Mummies Final

Modern Deaths

-Bodies frequently handled by people unrelated to the family -Removal of body, autopsy, release to funeral homes (not to family) required by law -Reclaiming family control over their dead: home burial, burial societies -Cremation becoming more popular -Death is expensive

Support for Sacrifice Theory of Bog Bodies

-Bodies of both men and women found (women not usually criminals) -Bodies seem to have been placed in bogs in the fall (harvest season) -Danish bodies look carefully-placed *Seasonal argument not strong if cold conditions are needed for preservation perhaps only body placed during that time of year survived

Drug Abuse by Ancient Egyptians

-"First Identification of Drugs in Egyptian Mummies" study by Balbanova 1992 -Identification of cocaine, hashish, nicotine in 9 Egyptian mummies (1000 BC to 395 AD) -Found in hair, muscle tissue, and bone -First presented at the 1st World Congress of Mummy Studies---Surprise and disbelief

Historic Background of Shrunken Heads

-1862: Shrunken head presented to the Anthropological Society of Paris -Museums/collectors begin to rush to acquire samples -Late 1800's on: active trade in real and fake shrunken heads -1899: only detailed eyewitness account by an outsider of head taking/shrinking -Headhunting banned in 1920

Recovery of Ice Man's Body

-4 days of hacking, pulling, pneumatic drilling -Damage to body and associated objects -Otzi's privates lost (later found along with many artifacts) -Body helicoptered out, then by hearse to Innsbruck (arm broken)

The Value of CT Imaging

-A permanent, detailed record -Can be shared, manipulated, and studied by other researchers

Survey of Danish Bog Bodies

-All were found in the decade following WWII -Fuel scarce: peat excavation intensified

Why Bogs Preserve Bodies...

-Anaerobic environment (lack of oxygen) prevents aerobic bacteria growth (particularly in deep compressed layers of peat moss) -High concentration of antimicrobial substances (humic, other acids) -Cold temperature #1 factor in bog preservation: SPHAGNAN -Sphagnan: a component (polysaccharide) of sphagnum moss -Has antibacterial qualities (now subject of experiments in food preservation)

Press Conference on Iceman's Body

-Archeologist Konrad Spindler realizes the body is ancient (Bronze Age?) -Body begins to defrost, mold growth -Political battle begins (Italy vs. Austria) and Italy wins.

The Future of Mummy Studies

-Balancing scientific research and cultural sensitivity -Non-destructive research protocols -Consultation with descendent groups -Care in the exhibition of mummies -Conservation!

Bog Bodies: Geographic Distribution and Number

-Best known from Denmark, but also Netherlands, Ireland, England, Germany, Russia, etc. -Only 122 can be accounted for out of estimates as high as 2000

Why take and shrink the heads?

-Blood revenge for killings, death caused by others -Tsantas give one power and protection from violence, poison, sorcery by one's enemies

The key factor explaining the good preservation of bodies

-British museum chemist Terrence Painter: key variable is the antimicrobial substance in Sphagnum moss of raised bogs -NOT tannins, anaerobic conditions, acidic water, nor depth of burial Variability in Preservation due to: -how quickly a body is immersed in water -temperature and season of the year -insect activity or not -internal bacterial flora

Borremose Woman

-Buried face down at similar depth -Face crushed (at time of death or postmortem taphonomic change?)

What is Preserved in Bog Bodies

-Calcified tissue (bone, teeth) and those composed of keratin (hair, nails) preserve best -Muscles and ligaments variable -Intestinal tract often well preserved -Brain too (although shrunken) -Poorly preserved: kidneys, liver, lungs (EXCEPTIONS: Tollund Man and Lindow II) -No one knows why adipocere is rare in bog bodies

Problems with the Drug Abuse Study

-Cocaine/coca is a native South American plant unknown in ancient Egypt -Tobacco/nicotine also New World plant unknown in ancient Egypt -Nicotine is found in small quantities in a variety of plants -Hashish has old world origin (Asia?) but no evidence it was used by ancient Egyptians -Control samples for this study? (coffins, mummy wrappings, storage boxes, etc.)

Sacrifice or execution?

-Debate continues... -Tollund man as an example: careful burial in a cut grave, body laid on side in a position of rest (or could his family have claimed him after execution for a proper burial?) -Graubelle Man: very violent does not appear to be burial (execution or mugging?)

Special Challenges

-Decalcification of bones -Bone may be hard to see or not visible at all -Demineralization often not uniform: localized warping and bending of bones -In contrast, connective tissue (ligaments and tendons) may become more visible (deposition of mineral salts in collagen?) -Post processing of CT images required (color coding to highlight different tissues/structures)

Kennewick Man: Discovery and Controversy

-Discovered in 1996 on the bank of Columbia River, Kennewick, Washington -First facial reproductions look "European" -Umatilla tribe requests remains for reburial--don't want scientific study -9 year legal battle begins with final ruling in favor of scientists who filed the lawsuit -2014: major volume published on osteological study by team of scientists -Conclusions from study of cranial measurements: most closely related to Asian and Polynesian populations (not Native American samples) -Plot twist: 2015 DNA shows closest relationship to living Northwest coast American Indians

Bog Bodies have been Known for Centuries

-Earliest written description of a bog: 1640 -Earliest photograph 1892

Sacrifice, Execution, or ? (Don Brothwell)

-Early bodies: some violent deaths, some perhaps sacrifices, some just burials in bogs -More recent bodies may be "non-Christian burials" (hidden to conceal a crime) or individuals rejected by society for some reason -Ex. Historic case from 1775, a woman who reportedly poisoned herself (romantic disappointment) and was denied a Christian burial

Recent Surveys of Bog Bodies and Research (Don Brothwell, British Museum)

-Estimated >1400 bodies and body parts have been found -Most however are just bones or clothing with scraps of skin or hair -So an accurate count is not easy -Brothwell's count for Britain and Ireland: about 30 well-preserved bodies out of about 200 human discoveries

Borremose Man

-Found 6 ft. below modern surface -Bones decalcified but skin and organs well preserved -Last meal: various seeds, some meat -Trauma: back of skull crushed, right femur fractured, rope around neck

Imaging Results of the Iceman

-Head: some skull fractures visible -Teeth: pronounced wear, no 3rd molars (wisdom teeth), plaque and dental disease in newer scans -Chest: Really compressed -Broken ribs: healed -Activity markers: strong lower legs, arthritis and frostbite -Abdomen: organ preservation and artery calcification (liver, atherosclerosis, and transverse colon with coprolites) -Arrowhead: not found (pulled out?)

Recent Research on Bog Bodies

-Isotopic analysis of hair and radiocarbon dating -Imaging

Conclusions about Bog Bodies

-Largely a northern European, Iron Age Phenomenon -Common pattern: violent death, few items of clothing, no grave goods -Sacrifice or execution

Support for Execution Theory of Bog Bodies

-Level of violence: slit throats, hanging, bashing of head, decapitation, combinations of the above -Not typical of sacrifices

England: Lindow Bog Bodies

-Lindow moss: 20 km south of the city of Manchester, west coast of England -Unusual events associated with the discovery of 2 bodies that become known as Lindow Man and Lindow Woman

Stomach contents: Unusual things

-Mistletoe pollen in Tollund Man's stomach -Large dose of Ergot (fungus that infects rye) in Graubelle Man's intestines (enough to put him into a coma)

Odd Egyptian Mummies

-Modern fakes, ancient trickery, or attempts to repair looted mummies? -Or just "shifting of contents"? -Opening/radiography of mummies can produce surprises

How Old are Bog Bodies?

-Most Danish bog bodies date to the Iron Age (500 BC to 1 AD) -Most others (England, Germany) date to 1st century AD

Cause and Circumstance of Death of Bog Bodies

-Most bodies show signs of violent death -Strangulation, slit throat, skull fracture, decapitation -Why were they killed? -Two competing theories: Human sacrifice vs. execution of criminals

Scientific Study of Iceman

-Multiple radiocarbon dates run on his tissues -Average is 3300 BC (Neolithic) -Bronze axe is actually copper -Body radiographed and CT scanned (only allowed out of freezer for 30 min at a time)

Taphonomy

Postmortem changes need to be taken into account for the study of bog bodies and caution must be taken when interpreting: -Fractured bones -Dislocated joints -Disarticulation and damage to body -"Stubble" on the faces Ex. Warped bones due to demineralization and pressure (not pathological!)

Studies of Artifacts found with the Iceman

Clothing: -shoes, lined with grass -a grass cape and fur cap -Hafted copper axe and flint knife -Bow (unfinished), quiver with 2 arrows and 12 arrow shafts -Leather pouch with mushrooms (medicinal and for tinder)

Mummified Trophy Heads

Ex. Inca, Mundurucu (Brazil), Nasca (Peru) Shrunken Heads (Tsantas) -The Jivaro -Tropical rainforest of Ecuador and Peru -First eyewitness descriptions by Spanish explorers in early 1500s

Tsantas: Genuines and Fakes

Genuine tsantas: -Long hair -Pinched faces -Suspensory cord -3-4 piercings of lips -Scalp suture simple, with crude fiber -No headdresses or hair adornments Fake tsantas (human heads, animal hide, monkey heads): -Naturalistic, undistorted faces -No suspensory cord -Often decorated with headdresses/headbands -More facial hair

Investigation of Recent Microbial Degradation of the Skin of Chinchorro Mummies

-Mummy excavated in 1985 -Bacterial and fungal growth breaking down collagen and keratin -Key factor: HUMIDITY Conclusions: -Increasing humidity in recent decades is damaging mummies in museums and in burial sites -Seeming contradiction: Driest desert in the world, but high humidity (70%) -No rainfall, but lots of coastal fog that brings humid air Recommendations: -Store mummies in a less humid environment (40--50%) -Protect from colonization by bacteria and fungi)

New Scientific Findings of the Iceman

-New radiographs do not confirm perimortem rib fractures -Flint arrowhead found in left shoulder: now argued to be the cause of death (ancient, murder, sacrifice?) -His diet: vegan or a meat eater?

Grauballe Man (1952)

-No clothing or artifacts found with the body -Neck slashed ear to ear -Dermal ridges well-preserved on fingers -Index fingerprint pattern found in 65% of modern Danish -Last meal: gruel and bone fragments, hair -Led to brief controversy due to the confusion of recognizing the body as "Red Christian" who disappeared in 1887 (C-14 dating resolves this issue: c. AD 310) **Skull fracture and broken leg

Embalming the Dead

-Origins in mid-19th century (Civil War) for practical reasons (body transport) -Becomes common in late-19th century in the US, more recently in Britain (perhaps promoted as protection from disease, more hygiene, etc.) -Seen as essential for open casket funerals -Now less popular (replacing blood with toxic chemicals not wanted)

Recent Iceman Developments

-Otzi had bad teeth -2011: new exhibit, new face -Otzi's new home in Bolzano Italy

Iceman Diet

-Otzi's last meals from imaging and macroscopic exam found stool in transverse colon containing roasted/burned einkorn wheat, muscle fiber, and burned bone -Microscopic analysis and RNA/DNA samples from small intestine and colon identified: red deer/cereals (last meal), ibex, cereals, and other plants (next to last meal), and pine and fern pollen

Mystery of the Persian Mummy

-Persian mummy from 500 BC: original or fake? -For sale, confiscated in 2000 -Ruduuna, daughter of King Xerxes? (c. 500 BC) -Odd thing...no other Persian mummies known

Scientific study to Verify Authenticity of Persian Mummy

-Radiocarbon dating of textile, charcoal on straw mat, bone, skin, and muscle -Study of Old Persian Script on gold plate on chest Results: -Radiocarbon dates REALLY young (post 1955) based on high C-14 content (atomic bomb effect) -Persian text has errors and words that didn't exist at time of Xerxes -Chiseling marks on wood coffin look modern -All teeth removed from skull (can't check dental records?)

Imaging the Ice Man

-Radiography, CT beginning in 1991 -2001: arrowhead first seen in new digital radiographs and CT scans (10 years after first images) -Participants: multinational, worked for 10 years together using the consensus approach (debate and discussion on findings)

New Dating of Bodies by AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry)

-Requires much smaller samples (less invasive) -Radiocarbon dates now calibrated to account for fluctuations in atmospheric radiocarbon -Materials dated: textiles, skin capes, etc. -52 new dates, almost tripling the previous sample of C-14 dates -Not just bodies, but isolated textiles, shoes, etc. Results: -Most dates around 500 BC - 200 AD (Early Iron Age), confirming most previous dates for bodies -Important for not just dating bodies but for the study of textiles and other clothing, and how they change through time

Lindow Man (August 1983)

-Same worker pulls a human foot and skin from a leg out of a peat pile -Police and archeologists find the rest of the body in peat bog Lab Study -fractures found on top and back of skull, sinew cord around neck, lacerated throat -Stomach contents: homogenous mass of ground grains (barley, wheat, possibly bread) -Radiocarbon date c. AD 200 like Lindow Woman Imaging -X-rayed at Manchester Hospital -"Pete Moss" name suggested for imaging records

Discovery of the Ice Man

-September 1991, by German hikers -Southern Tyrol region of the Italian Alps (Otzal Region) -Elevation: 10,530 ft -Thought to be a modern mountain climber (many hiker deaths occur)

Chemical and Molecular Study of Bodies

-Some ABO blood typing attempts -DNA analysis: not successful to date (attempts to extract and amplify DNA have failed to date) -Search for body painting and tattoos via IR photography: negative! -But, high copper content with aluminum and silica found in dermis (like blue body paint from early Roman accounts)

Tolland Man

-The best known of the bog bodies -Peat cutters who found head thought it was modern and call the police -Police bring museum specialists with them -Ancient age confirmed (~2000 years old) -Buried under 9 ft of peat moss -Bodies found in the same location in previous years -Removal: box built, block of peat cut out and lifted by hand (~1 TON!) -One worker has a heart attack and dies -Clothing: Pointed skin cap tied with a thong, hide belt around waist, no other clothes -Rope made of 2 leather thongs around neck (likely strangled not hanged) -Last meal: gruel containing barley, linseed, knotweed, other weeds (no meat)

Importance of the Ice Man

-The oldest frozen human body (~5000 yo) -Studied over the past 27 years-present by international teams -Various new technologies applied (imaging, stable isotopes, DNA) -Using non-destructive or minimally destructive methods

Possible Explanations for Drug Abuse

-Tobacco commonly used as insect repellent in museums in 19th century -Contamination by museum staff? Employees need drug testing?

Lindow Woman (May 1983)

-Two men working at a peat company, picking out wood, other objects before peat ground up in a mill -One finds a round, soft object about the size of a soccer ball -After hosing it off they realize it is a human head (minus the face) -Police determine it's a female skull aged 30-50 -Police are examining an unsolved murder -One man confessed to the crime due to similar story of killing his wife. -Skull radiocarbon dated: c. AD 200

Bog Body Types

-Whole bodies with internal organs -Skin only (high pH dissolves bone) -Adiopocere formation: soap-like substance from hydrolization of body fat (common in wet bogs) -Skeleton only

Bog Body Environmental Conditions

Peat bogs (peat used as fuel in Europe for over 2000 years) -Peat collection peaked during and after WWII -Petroleum shortages led to increased use of peat -Many bodies were found during this period

Borremose Bodies (1946-1948)

1. Borremose Man 2. Borremose Body (poorly preserved) 3. Borremose Woman

Principle Risks to Mummified Tissue

1. Humidity and temperature changes (50% humidity and 60 degrees F recommended in most cases to prevent shrinkage/expansion and mold growth) 2. Damage from UV light and mold growth in dark, enclosed boxes 3. Insect damage (moths and beetles) 4. Dust accumulation (retains moisture and provides food for silverfish) 5. Oxygen (bacterial growth)

Lessons from the Iceman

1. New discoveries would not have been made if the body had been studied by one team of researchers only 2. Importance of long term conservation of archeological finds and free access to scientific study

Arguments for (or against) Mummy Research

1. Religion and culture (pro or con) 2. Information and Advancement of Knowledge 3. Individualism and the Right of Integrity

How to Shrink a Head

1. Take one head freshly decapitated (low on the neck). Start running your enemies are after you. 2. Part hair down the middle. Make midline incision from back of neck to crown 3. Peel skin off of skull (careful around facial features) 4. Discard skull 5. Sew up incision, pin lips shut 6. Immerse head in a pot of hot water (not boiling, it will burn off hair) 7. Remove after half hour and throw away pot 8. Fill head with hot sand. Rub outside with hot stones (continue for day or 2) 9. Rub skin with charcoal so soul of victim can't see out 10. Replace sand in head with hot pebbles 11. Hang over fire to smoke/dry (some accounts) 12. Remove pin from lips, replace with cords, add suspensory cord to top of head! 13. Throw a tsanta party to show off head **Can take up to 6 days

Ice Man 2001

Body moved to Italy and studies continued

Shrunken Heads at Tulane

MARI has 2: genuine?

Initial Findings of Iceman's Body

Male, 5'2'', 30 lbs -Plaque deposits in arteries of chest, pelvis, neck -Arthritis seen in neck, lower back, hip, knee, ankle -Age at death: early estimate 25-35, later estimate 40-50 -Fractured ribs debated -Tattoos: decorative or therapeutic? -Intestinal parasites: whipworm -2 fleas on clothing -Cause of death: exhaustion or freezing? (initially)

Provenance of Huldremose I and II Textiles

Q: Did people use local plants and wool or were they traded with people from other regions? -Method: Raw material (wool and plant fibers) sourcing using strontium isotopes -How it works: strontium isotope values of plants reflect strontium values of soils (and underlying rocks) -Animals that eat these plants (sheep) incorporate strontium and show the same signature Samples: -Huldremose I: woman's body found in 1879 wearing a skirt, scarf, and two skin capes -Huldremose II: wool garment found nearby in 1896 Results: -Plant fibers and wool may have been traded over long distances!! -Huldremose I: Plant fibers have non-local strontium signatures, wool fibers show a signature throughout Denmark -Huldremose II: Wool from at least 3 different regions, one local; two show Sr signatures matching northern Scandinavia geology

Bog Bodies in the New World

Windover site in Florida -Discovered in 1982 during house construction -A shallow lake with a peat deposit -Not really bog "bodies", but brains frequently preserved Excavation Findings (Windover): -Between 7000 and 6000 BC, lake was used as a cemetery -Bodies pinned down (like many European bodies) -Bodies skeletonize, but brain often preserved (DNA has been extracted and sequenced) -Also gut contents: elderberries, wild grapes, cactus -1/2 site excavated with 168 burials found (largest Archaic skeletal samples in Americas) -Artifacts: projectile points, bone tools, woven plant textiles