is false therefore it is not sound Argument 3 1. If the earth moved, "light" objects would become airborn 2. Light objects don't become airborn Conclusion: The Earth isn't moving This argument is valid because the premises add up to the conclusion, but it is not sound because the conclusion is false therefore it is not sound

7. State two of Copernicus' arguments that the earth is in motion.

Argument 1 If earth were rotating and revolving around the sun, all observations would be exactly as they in fact are (i) East to West diurnal motion of the stars, sun, moon, and planets (ii) West to East annual motion of sun, moon, and planets Conclusion 1: The Earth is in motion Argument 2: (i) Uniform tranquil motion is not felt (as on a ship in a calm sea) and in such cases what is at rest (land) appears to be moving Conclusion: The earth moves (and the stars merely appear to be moving but they are not)

10. According to Hanson, there are two "great facts" about the heavens (Ptolemy calls them two "prime movements" of the heavens) and these were also discussed in lecture. Compare how Ptolemy and Copernicus account for the "first fact": Daily east -to-west motion of the heavenly bodies.

Both agreed that there was an object in the middle of the universe and objects were rotating around them e->w Planets moving along circles (epicycles) which themselves are moving along a larger circle than the "deferent".

14. Did Copernicus model give substantially more accurate predictions than Ptolemy's? About how accurate was each model? According to the argument given in lecture, why wasn't Copernicus model immediately adopted?

Both models of Copernicus and Ptolemy were equal in terms of accuracy. Copernicus's model was not immediately adopted because no one before Copernicus had a well-worked out mathematical theory and it went against the worldview in the scientific community who had adopted the Ptolemaic model.

12. What implication of the Ptolemaic model did Copernicus find very hard to believe(in class I called this the "anomaly" for Ptolemy's model)?

Copernicus found it very hard to believe, that since the stars are very far away from the heavenly sphere they must turn a unbelievable speed every 24 hours.

3. What is the difference between deductively valid arguments and inductive arguments?

Deductively= unlikely to be wrong Inductively= impossible to be wrong

23. In the Crito when the law speak, what reasons do they give for why Socrates should not escape?

Escaping would injure the city by attempting to destroy the law (by violating judicial authority). Escaping would violate socrates tacit agreement with the city to abide by its laws (an agreement that is implicit in his choice to remain a citizen when he could have chosen to leave).

9. Why is it that all of Euclid's arguments ("proofs") establish truths about which it seems we can be certain, but most of Ptolemy's and Copernicus arguments can be challenged (i.e., without too much trouble we can find reasons to doubt their validity or soundness)? Choose any one of Ptolemy's or Copernicus' arguments to illustrate the contrast with Euclid's arguments.

In general, mathematical arguments are much stronger than empirically-based scientific arguments, and we have much greater certainty about the mathematical truths established. Euclid's arguments are all deductive and sound. Many of Ptolemy's and Copernicus argument are inductive, so the conclusions are at best probable. Even when Ptolemy and Copernicus use deductive arguments, though valid, they are sometimes not sound, because at-least one of the premises are false. Example: Ptolemy's premises below are all false If the Earth moves, objects fall at an angle Cows fly off Clouds drift westward Each one of the premises above are false hence demonstrating the contrast Note: Ptolemy and Copernicus do match Euclid when they use deductive sound arguments.

16. Consider the platonic form of the GOOD. Give an argument that this form is nothing above and beyond a mental concept. Give an argument that this form has real, mind independent existence.

Is goodness something intrinsic to actions, which actions have regardless of what people think? or Is "GOOD" simply a word we use to describe those actions condoned by our culture?

22. Outline Socrates reasons for refusing to escape in the Crito. What are his two main premises?

One ought not commit injustice or even return injustice for in justice. One must abide by all agreements.

11. We outlined four aspects of the "second great fact" about the heavens. Understand how Ptolemy's use of A) epicycles on deferents and B) eccentric orbits enabled him to account for i) apparent non-circular orbits, and ii) apparent speeding up and slowing down of the heavenly bodies. Understand how Copernicus accounted for i) annual west to east movement of the sun against the background stars, and for iii) apparent retrograde motion of the outer planets

Ptolemy's use of epicycles on deferents and eccentric orbits enabled him to generate elliptical objects - the epicycle on deferent hypothesis can generate virtually any geometric shape;daily dirunal in which all heavenly objects move in smooth arcs or perfect circles; and annually the snow, sun, moon, and planets move west to east along the Ecliptic Zodiac belt meaning the sun, moon, and planets all speed up and slow down. The stars move around the earth at certain speeds. Copernicus accounted for the West to east movement through the annual motion of the stars, sun, moon, and planets. Copernicus accounted for the motion of outer planets through periodic retrograde loops of the planets as seen from the different speeds of the Earth and other planets in their orbits.

17. In the Euthyphro, Socrates could be seen to be trying to uncover the form of holiness. Why is uncovering the form of holiness important to him?

Socrates flatters Euthyphro, suggesting that Euthyphro must be a great expert in religious matters if he is willing to prosecute his own father on so questionable a charge.Socrates urges Euthyphro to instruct him and to teach him what holiness is, since Euthyphro's teaching might help Socrates in his trial against Meletus

18. What is Socrates charged with in Apology? What is the difference between the old and the new accusers, and between what each alleges against Socrates? How does Socrates defend himself against Meletus' charges?

Socrates is charged with corrupting the youth, not acknowledging the Gods the city acknowledges, and acknowledging other divinities. Old Accusers charge Socrates for: Guilty of "needless curiosity" and "meddling interference" Socrates has been called to court on charges of impiety and corrupting the youth by Meletus. Old accusers include various people who participated in generating rumors and prejudice against Socrates over many years (Aristophanes). New accusers are Meletus, Anytus, and Lycon currently bringing charges against Socrates such as: -corrupting the youth, -Not promoting gods from Athens, -Introducing new gods The old accusers(comedians) made a negative impression of him to the audience while the new accusers have spurious accusations. Socrates asked for clarification of second charge, Meletus rephrased by saying "Socrates acknowledges no gods" , Socrates responds that it contradicts the third charge of "introducing new gods". Socrates also claims he does not corrupt intentionally because if he did, he would incur retaliation from the people he associates with. Socrates claims a minority would not have a corrupting influence. If the corruption were unintentional the charge should not have been brought. Meletus has no wintesses.

19. In the Apology, what kind of impression does Socrates make by the manner in which he presents his defense? What impact do you think it had on his conviction?

Socrates makes an unfavorable impression from the impact of exposing the ignorance of men who professed knowledge which incited a-lot of hostility towards Socrates. The youth started to imitate Socrates which inflicted even more hostility of his influence over them. Socrates also is full of himself as he suggested punishment should be fed in the prytaneum. Socrates also states that to fight for what is just, one must live a private rather than public life (as many people in the audience led public/political lives)

8. What do both Ptolemy and Copernicus infer from the fact that the horizon bisects the heavens(sphere of fixed stars)? Outline the argument.

The heavens are vast compared to the earth

13. Why is stellar parallax entailed by the Copernican model? Why wasn't it observed after hundreds of years after Copernicus?

The stellar parallax is entailed because it should be observed (since the Earth is moving) but it isn't. It wasn't observed because there was no advanced technology that was able to observe it.

4. Be able to assess the validity and/or soundness of simple arguments like the following: Premise 1: Socrates died when he was 70 years old. Premise 2: If Socrates died when he was 70 years old, then the moon is made of cheese. Conclusion: The moon is made of cheese.

This statement is valid because the premises add up to the conclusion This statement is not sound because the moon is not made of cheese

20. In the Apology(at Stephanus #30 d-e), when Socrates says "Gentlemen of Athens, I am far from making a defense for my own sake... I make it for yours." What does he mean?

Trying to prevent the people of athens from harming their own souls. If they kill a good man unjustly, they harm their own souls, and this is much worse than merely bodily harm that Socrates will suffer.