PAR 101 Final
What conclusion and fundamental truth does Descartes arrive at in his Meditations?
"I think therefore I am." He knows that he is capable of thinking. Therefore, only the ego and its thoughts are certain and indubitable. Descartes seems to have succeeded in defining reality as being in three parts: God (infinite), minds, and material things (both finite). He closes by addressing natural phenomena that might appear to challenge his philosophy, such as phantom limbs, dreams, and dropsy.
What are some key features of business?
- exchange of goods and services - production or exchange - numerous exchanges/transactions - motive for profit - usage of resources - element of risk
Understand the reasoning why Socrates refuses to escape from prison in The Crito.
1. Rejects relativism, doesn't care what the majority will think. 2. refuses to do any wrong, even if someone else wronged him first. (2 wrongs don't make a right). 3. imagines laws as parents. he had a tacit agreement with Athens because he chose to stay there. the laws raised him so it would me impious to reject them now.
What did Aristotle think were the three most typical type of lives? Why did these fail to be the type of lives we should aim at?
1. devoted to pleasure: physical pleasure, vulgar, cannot be our ultimate goal 2. devoted to politics 3. devoted to knowledge and understanding a life devoted to contemplation and study is best. best activity of the best life is not ethical, it is intellectual. one needs ethical virtues to achieve an intellectual life.
Be able to explain William Paley's Design argument
If you were to see a stone laying on the ground and ask where it came from, you would conclude that it has lain there forever. But, if you were to find a watch laying on the ground, noticing all of the intricate designs and details, you would know that it was made by a watchmaker. Paley compares this watch to the universe. Just as a watch is made by a watch maker, the universe must be made by a "universe maker." Because the universe is so functional and complex, it must be made by someone, it cannot just exist. According to Paley, this someone is God.
What is the Euthyphro Dilemma?
Is the action morally right because God wills it to be so, or does God will it to be so because it is morally right? Is something pious because it is loved by the gods, or do the gods only love it because it is pious?
Who were the Sophists? What did they teach and believe?
Neither scientists nor philosophers, traveled around Greece expecting to be paid for their services, taught rhetoric and "how to win friends and influence people," spread skepticism and relativism.
What does the Euthyphro dialogue teach us about virtue?
On the surface level, it teaches us about how to be pious/virtuous to the gods. But really, since they never reach a conclusion about piety, it teaches us how to make a good definition that we can support.
What is Damon Horowitz analogy for the role philosophy plays in our life?
Philosophy is like a "moral operating system." We might use it to help organize our thoughts and ideas and shape the decisions we make in our life. Philosophy is software for living. Hint: iPhone vs. Android debate
What did Protagoras mean by "Man is the measure of all things?"
That the individual human being, rather than a god or an unchanging moral law, is the ultimate source of value. There is no absolute truth, just what each individual person deems to be the truth. RELATIVISM
Why does Mackie call his approach an 'error theory'?
it is an error theory because most people believe the opposite. most people claim that there is ethical objectivity when making moral judgements. this is false, so the theory of subjectivity is an error theory.
What are the 4 basic branches of philosophy?
metaphysics: studies the nature of the universe as a whole epistemology: studies the nature/means of human knowledge ethics: defining code of values to guide human choices and actions Politics: defines the proper nature of society, particularly proper functions of the government
Why would anyone choose to give up his freedom and submit to political authority in Locke?
to assure the protection of their lives, liberties, rights, and property. strength in numbers. it is better to band together to stay safe than to have to protect yourself from others at all times.
What determines whether an action is 'selfish' or not, according to James Rachels?
what makes an act selfish is its object, not that you want to do it. If the object is to please yourself, you are selfish. if the object is to please others, you are kind. if the object is to harm other, you are malicious. when you are calling someone selfish, you are not just calling out an action but condemning it. ex) you wouldn't call someone selfish for eating a normal meal in normal circumstances. that would be self-interest. you would call them selfish for hoarding food while others are starving.
What is the problem of evil?
"If God exists, and is all-good and all-powerful, why is there suffering and evil in the world?" If God is all powerful, all knowing, and perfectly good, there can be no evil because (1) he would be able to do something about existing evil, (2) he would know about any existing evil, and (3) he would want to get rid of any evil. But there is evil, and that is undeniable. Therefore, God must be either (1) not all powerful, (2) not all knowing, and/or (3) not perfectly good.
Know Anselm's Ontological argument for the existence of God
"that, than which nothing greater can be conceived" It is a conceptual truth that God is the greatest thing that can be imagined. Things can exist in two different ways: as an idea in the mind and in reality. Something that exists as an idea in the mind and in reality is greater than something that exists only in the mind. Therefore, if we can only imagine God in our minds and he does not actually exist, then we must be able to imagine something that is greater. But, we can't because it is a contradiction to imagine something that is greater than God when God is, in fact, the greatest possible thing we can imagine. Therefore, "there is no doubt that there exists a being, than which nothing greater can be conceived, and it exists both in the understanding and in reality," and this being is God.
How is John Hick's Irenaean "Soul-making theodicy" an answer to the problem of evil?
***humans were not created in a perfected state in an idyllic environment (adam and eve) but are rather in a continuous process of creation or development from morally immature creatures to morally perfected ones.*** - Hicks finds Augustinian free will argument inadequate to answer the problem of evil - his argument involves looking forward to future perfection in God's heavenly Kingdom - God created the world—with all its potential evil and suffering—to serve as a "vale of soul-making." - Humans are cognitively free to live as if the natural world is all that is, but those who interpret the world religiously by responding to God in faith can be slowly developed into the likeness of God.
What were some of the changes that took place when the Greco-roman world transitioned into a Christian-Religious world?
- Christians were concerned with their relationship with God only, while the Greeks focused on their relation to nature and others - Greeks used the study of natural and social sciences to gain knowledge and find their way to the good life, while the Christians rejected these subjects entirely and focused on God - The Christian faith was seen as relatively pessimistic; that its followers should devote their entire life to God but would still never be able to reach His standards. - The philosophy of the Greeks was seen as optimistic, with the main goal in life being to reach a state of happiness. - turned from natural science to more reliance on God/faith
What factors helped Ancient Greece give rise to philosophy? (Robert Mayhew lecture)
- Greece had leisure (wealth, prosperity, security, etc.) - political freedom - divided into city states with small democracies and individual constitutions/laws - religion wasn't a big factor in Greek law - Greeks didn't leave decisions in the hands of Gods - no set religion, certain level of FREEDOM - respect for reason
What were some of Socrates' important innovations or doctrines?
- The Unexamined Life is Not Worth Living - An objective morality exists and one must work to discover and define it. - Before one can obtain Knowledge, one must first recognize one's ignorance - Socratic Method of argument - Refining argumentative positions & rejecting contradictions. - For the just man, neither pain nor death can harm him (his soul).
How can Aristotle's ethics best be characterized?
- agrees with Plato that we should take care of our soul by being rational. - doesn't believe our soul is supernatural/eternal - doesn't believe ethics come from God - ethics is practical and natural - ethics is a plan/code of values that we adopt to live well, achieve happiness, and thrive as humans - we aren't born knowing what is right, philosophy helps us learn this
What is business competition and how does it differ from sports competition or the competition in the animal kingdom?
- backbone of entrepreneurial capitalist system - overlapping inspirations or entrepreneurs fosters competition differences: - many winners, not one winner and one loser - ongoing, no finish line/final buzzer - goal is not to destroy opponent. you want competition
What are some consequences of business competition?
- bankrupts small business who can compete - prices are low for consumers - slander by some companies against others - supports creativity and innovation - often gets political/corrupt
What is David Hume's response to the First Cause argument?
- even if the argument proves that there is a first cause, it doesn't prove that it is God - the first cause of everything is the universe itself, we don't need to go back further than that
What are some reasons why it might be problematic to believe something on Faith?
- no evidence - not a reason - makes you likely to adopt false beliefs - its immoral to believe for no reason - makes you more likely to harm others - becomes a bad habit - makes you credulous/gullible **From Douglas Kreuger**
What is David Hume's response to the Design Argument?
- rests on a weak analogy between natural world and human creations, these 2 things aren't similar - tends to attribute human characteristics to non human things - promotes polytheism
What is business? How does it differ from other institutions, like a family, church, or government?
- set of principles and beliefs that a company is working toward to achieve success - presence of commercial viability or profitability - any activity carried out with the intention to make a profit. - other institutions such as family, church, and government are similar to business except their main purpose is not to make a profit. - they are not money making ventures, they have other purposes.
What does virtue consist of in Aristotle's ethics?
- virtue means excellence - this means living a life of excellent thinking and acting - what we want in life are thought decisions and actions that make everything feel "right" - virtue is the golden mean between doing things deficiently or excessively
Know St. Thomas Aquinas' 'Five Ways' of proving God exists
1. Argument from Change -change is an alteration in something, something becomes "actually" what it was potentially, each change is brought about by something actual, everything changed must be changed by another thing, this chain of change cant go on forever, God must be the first cause of change 2. Argument from Efficient Causality - efficient cause sets a process going, take away cause and you take away effect, one cause depends on another for existence, first cause = GOD 3. Argument from Possibility and Necessity: - things that need not be= can be generated and destroyed, there could never have been a time when nothing existed, there must be things that MUST be, the thing that must be = GOD 4. Argument from Grades of Goodness in Things - things we experience don't have same value, must be a maximum best, this max = GOD 5. Argument from the Guidedness of Nature - intelligent beings act purposefully, these beings must be directed to their goals by something, this something = GOD
Wrong ways of defining a concept that comes out in the Euthyphro?
1. Providing an example rather than a definition. 2. It doesn't pertain to all cases of the thing being defined (too narrow). 3. It is a property of the thing defined but not the essence of it. 4-5. Has the right form but various issues with its content.
What reasons does Crito give as to why Socrates should escape with him?
1. the majority will think poorly of Socrates and his friends if they don't try to help him escape. 2. the verdict and punishment from Socrates' trial were wrong so they should be ignored. 3. Socrates' children need him alive to learn, if he is dead he can't raise his kids. 4. death is an evil that should be avoided at all costs.
Understand Mackie's argument for why moral values are subjective.
Argument from relativity: extent of moral disagreement is best explained by the claim that there are no objective values. argument from queerness: objective moral values would be objectionably different from any other kind of thing in the universe.
What is the essence of Aristotle's criticism of Plato's Theory of Forms?
Aristotle's main criticism of the World of Forms was that it was a very self-contradictory concept. In order to understand this rejection, you must first know the difference between the universal and the particular. The particular is a self-contained thing; something that exists in itself, such as a shoe or a car. The universal is what is common to a number of particulars and can be a set of qualities that many different ideas/subjects possess. Therefore, the universal can only exist in particulars, not in itself. To say as Plato does that the universal is a separate thing, existing as an entity in itself, is to make it a particular thing, which is to make the universal a non-universal.
Understand Nathaniel Branden's critique of determinism.
Determinism states that man HAS to do what he does. He has no choice in the matter and free will is nonexistent. This is CONTRADICTORY. if this were true, no knowledge would be possible to man. - "if the actions and content of his mind are determined by factors that may or may not have anything to do with reason, logic and reality-then he can never know if his conclusions are true or false" - if determinism is true then knowledge is impossible. So how do determinists back up their theory if there is no way to prove its truth without knowledge? they cant. - "If the advocates of determinism insist that their choice to think and their acceptance of reason is conditional, dependent on factors outside their control-which means: that they are not free to test their beliefs against the facts of reality-then they cannot claim to know that their theory is true; they can only report that they feel helpless to believe otherwise. Nor can they claim that their theory is highly probable; they can only acknowledge the inner compulsion that forbids them to doubt that it is highly probable."
What is Descartes 'dream argument' and 'evil God/evil demon' argument? What purpose does it serve?
Dream: He notes that when he is asleep, he often has dreams that make him believe he is awake and actually doing the things he dreams of. He says that he is sure that he is awake because he can see and feel the things around him, but there is no way to know for sure. Overall, Descartes is asking us if we are sure we are awake. If we can dream the same things that we do while we are awake and think they are real when we sleep, how do we know that we are awake right now and not having a very realistic dream? Because of this, dreams are capable of posing a threat to knowledge if we can not differentiate dreams from reality Evil demon: Descartes makes his argument by supposing that there is an evil demon trying to trick him. This Evil Demon Argument is another means by which Descartes' can refute his prior false beliefs through doubt and discover what is truly certain and real. He argues that if an evil demon were the one controlling his life, this demon could easily deceive Descartes and make him think that he was laying in a field or sitting in front of a fire. Therefore, if the experiences that he believes to be real are actually being controlled by an evil demon, then he does not know anything to be true.
What role does Faith play in epistemology and ethics for St. Augustine?
EPISTEMOLOGY - follows Plato: info we gain from the senses has practical knowledge but can only really give us belief not knowledge. - first have faith, then belief, then understanding ETHICS - good life is not what you accomplish/create externally, it is your emotional and allegiance to Gods will and teachings (internal)
What is Aristotle's definition of happiness?
EUDAIMONIA : thriving long term happiness ***Happiness is rational activity in accordance with virtue in a complete life*** - happiness is the highest form of good - living, thinking, functioning successfully - achieving, through the course of a whole lifetime, all the goods — health, wealth, knowledge, friends, etc. — that lead to the perfection of human nature and to the enrichment of human life.
Know the basics of Albert Ellis' view on mental health and how this relates to the question of free-will vs. determinism.
Ellis: rational-emotive therapy: psychological school of thought under the influence of Stoic philosophy. The greatest barrier to our freedom is irrational beliefs. - believes strongly in an individual's power of his/her life -what we think is the most important factoring in determining how we feel/act - our fears are developed by "wrong thinking" - if we can identify and correct our irrational beliefs, we can make major changes in our lives
Know the basics of Freud's theory of the soul and it's relation to the problem of free-will vs. determinism
Freudianism: largely deterministic, psychological theory developed by Sigmund Freud that claims that the human personality has both conscious and unconscious dimensions. Behavior is ultimately determined by unconscious primal drives, early childhood experience, and the interplay of the three pans of the personality-the id, ego, and superego The unconscious controls everything we do, therefore Freudian thought is very deterministic.
Why is Socrates' life considered paradoxical?
He devoted his entire live to living morally, ethically, and philosophically, but was put to death on charges that he was the opposite. People said that he was impious and corrupted the youth when, in fact, he was the opposite.
How did Socrates defend himself in court against the charges that he corrupted the youth?
He engages in a conversation with Meletus in which he asks who corrupts the young and who benefits them. Meletus answers by saying that Socrates is the only one in all of Athens that corrupts the young. Socrates says it is impossible that of all the people in Athens, he is the only one responsible for corrupting the youth. the he says he is not corrupting the youth because it would simply not be a smart thing to do to live among wicked people, so why would he corrupt them?
Why does Socrates say he has an obligation to obey the laws and judgment of the city of Athens (even though he disagrees with the court's judgment)?
He has a tacit agreement with the city of Athens. he is the one who has chosen to spend his whole life in Athens and that the laws of the city are like his parents. They have raised him, helped him get married, helped him have children, and helped him have a long, enjoyable life. By staying in Athens, he has agreed to uphold the laws of the city and should therefore face his punishment.
What does Descartes find troubling about his knowledge and education?
He has spent the majority of his life believing and accepting many falsehoods as true. He says that he has always aimed to tear down all of his false beliefs and start fresh with only beliefs he could prove to be true, but he never found the time nor energy to tackle such a huge task. He then decides that he has become old and can delay this process no longer. He must eliminate his false beliefs and search tirelessly to find certain truths.
What did Socrates mean by saying he was a 'gadfly'
He was sent to arouse the city of Athens and its people. The gods sent him to Athens to make sure they were not getting lazy or set in their ways. His job was to nag them like a gadfly would a horse, and to constantly question them and encourage them to reach the truth at all costs. Just like a gadfly would buzz in the ear of a horse to the point of exhaustion and frustration, Socrates says he is to do the same thing with the Athenians. His job is to travel the city and question people about their beliefs relentlessly until he finds truth, or the other person gives up.
Why would anyone choose to give up his freedom and submit to political authority in Hobbes?
Hobbes strongly believes that an absolute sovereign ruler is necessary to avoid total chaos and destruction. He demonstrates this belief by saying that the only way to establish a common power and protect men and their country from invasion is to "confer all their power and strength on one man, or one assembly of men, so as to turn all their wills by a majority vote into a single will" thought absolute monarchy was the only form of government able to hold peoples' cruel impulses in check.
In general terms, how does Aristotle believe we acquire knowledge?
In short, we gain knowledge through the senses. Genuine "knowledge" is not delivered simply in the act of perception, but rather is attained only in the "judgment" that what I perceive has this particular form. Aristotle's theory of knowledge was based on his strong belief in Logic. He developed the principles of reasoning. He argued that the possibility of error forces the mind to determine the truth validity of a given statement. His theory of knowledge was based on empirical evidence as opposed to Plato who was an idealist.
Know why Kierkegaard thinks it is wrong to try to prove the existence of God
Kierkegaard was a religious existentialist who argued that God could not be proven rationally and that ultimately, a 'leap of faith' was necessary for belief in God. in the very moment the demonstration commences, you would presuppose his existence. Otherwise you would not begin, easily perceiving that the whole thing would be impossible if he did not exist God's existence is accomplished not by proofs but by worship.
What is Descartes fundamental aim in Books I & II of Meditations?
Overall, in his Meditations, Descartes aims to refute all of his prior false using doubt in order to find what is true and certain.
What is the moral of Rachel's story about Abraham Lincoln?
People can do selfless things for selfish reasons. While Abe did help the pigs get out of the mud, it wasn't because he was worried about the wellbeing of the pigs. It was because he would have had a guilty conscience all day and would feel bad about himself if he drove off without helping them. Therefore, even though saving the pigs seemed like a selfless thing to do, it was in his best interest to do so, so it was actually selfish.
What reasons does Rand give why we should take philosophy seriously as a subject we should all be interested in?
Philosophy helps us organize our minds. We can stop believing everything we see/hear and approach life like detectives. We will be able to refute others' views and develop stronger convictions of the things we believe. Philosophical training gives us proud, disciplined control of our minds.
In general terms, what is the difference between Plato and Aristotle philosophically?
Plato: strong drive toward otherworldliness, combo of rationalist and mystic, real person is the soul not the body, obsessed with refuting skepticism and relativism, wanted distinct ethical/moral rules, one main concern Aristotle: practical, worldly, logical, knowledge begins with senses, man is a "rational animal," person isn't identical with soul, not concerned with skeptics, many smaller concerns
What did the concept 'soul' mean to Aristotle? To Plato?
Plato: we are immortal souls born into human bodies. Plato conceives of the soul as having (at least) three parts: a rational part (the part that loves truth, which should rule over the other parts of the soul through the use of reason),a spirited part (which loves honor and victory), and an appetitive part (which desires food, drink, and sex) Aristotle: although the soul is not a material object, it is not separable from the body, man is a rational animal, person isn't identical with soul, our soul dies with our body
What is Plato's view on the problem of change & multiplicity? What did he think of Parmenides and Heraclitus' answers to this problem?
Problem of change: agreed with sophists (Heraclitus/Parmenides) that we shouldn't rely on senses to gain knowledge. We should gain knowledge through reasoning. Reasoning = recollecting ideas from a past life. The one in the many: we live in a world of many changing things and our senses aren't valid. there is another world where things aren't changing and we can gain solid stable knowledge about what exists. That world is the world of forms. Plato said that the Form of the Good is the one in the many - It makes the universe purposeful and comprehensible.
What are Rand and Nietzsche's views on altruism and self-sacrifice? How does Rand define these concepts? How does that definition differ from conventional understanding?
Rand and Nietzsche are both extreme egoists. Everything we do should be for the sole purpose of self-interest. The both refute altruism very aggressively. Rand said that altruism is ridiculous because it has taught men to "value another means to sacrifice oneself. Rand: "Sacrifice is the surrender of a greater value for the sake of a lesser one or of a nonvalue. Thus, altruism gauges a man's virtue by the degree to which he surrenders, renounces or betrays his values" Nietzsche says that the best characteristic of a noble man is to be selfish and egoistic.
What are some examples Rand gives of 'selfish' and 'unselfish' acts (in the "The Ethics of Emergencies".
Rand: Love and friendship are extremely selfish and egoistic because the result in joy/happiness for yourself which is in your best self-interest. She also says that military service is selfish because it is in a soldier's best interest to protect his country for his own good. He just happens to protect others in the process. She says a selfless sacrifice would be for a man to save his money and let his wife die of cancer so he can spend it on helping 10 other women survive. This is because it is not in his self-interest to save the other women but it is still an altruistic thing to do.
What is skepticism? How does it relate to the Sophists.
Skepticism is the view that no objective or certain knowledge is possible to anyone, about anything. The view that for every claim to know, reason can be given to doubt it. Sophists were skeptics, said we can't discriminate truth from opinion, all we have is opinion, truth is beyond us. reasons for skepticism: development of natural science, comparative study of cultures, conflict of scientific theories
How does Gaunilo answer St. Anselm's Ontological argument?
THE PERFECT ISLAND - Parallel arguments purporting to prove the existence of any perfect thing at all can be constructed. - The perfect island is the island than which no greater can be conceived. Any island that does not exist, though, cannot be the island than which no greater can be conceived, for it could be conceived to exist which would be greater. - Anyone who thinks that the perfect does not exist, then, is confused; the concept of the perfect island entails that there is such a thing. - The fact that there is no perfect island, and no perfect baseball pitcher shows that the logic of the ontological argument for God's existence is flawed.
What was the significance of Thales' prediction of a solar eclipse in 585 B.C.?
Thales was the first to accurately predict a solar eclipse. Interpreted as an omen for the war between Medes and Lydians. Nobody knows how he did it.
How did Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Parmenides, and Democritus answer the problem of multiplicity (i.e. what was their answer to the one in the many)?
Thales: "all is water", all things are filled with gods, account for what you can see and touch in terms of things you can see or touch, one "stuff" makes up the entire universe (world-stuff) Heraclitus: "all is change", reality is constantly changing, all thins come into being through opposition Parmenides: all change is an illusion, reality/being is unchanging, eternal, and undivided, don't rely on senses, rely on reasoning, RATIONALISM Anaximander: does not reject divine all together, everything had a beginning called the finite/"boundless," it is a beginning but it doesn't have a beginning, elements of the universe are separate Democritus: Atomism, infinite number of "ones" (atoms), empty space is called the void, atoms are indestructible/invisible/always moving, everything occurs by necessity, reality over senses
What was life like before the advent of philosophy in Ancient Greece?
The Greeks believed highly in mythology and lived according to Greek gods. They asked questions and answered them in the form of stories involving gods/supernaturals. Philosophy began when people started to questions those myths/stories.
What is general terms is Aristotle's method for determining what virtues are?
The golden mean - represents virtue and the golden mean will always indicate the most virtuous behavior between two extremes - To be courageous is the golden mean: the middle ground or perfect amount. - The excess/extreme of courage is rashness, which comes from foolhardiness and too little fear. - The deficiency of courage is too much fear, resulting in cowardice.
What was the difference between the older (Protagoras) and young (Thrasymachus) Sophists?
The younger sophists were more radical, questioned whether law was reality or "mere convention", no longer believed in gods, justice is an illusion.
What is the significance of Plato's Allegory of the Cave?
Theory proposed by Plato to explain the concepts of human nature and wisdom. The prisoners represent the people in the world who think that anything they sense is reality. Plato concludes that you cannot rely purely on your senses to see what is real. The escaped prisoner represents a philosopher who strives for true wisdom and knowledge and does not simply believe everything he senses. The reaction that the prisoners give their old comrade represents the fact that people do not want to trust philosophers and they are scared of knowing the truth.
What is Plato's Theory of the Forms? Why did he propose this?
There is another world in addition to the one we sense: the world of Forms. Forms are not something we can sense, but that doesn't mean they aren't real. They are actually more real than anything we can sense. A Form is an objective "blueprint" of perfection. The Forms are perfect and unchanging representations of objects and qualities. Non-physical (but substantial) Forms (or ideas) represent the most accurate reality. This was his answer to the problem of change and multiplicity/one in the many.
What is Aristotle's 'function argument' for morality?
To discover the human good we must identify the function of a human being. He argues that the human function is rational activity. Our good is therefore rational activity performed well, which Aristotle takes to mean in accordance with virtue.
Why does David Enoch think we are all ethical objectivists? What are the three tests he provides to suggest we all assume objectivity in ethical matters?
When we think about ethics and morality, we clearly assume that there are right and wring answers to ethical questions. The truth/authority of moral actions don't depend on our beliefs or attitudes, so they are objectively right or wrong, no matter what we think. Test 1: Spinach joke test: - a kid hates spinach and says he's glad he hates it. why? "because if I liked it, I would've eaten it, and its yucky!" - formulate the analogy of the spinach joke about any real subject matter. If it works, the subject is all about us and our responses/likes/interests. If it doesn't, the subject matter is objective Test 2: disagreement and deliberation: - has to do with what it FEELS like to disagree - disagreeing over moral issues is completely different from disagreeing over personal preference, there is a clear right and wrong. Test 3: what if?: - had our beliefs and practices been different, would x still be true? - even if we don't believe something is wrong, it doesn't make it right. - ethics are objective
Know Williams James' views on 'attention' and 'the will' and how this relates to the question of free-will vs. determinism.
attention: introspective observation will show any one that voluntary attention cannot be continuously sustained, that it comes in beats. - in order to keep someone's attention, you must make the subject interesting - attention to an object takes place when that object most completely occupies the mind the will: "Volition . . . takes place only when there are a number of conflicting systems of ideas, and depends on our having a complex field of consciousness" James asserted that the will is free and "proved" this fact by stating that he chose to believe that the will is free.
What was Socrates charged with by the Athenian court? How did these charges relate to him being accused of being a 'Natural Philosopher' and a 'Sophist'? How did he answer these charges?
corruption of the youth and impiety. Sophists were often called impious and accused of corrupting young minds, which is what they thought Socrates was doing. Therefore he says he is not a sophist because he is not willingly doing these things, he is being falsely accused, and he is not taking payment for his services like the sophists did.
What is the concept of 'the state of nature'?
denotes the hypothetical conditions of life without government, laws, or society. concept used in moral and political philosophy.
Know the concepts determinism, free-will, materialism, predestination, fatalism
determinism: Determinists deny "free will" and maintain that everything in nature, including human behavior, happens as a result of cause and effect. If every effect already has a cause, then our actions and our choices are simply the result of some preexisting causes that produce them, and they cannot be freely arrived at. free will: Free will claims that we have control over our actions. Our deeds are seen as the product of reflection and choice, not internal or external causal forces. materialism: Materialism is a theory about the nature of reality claims that if something exists, it must be physical and subject to natural laws like cause and effect. Materialism logically implies determinism predestination: Predestination is the religious belief that God has decided from the beginning of time who will be saved and who will be damned. This cannot be changed by what we do in this life. fatalism: Fatalism argues that the universe is governed by forces beyond our control that determine everything that happens to us and everything that we do
What method of reasoning does Descartes propose to use in the Meditations?
doubt
What subject does Mackie say is similar to ethics in that it does not start with empirical starting points.
essence, number, identity, diversity, solidity, inertia, substance, existence and extension of time and space, necessity, possibility, power, causation.
What is Mackie conclusion from the article we read by him?
ethics are subjective. all moral talk is based on false assumption that there are objective moral values. this error affects all morality.
How does Augustine answer the problem of evil?
evil is the absence of perfection and reality that is inherent in a creature or thing being "non-God." all things in this world, because they are not eternal, completely real, and of God, are necessarily deficient and flawed.
How did the Manicheans answer the problem of evil?
god is not omnipotent. instead, there are 2 powers that are equal = good and evil, light vs darkness. humans are part divine and part demonic - Light resides in knowledge, revelation, the soul, the heavens, repose and endurance, that is, the Good - Darkness resides in ignorance, matter, the body and unrest, briefly, the Evil
What virtues of business do entrepreneurs exhibit that not all businessmen exhibit?
good judgement, commitment to cognitive achievement, confidence, ambition, initiative, courage, and perseverance. informed, creative ideas, have a vision and active mind, and "think outside the box"
What is Mackie's 'argument from queerness'?
if there were objective values, they would be different from anything else in the universe. if we were aware of them, it would be by some faculty of knowing different than anything else. Mackie argues against the view that there can be objective ethical values by noting the queer or strange consequences belief in such values implies
What is 'the state of nature' like for Locke?
more optimistic than Hobbes. even though it has the potential to cause evil, he is more receptive of the idea. in a state of nature, men mostly keep their promises and honor obligations. very insecure but mostly peaceful. all men have rights to keep themselves and others in check.
What were to the two main questions that preoccupied the Pre-socratic philosophers?
multiplicity and change multiplicity: many, there are many things that make up the physical world ex) shoes, feet, ships, dogs, pencils, etc. ?s)What is the relationship between these things? change: anything that happens; any event, mental or physical; any motion; and activity ex) seasons changing, child growing up, day/night, etc. ?s) How do we make sense of change? How does it get from one state to another?
What is 'the state of nature' like for Hobbes?
no society, very pessimistic. chaos, fear, and destruction. solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, short. argues for absolute sovereignty to control natural desires of men and prevent death, war, and violence.
What properties is God said to have in the major world religions?
omniscient - all knowing omnipotent - all powerful benevolent - supremely/perfectly good
Why does Mackie think that people believe in objective values?
people have a tendency to read their feelings into objects. social pressures also contribute. motives for objectivity include: needed for interpersonal relationships, wants and demands.
What is the difference between ethical egoism and psychological egoism?
psychological egoism: the view that all men are selfish in everything they do. the only motive for which anyone every acts is self-interest. ethical egoism: a normative view about how men ought to act. regardless of how men do in fact behave, they have no obligation to do anything but what is in their own interest.
What is the Socratic Method?
taking a question and breaking it down into smaller ones in order to question your own beliefs and figure out what values you truly live by
What is Pascal's wager?
the argument that it is in one's own best interest to behave as if God exists, since the possibility of eternal punishment in hell outweighs any advantage of believing otherwise. - God is, or God is not. Reason cannot decide between the two alternatives - You must wager (it is not optional) - If you gain, you gain all; if you lose, you lose nothing Wager, then, without hesitation that He is. - There is here an infinity of an infinitely happy life to gain, a chance of gain against a finite number of chances of loss, and what you stake is finite. And so our proposition is of infinite force, when there is the finite to stake in a game where there are equal risks of gain and of loss, and the infinite to gain.
What is moral objectivity?
the position that moral truths exist independently from opinion. no matter what you believe to be true or what you think, there is a clear right and wrong when it comes to morals.
What is entrepreneurship?
the process of starting, organizing, managing, and assuming the responsibility for a business coming up with an innovative, creative idea/product and starting a company based around it from the ground-up
In his article, 'How can we Make Entrepreneurs' what does Stephen Hicks suggest accounts for the large number of entrepreneurs in the United States (vs. other developed nations)?
the things American kids do outside of school, not inside. Extracurricular activities such as music lessons, riding bikes (physics and math), drama, chess club, sports, summer camp. These activities encourage creativity in young minds, which leads to business ideas and entrepreneurship.
What makes a subject matter 'subjective' according to Mackie?
the truths or facts in it are dependent on what we think or feel about them.
