Neurotransmitters

What are the 4 chemicals of happiness and what are their differences in function?

Serotonin, dopamine, endorphins and oxytocin: The human animal is like a machine! There are systems in each of our bodies that work for our survival. These systems are trying to get us to do the things that are good for us, and are controlled by the release of chemicals inside of us. However, there are external factors - some in our control, some not - which can unbalance these chemicals. The way in which this occurs can have both positive and negative implications on your body and life. Each of these chemicals has different triggers, functions and outcomes. ENDORPHINS (Chemical to mask perceived or physical pain): Endorphins are produced and released as a response to certain stimuli - especially in the presence of stress, fear or pain. They are formed in various parts of your body such as the pituitary gland, your spinal cord and throughout other parts of your brain and nervous system. They work in much the same way as drugs such as morphine and codeine in that the temporarily stop the pain. They are even known to bring on feelings of euphoria. This can be found when exercising at high intensity, often referred to as 'Runners High'. How to release endorphins: There are many ways to release endorphins into the body, some positive and some not so. These include: - Exercise - Laughing - Sex - Music - Meditation - Acupuncture - Eating chocolate - Eating hot peppers - Drinking alcohol As you can see there are lots of methods to release this natural pain killer and euphoria maker into your body. Which ones you chose will depend on your goals, self will and mindset. For example, if you sit around eating chocolate and drinking wine you might feel good at the time, but there will be other detrimental effects down the line. DOPAMINE (The Chemical of Motivation and Achievement) Dopamine is often referred to as the 'motivation molecule' - as it pushes you to 'get stuff done'! When produced and released into the body it increases your drive, focus, and concentration. This drive and focus allows you to plan actions, and resist distractions, so you can achieve your goals. The 'I did it' boost you get when achieving something is the dopamine - and it makes you want more! It gives you the 'thrill of the chase' in all aspects of life, from sports to business to love! Dopamine is also in charge of your 'pleasure to reward system'. It can allow you to feel experience excitement, enjoyment and even euphoria. However, not enough dopamine can result in you feeling unfocused, demotivated, tired / lethargic and, in the worst cases, depressed! How to increase dopamine: Dopamine is released when we take actions that help to ensure that we will survive. Think eating, drinking, having sex or making money! Again, some methods are positive and some extremely negative: - Exercise - Meditation - Certain foods (eg bananas, almonds, avocados, apples) - Certain health supplements (L-tyrosine, Curcumin) - Music - Sex - Good sleep - Weight/Fat loss - Contact (hugging) - Dancing - Cold showers - Acupuncture - Sugar - Caffeine - Power - Shopping - Video games - Porn - Gambling - Nicotine (increases by 200%) - Cocaine (increases by 400%) - Amphetamines (increases by 1000%) - Alcohol You will have noticed that the above list contains many of the most addictive habits which afflict people around the world today. Whilst there may seem a massive difference between many of these, dopamine plays a big part in each. Make sure you are getting your dopamine from habits that benefit you rather than afflict you! SEROTONIN (The Chemical of Happy Leadership) Serotonin is sometimes referred to as the 'happy molecule' due to it's in maintaining a positive mood. Low levels are linked to depression. How to increase Serotonin: Taking active measures to increase brain serotonin can be a challenge. Many anti-depressant drugs are serotonin boosting, but can have side effects and don't work for everyone. The below foods have been shown to increase serotonin: - Turmeric - Dark Chocolate (in small amounts) - Green Tea (in small amounts) - Cold water fatty fish - Yoghurts However, the following will reduce your Serotonin levels: - Alcohol - Artificial sweetener Aspartame - Caffeine OXYTOCIN (The Chemical of Love) Oxytocin is often referred to as the 'love hormone' and can have positive and negative effects on relationships. People who release more oxytocin into their bodies are happier and have more satisfying relationships. Due to this, oxytocin seems to be responsible for some the more admirable traits in humans such as love, loyalty, trustworthiness and courage. However, because it makes you more protective of your partner or group, Oxytocin can also make you more inclined to lie or bend ethical rules if you think it will benefit them. How to increase Oxytocin: Highest levels of Oxytocin are produced during child birth, sex or being in love. However, there are other ways in which it can be generated. Many of this are similar to the other mentioned chemicals and include: - Touch - Exercise - Meditation - Music - Massage - Being around pets - Warm temperature - Giving gifts. On a negative side, smoking and stress eating can also raise Oxytocin levels. So, I have now covered the 4 chemicals that ultimately determine whether you are happy or not. Whilst balanced these chemicals strive for you to survive. However, when unbalanced they can become very dangerous and destructive. You do not have full control of these chemicals, but you do have some control. By doing certain activities, eating certain foods, drinking certain liquids and avoiding certain things you can align the chemicals to the benefit of your body, and ultimately your life!

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain. It is inhibited by enkephalins

GABA

GABA, gamma Aminobutyric acid, is an amino acid classified as a neurotransmitter. Its is inhibitory neurotransmitter which means that when it reaches at the receptor site of a neuron, it reduces the activity level of that neuron and makes it less likely to fire it action potential. GABA acts at inhibitory synapses in the brain by binding to specific transmembrane receptors(integral membrane proteins, which reside and operate typically within a cell's plasma membrane in the plasma membrane) of both presynaptic and postsynaptic neuronal processes. Fast synaptic inhibition is achieved by rapid activation of GABAA receptors while longer term modulatory affects on excitability is accomplished by GABAB receptor activation. GABA is made by our body from a vital amino acid called glutamine found in the brain. Amino acids are building blocks of protiens. GABA is a natural calming and anti-epileptic (epilepsy is a disorder of the brain and nervous system. This condition causes the brain to send out abnormal electrical signals and these signals cause the body to have a seizure) agent. It is vital for proper brain functioning. GABA also helps our bodies make endorphins. These are the chemicals that make us feel happy. GABA affects mood because it reduces high levels of the hormones adrenalin, noradrenalin and dopamine. It also affects the neurotransmitter serotonin. High amount of GABA in brain is linked to being relaxed and happy. Less GABA is linked to the sleeping problem insomnia, and feeling anxious, stressed and depressed.

Adenosine

Is an endogenous neuromodulator: - Adenosine isn't stored within vesicles, but rather synthesized and then released, which is why it is considered more of a neuromodulator than a neurotransmitter. It can be formed from the breakdown of AMP & ATP. - Because caffeine is an antagonist at adenosine receptors, and it exerts a strong excitatory effect on the brain, it is thought that adenosine plays a role in the subjective feeling of fatigue, and therefore also have an important role in sleep regulation - Plays a critical role in mediating BF to different areas of the brain. When an area of the brain is exposed t hypoxia, adenosine is released, resulting in vasodilation & increased BF to that area. (this can cause cerebral edema).

Glycine

Is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in spinal cord

Serotonin

It is mainly found in the brain, bowel and platelets and is made from the amino acid tryptophane. As the precursor of melatonin, it helps regulate the body's sleep-wake cycle & the internal clock: Brain: impacts levels of mood, anxiety and happines. Serotonin has been associated with depression, but scientists are not sure wether low levels of serotonin cause depression or if depression leads to low levels of serotonin Bowel: - regulates movements and helps in activating peristalsis & reducing appetite while eating - if you eat smt toxic or irritating, the gut produces more serotonin which can induce vomiting reflex and cause nausea Platelets: contributes to the formation of clots & is released by platelets when there is a wound. The resulting vasoconstriction reduces BF & helps clots to form

Dopamine

It's a catecholamine neurotransmitter synthesized from tyrosine, which is degraded into norepinephrine and epinephrine. It plays a role in many pathways, including the reward circuit, and is involved in many pathological conditions (Parkinson's, schizophrenia...) and addiction. When there is not enough dopamine reaching the basal ganglia through the nigrostriatel pathway, voluntary movements may become delayed or uncoordinated, which is common in Parkinson's disease. Too much dopamine will cause unnecessary movements, specifically repetitive tics that are common symptom in Tourette's syndrome. Dopamine helps to improve your working memory and therefore affects your learning processes and how you retain information. When dopamine is present during an event, we will remember it, if not, we won't. Dopamine is tied to your reward center, so if you don't feel interested in specific activities, then the levels of dopamine will decrease in the prefrontal cortex. If this happens, then your brain will not feel motivated to remember facts presented to you. It allows you to stay focused & pay attention. During pleasurable moments, dopamine is released. Dopamine is associated with addiction. Drugs that inhibit the reuptake of dopamine and therefore cause elevated levels of dopamine tends to have heightened feelings of pleasure & addiction in wanting more of the drug Increased levels of dopamine is associated with increased wakefulness. Patients with schizophrenia have elevated levels of dopamine while patients with Parkinson's tend to feel chronic sleepiness.

Opiod peptides

Neuromodulators that are formed from short chains of amino acids: Endorphins: Stress and pain are the two most common factors leading to the release of endorphins. Endorphins interact with the opiate receptors in the brain to reduce our perception of pain and act similarly to drugs such as morphine and codeine. In contrast to the opiate drugs, however, activation of the opiate receptors by the body's endorphins does not lead to addiction or dependence. In addition to decreased feelings of pain, secretion of endorphins leads to feelings of euphoria, modulation of appetite, release of sex hormones, and enhancement of the immune response. With high endorphin levels, we feel less pain and fewer negative effects of stress. Enkephalins: Are found in the ascending pain pathway and are responsible for blocking pain receptors and pain relief. Their mechanism of action is via inhibition of substance P release, which is an important player in the pain reception pathway. At the same time, enkephalins can reduce interneuronal firing which further reduces the experience of pain.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It is involved in memory storage, pain perception, strokes, and schizophrenia. Perhaps the most important function of glutamate is it's role in memory. The hippocampus is an area of the brain that consolidates memories, and it uses glutamate extensively. Why? Because glutamate is able to function in "Long Term Potentiation" at synapses. Essentially, this means synapses using glutamate are able to strengthen the more they are used. The number of receptors increases and the pre-synaptic neurons start to release more glutamate. As a result, the post-synaptic neuron becomes more easily depolarized. This is the main reason you are able to remember things in your past or learn things. Take away glutamate and you will be unable to learn. 2 types of receptors: - AMPA => when Glu binds => Na+ & K+ flow through => depolarization - NMDA => requires Glu, 30 mV depolarization & glycine to open & conduct current. Allows Ca2+, Na+ & K+ to flow through

What are neurotransmitters?

There are three main categories of neurotransmitters in the brain: 1) Small molecules used for fast-action excitatory / inhibitory information transmission (glutamate, GABA) 2) Small molecules used for slower modulation of network activity (dopamine, serotonin, and 3 others) 3) Peptides (large protein molecules) used for even slower modulation of circuit function (endorphins, cannabinoids, oxytocin, many others) Below are the main neurotransmitters in the brain organized by functional role, along with their short abbreviation, their approximate role, and the letter code used for their associated neuroreceptors. For example, the neurotransmitter "dopamine" is abbreviated "DA" and its receptors have names like D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5. - Small molecule - signal transmission: glutamate (Glu) - excitatory, receptors are AMPA, NMDA, kainate, mGluR GABA - inhibitory, receptors are "GABA" - Small molecule - neuromodulators: dopamine (DA) - behavior learning, receptors are "D" serotonin (5-HT) - mood(?), receptors are "5-HT" acetylcholine (ACh) - attention, receptors are "M" and nicotinic norepinephrine (NE) - vigilance, receptors are alpha, beta histamine (HIST) - sleep/wake, receptors are "H" Small molecule - other: epinephrine/adrenalin (EP/AD) - receptors are alpha, beta melatonin (MEL) - circadian rhythm, receptors are "M" adenosine - receptors are "A" (caffeine affects these) nitric oxide (NO) glycine - inhibitory, receptors are "Gly", used only in spinal cord - Peptide (large molecule): endorphins (enkephalin, dynorphin) - receptors are mu, sigma, and kappa (morphine, codeine, heroine, etc. affect these) cannabinoids - receptors are "CB" (marijuana affects these) oxytocin - the "love" neurotransmitter (pair-bonding) orexin / hypocretin - regulation of sleep/wake cycle, receptors are "OX", (dysfunction causes narcolepsy) corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) - regulation of stress response